Opium Alkaloids, its Challenges and Global Drug Trafficking
By
Dr. Nusrat Shafi, CSO
Mrs. Farina Kanwal, SSO
PCSIR Laboratories Complex, Jamrud Road. Peshawar
Telephone # 091-9218417, 091-9216240-42, Fax. # 091-9216232
Opium Alkaloids, Its Challenges & Global Drug Trafficking
Nusrat Shafi* and Farina Kanwal
PCSIR Laboratories Complex, Jamrud Road. Peshawar-25100, Pakistan
Abstract:
The poppy plant, Papaver somniferum, is one of the oldest plants in history used for
medicinal and ritual purposes. In modern world it is considered as pharmaceutical
necessity. Poppy plant is source of natural alkaloids called opiates.
Opium and poppy straw are the raw materials from which alkaloids such as morphine,
codeine and thebaine are extracted. Most of the raw opium produced is used for the
extraction of alkaloids and in certain countries, is processed into medicinal opium
preparation. Raw opium has a morphine concentration of between 4 and 21 percent,
depending on its quality and moisture content.
The opium trade has existed for hundred of years and has been a resilient market despite
increasing pressure from law enforcement agencies and governments worldwide. The
discovery of new wonder drugs like morphine, heroin, and cocaine, during the 19th
century in America confronted the world society with the problem of drug abuse and
addiction. Opium is highly “versatile” it exhibits composite demand and used both raw
and in various purified forms. Owing to its addictive properties, demand for opium is
highly inelastic; a change in price has little effect on demand, as consumers are willing to
pay elevated market prices. Unless the market price of other cash crops can match that of
opium or suitable subsides can be implemented in all opium exporting countries, it will
be difficult for governments to reduce market supply, as farmers have little incentive to
change the nature of their cultivation. The prevention activities undertaken by national
and international agencies, donor organizations, local and international NGOs have not
only failed in achieving any result but also introduced new trends among addicts. An
actual study and solution for this serious problem is still awaited.
Key Words:
Opium Alkaloids, Morphine; Heroin, Narcotics
Page 1 of 14
Narcotics of Natural Origin:-The Poppy plant, Papaver Somniferum, is the source for
non-synthetic narcotics. It was grown in the Mediterranean region as early as 5000 B.C.
and has since been cultivated in a number of countries through out the world. The milky
fluid that seeps from incisions in the unripe seedpod of this poppy has been scraped by
hand and air-dried to produce what is known as opium. A more modern method of
harvesting is by the industrial poppy straw processed for extracting alkaloids from the
mature dried plant. The extract may be in liquid, solid, or powdered form, although most
poppy straw concentrate available commercially is a fine brownish powder.
When incisions are made on the still green capsules of the poppy plant a latex is obtained
which turns into a dark, fast drying, resinous material called raw opium. Most of the raw
opium produced is used for the extraction of alkaloids and in certain countries, is
processed into medicinal opium preparation. These alkaloids are divided into two distinct
chemical classes, Phenanthrenes and Isoquinolines. The principle phenanthrenes are
morphine, codeine and thebaine, while the Isoquinolines
have no significant central
nervous system effects and are not regulated under the CSA.
Apart from opium, poppy straw is the other raw material used for the extraction of
alkaloids, mainly morphine and thebaine. Different varieties of papaver somniferum
contain different concentrations of the active ingredients. While morphine is found
predominantly in the varieties, traditionally cultivated in the major producing countries,
with concentration ranging from 0.3 to 1.3%, thebaine is the main alkaloid found in a
new variety cultivated in Australia.
Opiates are constituents or derivatives of constituents found in opium. The major
biologically active opiates found in opium are morphine, codeine, thebaine and
papaverine. Synthetic opioides such as heroin and hydrocodine are derived from these
substances, especially morphine and codeine. Noscapine, narceine and approximately 25
other alkaloids are also present in opium. Opium is mostly produced in Asia.
Major Alkaloids of Opium
1. Morphine:- Morphine is the principle constituent of raw opium and ranges in
concentration from 4 to 21 percent, as percentage depends in part on the moisture
content. When the government purchases the opium, as soon as practicable after it is
Page 2 of 14
collected, the moisture content is usually about 30%. Commercial opium usually has
around 10% to 15% moisture.
The quantity of morphine produced by poppy plants in the form of opium depends on two
factors. The percentage of morphine in the opium, and the quantity of opium produced.
The latter factor, in turn, depends in part on whether each capsule is bled several times, or
just once. In Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece and the Balkans, each capsule is bled only once,
but in most other opium producing countries, like Iran, India and Afghanistan, the
capsules are incised repeatedly, often four or five times, on different days, until they will
yield no more latex. The quantity of latex falls off rapidly with later incisions, and so
does the morphine content. Usually, all the opium obtained is mixed together. This is
probably the chief reason for the often lower morphine content of Iranian and Indian
opiums as compared with Turkish and Balkan opiums, although it must also be
recognized that there are low yielding and high yielding strains of the poppy, one or other
of which may predominate in a given region. The United Nations Secretariate has
examined samples of opium assaying some 15% morphine from Japan, Indochina and
Afghanistan, as well as from Turkey, Greece and Balkans. Afghanistan at one time
exported two grades of opium, one of about 15% morphine and the other about 10%. The
morphine content of dry capsule chaff is about 0.25% to 0.5%, when not washed out by
rain. Here again there are low yielding and high yielding varieties, but proper agricultural
selection of poppies for morphine production means taking into account not only the
percentage yield of morphine, but also the total weight of capsule chaff produced per
hectare, the poppy seed production per hectare, and other processing factors. Morphine is
one of the most effective drugs known for the relief of severe pain and remains the
standard against which new analgesics are measured. Like
most narcotics, the use of
morphine has increased significantly in recent years, since 1998, there has been about a
two folds increase in the use of morphine products in the United States.
Most of the licit morphine is used to manufacture codeine through O-methylation.
Morphine is also used to manufacture other drugs, such as heroin, dihydromorphine,
hydromorphine and many others.
Page 3 of 14
Morphine is used parenterally (by injection) for preoperative sedation, as a supplement to
anesthesia and for analgesia. Traditionally, Morphine was almost exclusively used by
injection. Today, morphine is marketed in a variety of forms, including oral solutions;
immediate and sustained release tablets and capsules, suppositories and injectable
preparations.
Codeine:- Codeine is the most widely used, naturally occurring narcotic in medical
treatment throughout the world. This alkaloid is found in opium in concentrations ranging
from 0.7 to 2.5 percent. However, most codeine used in United States is produced from
morphine. Codeine is also the starting material of two other narcotics, dihydrocodeine
and hydrocodeine. Codeine is medically prescribed for the relief of moderate pain and
cough suppression.
The codeine content of opium is related inversely to the morphine content, but only in a
general way. Codeine yield is closely related to the type of opium produced in a given
district or even in some cases in an entire country. The opiums of the principle exporting
countries have approximately the following percentages of codeine. Balkans 1.25%
Turkey 1.25%, Iran: 3.4% India: 3.0%. The highest percentages of codeine obtained by
the United Nations Secretariate (averaging about 4.3%) were found in opium samples of
northeastern Asia (Korea, Northern China). The manufacturer statistics do not ordinarily
show all the codeine obtained from opium. Some of it co-precipitates with the morphine,
and there is no necessity of purifying the morphine completely of its codeine contents,
especially if it is to be used to manufacture more codeine.
Thebaine and Papaverine: Survey reports of opium samples by the United Nations
Secretariate
from different regions for thebaine and papaverine percentages revealed
the highest thebaine percentages (nearly 5%) in some samples from IndoChina ,with
virtually no Papaverine. Most Iranian samples have high percentage of both thebaine and
papaverine . Paraverine is the most poisonous opium alkaloid and is scarcely used for
medical purposes. However, it is converted into several other narcotics
that have
medical use; hydrocodeine, acetyldihydrocodeine, oxycodone and the highly potent and
powerful narcotic oxymorphone. Papaverine has a considerable medical use, so much so
Page 4 of 14
that it is manufactured synthetically as supplies available from opium are not sufficient to
meet the whole demand.
Geographical Distribution Of Opium In The World
Papaver somniferum is originally a native of the warmer parts of western Asia from
where it was taken to Greece. From Asia Minor the Arabs traders took it to the far eastern
countries including India and China. Medicinal poppy is a native of western Asia but it is
cultivated at the present time not only in the original area of distribution but also in India,
Iran, Turkey and Europe.
Papaver somniferum is sometimes found apparently wild in Britain. It is now extensively
cultivated in most of the states of Europe
not on account of the opium as in India,
Turkey and Iran, but on account of the capsules and of the oil obtained from the seeds.
During the beginning of the Christian era opium and its properties were universally
known. During these days, opium was chiefly produced in Asia Minor and its cultivation
grew into a big industry.
In India during the middle of the eighteen-century Bihar was the chief province of India,
which produced the best quality and the greatest quantity of opium. At present, poppy
cultivation is confined to the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh, the present acreage area being one tenth of what it used to be four
decades ago.
The opium poppy can be cultivated almost anywhere, with adequate yields of opium per
acre in varied soils and climatic conditions. While it is often alleged that poppy growing
requires special soil and climate, the successful commercial cultivation of opium poppies
in Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Tennessee, South
Carolina, Georgia, Arizona and California demonstrates that the concentration of poppy
cultivation in China, Greece, India, Iran, Laos, Thailand, Turkey and Yugoslavia with
lesser amounts grown in Bulgaria, Mexico, North Africa, Pakistan and the Soviet Union,
is a legal and economic phenomenon rather than a botanical necessity. It takes hundreds
of hours of labor during a short ten days season to harvest the opium from one acre of
Page 5 of 14
poppies; thus commercial production flourishes primarily in countries where surplus
labor can be hired for short periods at low hourly rates.
Most of the opium that reaches United States black market has come (at least until
recently) from Turkey. Farmers there have for years been required by law to sell their
entire opium crop to the
Turkish government, which resells it to legitimate
pharmaceutical manufacturers. The total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation
increased by 17 % in 2007. Although the increase was led by an expansion of cultivation
in Afghanistan, opium poppy cultivation also increased in Myanmar. In Pakistan, where
opium poppy is grown in the Afghan-Pakistan border region, a cultivation increase of 10
% to around 1,700 ha was reported. Despite this recent increase, opium poppy cultivation
in south East Asia decreased by 82 % since 1998. In the Lao, PDR, opium poppy
cultivation is spread over the northern provinces but remained at a low level, falling to
1,500 ha in 2007. Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Vietnam all continue to report
eradication of small amount of illicit opium cultivation.
Global Opium Production
Global opium production reached record levels in 2007. Afghanistan alone accounted for
92 % of global production, producing 8,200 mt of opium at an average yield of 42.5
kg/ha. In Myanmar, opium production increases by 46 % from 315 mt to 460 mt due to
the combined effects of cultivation increases and higher yields.
Comparison of Alkaloid Contents of Opium
As early as 1907 the greater part of opium trade was in the hands of Turkey where the
opium produced was much richer in morphine content than the Indian product. One of the
reasons why Indian opium was so much inferior in this respect to the Turkish product
appeared to be that the opium, from which Indian medicinal supplies were made, was
selected in the most haphazard way. Nothing was then really known regarding the
locality from which it came, from what seed or in what manner it was grown, or for what
reasons the plants had been considered suitable for selection.
A large number of samples of opium collected from various opium growing districts of
India were sent to the Imperial Institute in London. The systematic investigation of Indian
opium by the Institute showed that much of the opium produced in India contained
Page 6 of 14
sufficiently high percentage of morphine to render the drug suitable for medicinal use in
Europe or for the manufacture of opium alkaloids. Some of the results obtained are
summarized in the following table, opium is arranged according to the % of morphine.
Table:
In Dry Opium
Variety of poppy
Morphine
Codeine
Narcotine
Posti
14.25
2.91
7.61
Katila
13.62
1.86
5.74
Baunia
13.44
3.93
5.27
Karria
13.27
3.35
7.01
Katila
12.65
2.91
7.54
Bharbharwa
12.54
3.24
6.19
Katila
12.34
3.24
7.12
Desi
12.07
3.72
4.86
Katila an Tehia
11.91
3.57
6.40
Safed Posta
11.83
2.81
5.96
Maghaiya
11.80
3.46
4.90
Aariala
11.48
3.13
5.34
Safeda
11.45
3.67
6.64
Saded danthi
11.16
3.54
5.78
Kotila
10.98
2.81
7.13
Baunia
9.57
3.98
4.52
11.37
3.26
6.06
AVERAGE
From the above result it will be seen that the percentage of morphine varied from 9.57 to
14.25, the average being 11.37. The average amount of codeine present in these samples
comes to 3.26 and that of narcotine 6.06. taken as a whole, the composition of Indian
opium is very satisfactory. Indian opium has a great advantage over Turkish and Iranian
opium, in so far as Turkish opium contains less than 1% of codeine on the average, and
the Iranian opium about 2.5% whereas Indian opium, apart from its high morphine
content, gives an average of 3.5 % of codeine.
Page 7 of 14
The Opium Trade:- The opium trade has existed for hundreds of years; it was the cause
of the Anglo-Chinese wars of the nineteenth century and has been a resilient market
despite increasing pressure from law enforcement agencies and governments world wide.
It is a part of most country’s shadow economy. It is an illegal good and a factor of the
world narcotic trade. China, the democratic people republic of Korea, India, Japan and
Afghanistan are the countries in which the poppy plant is cultivated for the production of
opium.
China:-In 1999, China produced 16.8 tons of opium from an area of 450 hectares China
initiated production of poppy straw in 1998, with an annual out put of 396 tons and 420
tons in 1999 respectively, for the manufacture of opiates. In addition since 1992, China
has withdrawn opium from its special stocks, in quantities varying from 10 to 49 tons,
with a view to supplementing its annual production of opium to meet its growing
domestic needs.
Afghanistan:- Poppy growing/Opium production is, at least, 50% of Afghanistan’s
economy. Last year 6,100 tons of opium were harvested.$3 billion dollars were generated
in Afghanistan from its sale 90% of the world’s illegal opium supplies come from that
harvest. According to UN office on drugs and Crime 2007 opium survey in Afghanistan,
the region produced 8,200 metric tons of opium twice the annual estimate of global
opium consumption. Afghanistan produces more opium than any where else in the world,
but the price of opium is not being driven down by over production.
The national average price of dry opium in Afghanistan is $ 125/kg in December 2006
compared with $150/kilo a year earlier. Prices differ across the country, since
Afghanistan is not a unified territory or market. Afghanistan’s opium production is
estimated to account for 52% of the country’s legal GDP and 87% of the world’s total
supply. Afghanistan’s production in 2007 standing at 8200 tons, and the global demand
estimated to be around 4500 tons, but the market price has not fallen due to supply
exceeding demand, opium is highly “versatile” good; it exhibits composite demand it is
used both raw and in various purified forms. This means that a rise in market price of one
of its derivates (e,g Heroin) leads to arise in market price of others (Codeine and
Page 8 of 14
Morphine). Owing to its additive properties, demand for opium is highly inelastic; a
change in price has little effect on demand, as consumers are willing to pay elevated
market prices to obtain the product.
India:- India is one of world’s top producers of licit opium and is the sole producer of
licit opium gum. To meet India’s share of anticipated world demand for licit opium in
2000 and rebuild domestic stockpiles toward an International Narcotic Control Board
recommended level of about 750 metric tons, the Indian government set a licit opium
harvest target of 12,00 metric tons. 870 metric tons for export, 130 metric tons for
domestic use and 200 metric tons for buffer stocks. NCB sources however state that
farmers often hide the exact quantity of their yield and sell off some in the black market
also.
United Kingdom:-
The principle opium derivatives used within UK are codeine,
dihydrocodeine, morphine and dimorphine. Codeine is produced in the highest volume,
and sold downstream to be incorporated by pharmaceutical companies in a wide range of
products, many
of which are available commercially. Opium derivatives especially
morphine and diamorphine are highly prized on the illicit market and activity sought by
misusers. The United Kingdom has been the major heroin manufacturer, with a yearly
output increasing from level of 100 kg at the beginning of 1980 to 471kg in 1999.
Belgium and Netherlands have manufactured, at irregular intervals quantities ranging
from 1 to 91 kg. As a result of increased manufacture in the UK, the world total rose to
507 kg, the highest in 20 years. The government therefore recognizes the importance of
the International licensing control system, which permits legitimate production and use,
while at the same time preventing the diversion. These controls restrict the used of drugs
to purely medical and scientific purposes whilst at the same time ensuring that such drugs
are available in sufficient quantities to meet legitimate global scientific and medical
needs. Dimorphine is a powerful opioid analgesic which is used for the treatment of acute
and chronic pain. The UK is unique in being the only country in the world to use it for
palliative care, e.g. in cancer patients. It has advantages over other pain killers. It is also
more soluble then morphine, which means that effective doses can be injected. UK is one
of the major producers of codeine products, exporting to a number of countries and the
Page 9 of 14
continued success of the entire supply chain is an important consideration. Currently, the
UK is the only major European Producer to allow imports.
The Tasmanian Poppy Industry :- Tasmania is the world’s largest producers of opium
alkaloids for the pharmaceutical market. The area sown to poppies is close to 20,000 ha,
and the industry is one of the larger employers in the state. The Tasmanian poppy
industry is based on the opium poppy, papaver somniferum L. the processing companies
are unvalued in agricultural research and provision of seed and advice to farmers, through
to manufacture of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) Growers are paid according
to the alkaloid content of their crop. During processing, the crop is threshed to separate
seeds from poppy straw. The alkaloids are extracted from the poppy straw to produce
concentrate of poppy straw (CPS), which can be sold as a narcotic raw material, or
utilized in the manufacture of APIs. CPS generally contains between 40-80% alkaloids,
with that produced in Australia at the upper end of the range.
Australia produced 51% of the world’s morphine in 1998, Turkey produced 23% France
21% and Spain 4%. The other major producer is India which manufacture the traditional
product opium. The UK and USA are the largest markets for CPS importing 49 and 38
tonnes respectively in 1998. USA is the largest importer of opium:541 Tonnes in 1998.
USA has a policy of sourcing 80% of its narcotic raw materials from the traditional
producers, India and Turkey (the 80:20 rule), and doesn’t import APIs such as codeine
phosphate. Of the countries which grow poppies for CPS, Australia has 10.7% of crop
area, and produces 45.8% . By contrast, Turkey has 46.75% of the area and produces
24.5% of the CPS. Australia’s yield per hectare is 8 times that of Turkey, nearly twice
that of Spain and 30% higher than France. France has a large protected local market for
codeine. Government runs these industries in Turkey and India.
Trafficking
Trafficking in opiates continues along three major routes: There are three production
centers for opiates, which supply three distinct markets. The main trafficking flows are as
follows:
Page 10 of 14

From Afghanistan, the world largest opium producer, to neighboring countries of
south, south west and central Asia, the Middle east, Africa and, in particular to
Europe.

From Myanmar/ Laos to neighboring countries of Southeast, (China) and to the
Oceania region (mainly Australia).

From Latin America (Mexico, Colombia, Gutemala and Peru) to North America
(notably USA)
Global opiate seizure, increased 14 % to 142 mt 2006. Opiate seizures have grown an
average of 9 % per year over the last decade exceeding growth in global opium
production.
Global opium seizures amounted to 384 mt in 2006, upto 12 % on a year earlier,
opium seizures were concentrated in Iran (81%), Afghanistan (11%) Pakistan (2%)
and Myanmar (02%). Global morphine seizures amounted to 46 mt upto 45 % in a
year earlier. Most morphine seizures took place in Pakistan (70%) and Iran (23%).
The world’s largest opiate seizures are made along the extended Balkan route. If all
opiate (heroin, morphine and opium) are considered, Iran seizures 37 % of the world
total in 2006, followed by Pakistan (26%), Turkey (08%) and west and central Europe
(06%) and six percent of the total was in Afghanistan.
Prices of opium
Prices of opium vary from region to region. In Afghanistan farm gate
prices for dry opium reached their lowest annual average since the opium ban in 2001,
declining by 21% from US $ 140/ kg in 2006 to US $ 111/kg in 2007. Opium prices in
Myanmar continued to increase prices rose 11 % from US $ 230/kg in 2006 to US $
256/kg in 2007, the increase was lower than in 2006, when farm gate prices increased by
23 %. Prices for Lao PDR and Thailand indicated that recent production increases in
Myanmar were not affecting the scarcity of opium on local illicit market. Prices increased
77% to US $ 994/kg in the Lao PDR. In Thailand, prices reached US $ 1,071/kg in 2007
In Europe the retail price of heroin varied in 2006 from EUR 14.5 per gram in Turkey to
EUR 110 per gram in Sweden, with most European countries reporting typical prices of
EUR 30-45 per gram. The price of white heroin is reported only by a few European
Page 11 of 14
countries and ranged between EUR 27 and EUR 110 per gram. The average wholesale
price for dry opium in 2009 was $ 64 per Kg compared to $ 95 last year, a 33% drop.
Drug addiction in Pakistan
Pakistan was involved in drug abuse and addiction during late 60,s but it was until the
early 80,s that the drug culture really exploded. It is illegally cultivated as cash crop
in Pakistan. In the early 90,s the US government put pressure on Pakistan to set up
sustained opium eradication programmes. This work was focused in the remote
valleys of the mountainous North West frontier province, where 90 % of Pakistan’s
opium is grown. Check posts were built and police were sent in during the sowing
season. Destruction was stepped up by aerial spraying of herbicide from US supplied
aircraft, spraying also destroyed mustard and wheat, for which the government had to
pay compensation.
Operations such as these have often failed to stop poppy growing and instead have
deepened anti-government feeling and sparked protests. Farmers are reluctant to give
up the crop, which is perceived to be their most profitable. According to US state
department, “Afghanistan became the largest opium producing country since 2002”.
Almost all of this opium is refined into heroin, and is main shipped to different parts
of the world, mainly via Pakistan with whom it share one of the most pours and
inaccessible border, thus affecting Peshawar and its adjoining areas that serve as the
main transit stop. The large scale smuggling of Afghan opiates has resulted in a wide
range of social ills, including organized crime, corruption and high illicit demand for
opiates. Many of the legalize US agricultural commodities harm other countries in the
same why the US claims opium harm it through policies like dumping. Alternative
solution to Afghanistan illicit drug “problem” should include the legalization if its
drug trade. The presence of such a huge quality of heroin and the deteriorating
socioeconomic conditions for the past three decades have resulted in substantial
addiction to heroin and violence at an epidemic level. The use of heroin has long been
associated with crime become its production, processing import and distribution are
illegal. Most of the addicts turn to theft and
prostitution to obtain money to buy the
Page 12 of 14
drug. There may researches to the contrary, but still there is a substantial evidence
and public perception on support of a likely link between crime and drugs.
The prevention activities undertaken by national and international NGO’s have not
only failed in achieving results but have also introduced new trends among addicts.
The other chief components of the prevention drive which are consuming the majority
of the funding are the restless seminars and training workshops in the most expensive
and luxuries hotels of country where the irrelevant cronies are provided an
opportunity to enjoy the luxurious stay and allowances. The statistics of the training
workshops and seminars show that thousands of people are training but we see none
of them in the field
In conclusion serious steps need to be taken by the government for drug control
policy or plan of action keeping in view our country’s socio-economic conditions and
for the betterment of community.
Page 13 of 14
References
1.
UNDOC. 2007. World Drug Report, 2007a, United Nations Office on Drug
and Crime, Vienna.
2.
Cornell Svante, E. 2005. The interaction of narcotics and conflict. Journal of
Peace Research. 42: 751-760.
3.
Kapoor, L.D. 1995. Opium Poppy; Botany, Chemistry and Pharmacology,
Haworth press, New York. USA.
4.
Luigi, Z; Luigi, G; Paola, S.2003. People’s Opium, Religion and economic
attitudes, Journal of monetary economics, 50: 225-282.
5.
International Norcotics control board. 1999. Report of the international
narcotics control Board for 1998, New York, NY: UN,1999.
6.
Mohapatra, N.K.2007. Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The
Drug Trafficking Dimension, International Studies 44:157-172.
7.
Narcotic Control Bureau Report. 2001-2002. Department of Revenue,
Ministry of Finance, Government of India, New Delhi.
8.
Pierre-Arnaud Choury. 2008. Afghanistan and the failure of global counternarcotics, Afghan Info 63: 11-12.
9.
Pierr-Arnaud Choury. 2005. the dangers of Opium Eradication in Asia, Jane’s
Intelligence Review 17: 26-27.
10.
Pierre-Arhaud Choury. 2008. Lecensing Afghanistan’s Opium: Solution or
fallacy, Causcasian Review of International Affairs. 2: 101-106.
11.
Wikipedia, The free encyclopedia © 2001-2006.
12.
White, P.T. 1985. The Poppy. The American National Geographic Magazine.
167:143-189
Page 14 of 14