The European Dictators – Allan Todd
Mussolini
Chapter 5: The rise of Italian Fascism, 1918-24
1. How did the Fasci emerge?
a. Fasci di Azione Rivoluzionaria was composed of those wanting Italian involvement in WW1
b. Organized demonstrations demanding intervention in the war
c. Many were national socialists believing that war would hasten revolution
d. Others had been involved in anti-government and anti-business protests in Sicily demanding
higher wages and lower rents
2. What were the consequences of WW1 for Italy?
a. High casualties embittered most Italians and many blamed the government
b. Italy acquired an enormous debt burden to the US
c. Government devalued the currency and hyperinflation ruined the economy
i. Lower wages and high unemployment by 1918
ii. Industry was negatively affected by a decline in government contracts after the war
3. Why was Italy disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles?
a. Italy was not given any of Germany’s colonies
b. Italy was not given Fiume or northern Dalmatia
c. Many nationalists and veterans were outraged and felt betrayed by the Liberal government
4. What did the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) stand for?
a. Composed of disgruntled workers and farmers
b. Demanded overthrow of the government and a communist government
c. Membership grew 500% during the war
5. What was the biennio rosso?
a. During 1919-20 socialist members engaged in widespread acts of violence and sabotage
b. Numerous strikes involving over 1 million workers
c. Workers occupied farms and factories
d. Trade unions grew by 800% during 1919 alone
6. Describe the background of Benito Mussolini.
a. Influenced by socialist father and Catholic mother
b. Became active in socialist politics and journalism during 1904-10
c. Opposed clericalism and imperialism
d. Briefly imprisoned (1911)
e. Editor of PSI newspaper and advocated revolution
7. How did WW1 impact Mussolini?
a. He became a fervent nationalist and was kicked out of the PSI
b. Founded his own newspaper advocating war
c. Conscripted into army but removed after an accident
d. Renounced socialism by 1918
8. What groups opposed the government after WW1?
a. Middle class, industrial, financial and landowning elites, shopkeepers, farmers, clerical workers
saw the government as hopelessly feeble and unable to avert socialist revolution
9. Who were the Arditi and what did they do?
a. Groups of war veterans who engaged in political violence, especially against socialists
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b. Published their own newspapers
c. Acquired many weapons
How did the Fascists emerge?
a. March 23, 1919 Mussolini organized the Fascio di Combattimento
i. United many nationalist and veterans groups
ii. United in hatred of the Liberal government
b. Mussolini borrowed the black shirts of the Arditi and the public spectacle of Gabrielle DAnnunzio
What were the early activities of the Fascists?
a. Unsuccessfully campaigned in the elections of November 1919
b. Were hired out in squads to violently end strikes and occupations
c. Burned down offices of the PSI and their newspapers
d. Action squads became increasingly popular in response to the rising political success of the PSI
e. Mussolini slowly extended his control over local Fascist groups
What were the results of the May 1921 elections?
a. Fascists formed an anti-socialist bloc with other right-wing parties and the ruling party
b. Won 7% of the vote and Mussolini was elected to parliament
c. Refused to form coalition with the ruling party
What evidence is there that Italy’s governments during 1921-22 were weak?
a. 3 coalitions collapsed in 18 months
b. Government was unable to deal with strikes and political violence
How did the Fascists emerge as an organized political force?
a. Mussolini made a pact with moderate socialists and then resigned
b. The Fascist Party replaced the Fascio di Combattimento and Mussolini was elected leader
c. He reorganized the Party and created many action squads
d. He imposed more direct control over local affiliates
e. The Party platform was made less socialist and more nationalist
What is meant by the “creeping insurrection” of 1922?
a. Local branches of the Fascists engaged in widespread violence
b. In some cities they took over the government and forced through their platform
c. The government lacked the strength to use the police against them
d. A Socialist general strike in August failed miserably due to Fascist action
e. Many moderate conservatives now came to see the Fascists as a viable and necessary political
force
What was the purpose of the March on Rome?
a. Some leaders urged a coup, although Mussolini resisted
b. Mussolini mollified them by organizing a march on Rome to demand concessions from the
government
What happened during the March on Rome?
a. October 27: local fascist squads seized control of major communications and transportation
infrastructure throughout northern Italy
b. October 28: government declared a state of emergency and used the army to oppose the fascists;
prefect of Milan declined to arrest Mussolini
c. October 29: king cancelled state of emergency; prime minister resigned in protest; king
appointed Mussolini prime minister
d. October 30: 70,000 fascists reached Rome and celebrated
Why did the king appoint Mussolini Prime Minister?
a. Uncertainty that the army would stay loyal
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b. Had lost faith in Liberal government
c. Feared civil war might break out
d. His pro-fascist cousin might replace him as king
e. Leading industrialists, landowners, and clerics favored a compromise with the Fascists
f. His mother was very pro-fascist
g. He thought the Fascists would defend against socialist revolution
What did Mussolini do to consolidate his power?
a. Asked for and received emergency powers from parliament
b. Appointed a liberal as Finance Minister in order to broaden the appeal of fascism
c. Made liberal economic reforms that won the support of conservative elites
d. Gave policy-making powers to a new Fascist Grand Council
i. Put himself in charge of all appointments
e. Appointed himself Interior and Minister Minister
f. Consolidated the fascist action squads into a National Security Guards paramilitary group with
30,000 members and funded by the government
g. Reduced the power of local party chiefs
h. Persuaded the National Party to merge with the Fascists by ending the policy of tax
prosecutions for evasion
What did Mussolini do to win the support of the Catholic Church?
a. Renounced his atheism
b. Made religious education compulsory
c. Banned contraception
d. Punished public swearing
e. Persuaded Pope Pius XI to end support for the liberal PPI
What was the Acerbo Law and how did Mussolini pass it?
a. New electoral law that would give the plurality party 2/3 of all seats in parliament
b. Deputies were intimidated into voting for the law in July 1923
What was the Corfu Incident and how did it help Mussolini?
a. Italian general was murdered on Corfu
b. Italy demanded a high fine and apology, but Greece only paid the fine
c. Italian marines invaded and occupied Corfu, but were later made to withdraw
d. Mussolini was seen as a national hero
How did the Fascists manipulate the elections of April 1924?
a. Set up local gangs to terrorize anti-Fascist parties and voters
i. Over 100 people killed
b. Widespread voting fraud
c. Fascists won 65% of the vote and 374/535 seats
What was the Matteoti Crisis?
a. Socialist leader Matteoti publicly protested the 1924 election as a fraud and called for a boycott
of parliament
b. He was abducted murdered several days later
c. Many left and moderate deputies were outraged at fascist thuggery and created their own
alternative assembly (Aventine Secession)
How did Mussolini emerge from the crisis?
a. Moderate leaders renewed their support for Mussolini, believing that he was weakened and
could be controlled
b. Instituted press censorship
c. Sacked several fascist ministers seen as thugs
Chapter 6: The Fascist state, 1925-45
1. How did Mussolini establish a dictatorship?
a. Purge of the Fascist Party by Farinacci (January 1925)
b. Strict press censorship (July)
c. Elected mayors and town councils were replaced with appointed officials (August)
d. Meetings of opposition parties banned (August)
e. Expanded his own powers (December)
i. Made himself head of government
ii. Enabled himself to issue decrees
iii. Curtailed powers of the king
iv. Referred to himself as Il Duce
v. Filled civil service positions with loyal conservative elites
f. Banned all other political parties and trade unions (October 1926)
g. Created new political courts
h. Created a secret police (OVRA)
i. Changed electoral laws
i. Only male Fascists over 21 could vote
ii. Only approved candidates appeared on the lists
iii. Votes were made public so as to intimidate compliance
iv. Mussolini won an overwhelming vote in May 1928
2. To what degree did the Fascist Party take over the state?
a. Mussolini usually kept conservative elites in place
i. These people were usually loyal to him but not the party
b. Several important cabinet ministers were not Fascists
c. 85% of the civil service was not Fascist
d. Judiciary was heavily purged of disloyal elements
e. Local prefects began clamping down on political violence, including Fascist gangs
f. Less ideological and more self serving applicants were granted membership
i. Mostly civil servants
3. How united was the Fascist Party and how did Mussolini control it?
a. factions
i. Militant ras advocating further fascist revolution
ii. Left fascists wanted a socialist/syndicalist state
iii. Fascist revionists were moderate and prepared to cooperate with the system
b. Mussolini tried to keep the party disunited so he could play the factions off against each other
and control them
4. What was corporatism?
a. The idea that the political system should be replaced with corporations each representing a
sector of the economy
b. Employers and employees should be equally represented
c. This will overcome class struggle and avoid strikes and disorder
5. How did Mussolini respond to the demands of the Fascist syndicates?
a. Vidoni Palace Pact (1925)
i. Only the Confederation of Fascist Syndicates may represent employees
ii. Workers may not challenge managers
iii. Workers councils and trade unions banned
iv. Strikes were banned
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v. Created special labor courts partial to industrialists
b. General Assembly of Corporations was established to make decisions in labor disputes
i. Each corporation consisted of employer and employee interests and 3 government
officials
ii. Almost always favored the interests of employers, with government officials backing the
employers
iii. Mussolini abolished the Chamber of Deputies and replaced it with the fasci and
corporations (1938)
What did Mussolini’s “battle for grain” consist of?
a. (1925) in respond to poor harvest
b. Imposed import controls to promote more cereals farming
c. Encourage farmers to plough pasture land, orchards and vineyards
d. Gave rewards to successful farmers
e. Northern farmers used more machinery and fertilizer
What did Mussolini’s “battle for land” consist of?
a. (1926) in order to expand cultivated land
b. Drained marshes and swamps
c. Created many small farms and jobs
d. Created farms in wooded and hilly areas
What did Mussolini’s “battle for the lira” consist of?
a. (1926) to restore the value of the lira and curb inflation
b. Lira was revalued to 92 lira = 1 £ (overvalue)
c. Enabled Italy to import coal and iron
What did Mussolini’s “battle for births” consist of?
a. Large population  large army  conquest of large empire  raw materials & national pride
b. Said ideal family size was 12
c. Encouraged early marriage, maternity benefits, discouraging female employment, employment
preference for married fathers, giving prizes to productive mothers, taxing bachelors, reducing
taxes on large families, funding honeymoons, outlawing homosexuality, abortion and divorce
How successful were Mussolini’s economic battles?
a. No new villages were built
b. Cereal production doubled by 1939 and made Italy self-sufficient
c. Misallocation of resources caused needless importation (olive oil)
d. High value exports dropped
e. Only one area was drained (Pontine Marshes)
f. Revaluation causes imports to soar in prize and hurt exporters, which causes unemployment
i. Led to an early recession
g. Birth rate declined during 1930s
h. Female employment remained high
What measures did Mussolini take to address the Great Depression?
a. Used public money to save major banks and industries (1931)
b. Institute of Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was created to take over unprofitable industries
(nationalization)
i. Sold rehabilitated businesses to help create large monopolies
c. Money and research were devoted to achieving autarky due to Italy’s increasing international
isolation
d. Italy recovered more slowly from the Depression than others
How did living standards for most Italians drop under Mussolini?
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a. Trade unions were abolished and strikes were banned
b. Industry was allowed to regulate its own labor practices with little/no government intervention
c. Real wages declined by 10% by 1938
d. Public work schemes were ineffective
e. High unemployment persisted
f. Battle for grain caused the price of luxury goods to increase
What impact did Mussolini have on land reform?
a. Land reform laws from 1922 were never enacted
b. Farm wages fell by 30% during the 1930s
c. Rapid urbanization led to the creation of slums around Milan, Turin and Rome
What classes benefitted under Fascism and how?
a. Bureaucrats enjoyed high wages and collected bribes
b. Industrialists earned high profits due to weakened worker rights and more government
contracts
i. Large monopolies soon emerged in several sectors
c. Landowners benefitted from restrictions on the right of peasants to migrate to cities which
reduced farm wages
What did Mussolini do to improve relations with the Catholic Church?
a. Restored religious education in primary schools
b. Lateran Agreements (1929): sovereignty of Vatican City was recognized; pope recognized Italy
and its possession in central Italy
c. Government paid Church 1750 million lira for loss of church properties
d. Catholicism would be the official religion
e. State would pay salary of clergy
f. State could veto bishops; clergy would not join political groups
g. Church was given authority over divorce
In what ways did Catholicism challenge Fascism?
a. Government attempted to ban the Catholic Action youth organization
b. Catholic Action was eventually allowed to function but only regarding religious activity
c. Many joined this group and it was seen a rival to the fascist youth organizations
Was Facism racist?
a. Yes
i. Fascists often used racist language to describe their right to colonize and rule Africans
b. No
i. Mussoloni dismissed anti-semitism as unscientific
ii. Many Italian Jews were members of the Fascist Party and they were appointed to
prominent positions
iii. Mussolini had a Jewish mistress
What anti-Semitic measures did Mussolini institute?
a. 1938: Hitler compelled Mussolini to issue the Charter of Race
i. Jewish teachers and students were excluded from stat schools
ii. Intermarriage was forbidden
iii. Prevented Jewish ownership of significant property
How anti-Semitic was Italy?
a. Many local officials ignored these laws
b. Catholic Church condemned most racist measures
c. Many government leaders strongly opposed the new laws.
What did Mussolini do to create his own personality cult?
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Press censorship of images and coverage of Il Duce
Established state radio and public address systems
State created flattering newsreels that were played in all cinemas
Ministry of Popular Culture regulated all films, plays, radio, and books to glorify Mussolini and
the Fascists
i. Not successful
e. Portraits of Mussolini were hung in many public places
f. Cheering squads followed him to most events
g. Many public events were turned into major political spectacles with sophisticated light and
sound elements and artistic techniques
How did the Fascists use education to manipulate the public?
a. Children were made to chant pro-fascist slogans
b. Teachers had to swear an oath to Mussolini
c. Textbooks were thoroughly scrutinized and revised
i. Only 1 official history book by 1936
d. Secondary schooling remained traditional, classical, college-preparatory and not very
politicized
How did the Fascists train and recruit youth?
a. 1926: all fascist youth groups were united into the ONB and the Boy Scouts were banned
b. Membership was required for all children 9-21
c. Included physical fitness programs, summer camps, military training, and political
indoctrination
d. 40% managed to avoid membership
e. Catholic schools and universities proved more independent and resistant
How did the Fascists attempt to influence adults?
a. 1925: OND created to host concerts, dancing and travel
b. OND created clubs, libraries, sporting clubs, and bands
c. 40% of workers and 25% of peasants were members
d. 1930s: Fascist Party created its own state-run welfare agency
e. Membership did not rise significantly; 6% of population by 1939
What was the Romanita Movement?
a. Effort to build up Mussolini and like him with the greats of Ancient Rome
i. Writers, artists and scholars created propaganda
b. Incorporation of the fasces into all public spectacles and images
c. Effort create an empire in the Mediterranean and North Africa
d. Effort to create a new man based on the ancient centurion (loyal and fearless)
What obstacles student in the way of Mussolini’s foreign policy goals?
a. New state of Yugoslavia controlled Dalmatian coast
b. Britain and France controlled strategic points in Mediterranean
What successes did Mussolini achieve in foreign policy in the 1920s?
a. Obtained Fiume from Yugoslavia
b. Signed Locarno Pact (1925)
c. Obtained economic dominance in Albania
d. Obtained parts of Kenya and Libya
e. Financially aided nationalists in Germany, Austria, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia
f. Signed Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) which outlawed war
g. Called for Versailles to be revised
What steps did Mussolini take to oppose Hitler in 1933-34?
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a. Signed a 4 power pact with Britain, France, and Germany
b. Sought an Italian sphere of influence in Austria
c. Signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union
d. Mobilized when Hitler attempted to take over Austria in 1934
e. Formed Stresa Front with Britain and France in 1935
Why did Mussolini invade Abyssinia in 1935?
a. Wanted to add to the Italian colonies in Somaliland and Eritrea
b. Wanted to show off Italian military prowess
What was the response of Europe to the invasion?
a. Britain and France drew up the Hoare-Laval Pact to offer 2/3 of Abyssinia
i. Collapsed due to public opposition
b. League of Nations decided to impose sanctions
i. Did not include oil, coal, iron and steel
ii. Britain did not close the Suez Canal
c. Hitler supported the invasion and ignored sanctions
What were the results of this conquest for Italy?
a. Italy acquired a large new colony that was economically useless
b. She alienated Britain and France
c. Her actions led to the destruction of the League of Nations
d. Her only ally was now a Germany that continued to eye Austrian annexation
What evidence of a pro-German policy emerged in 1936?
a. Italy consented to anschluss
b. Did not oppose occupation of the Rhineland
c. Withdrew from the League of Nations
d. Intervened with Germany in the Spanish Civil War
e. Signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in October
Describe the Italian involvement in the Spanish Civil War.
a. Sent 70,000 troops, 600 planes, and 1000 tanks to aid the Nationalists
b. Italy acquired the islands of Mallorca and Menorca
c. War was financially costly for Italy but popular with the public
What lessons did Italy take away from the Spanish Civil War?
a. Britain and France were unwilling to respond to even more most serious provocations
i. Italy annexed Albania in 1939
b. A German alliance had more to offer Italy
i. Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan in 1937
ii. Helped to organize the Munich Conference in 1938
iii. Signed the Pact of Steel with Germany in 1939
How prepared for war was Italy at the outbreak of WW 2?
a. Army of only 10 divisions, not 150 as claimed
b. Guns and artillery were outdated
c. Far too few tanks (100)
d. Airforce was technologically poor and lacked long range bombers
e. Navy lacked aircraft carriers
f. Submarines were inferior to rivals and 30% were destroyed in the first 3 weeks
Why was this weakness surprising?
a. Military expenditure had double from 1935 to 1939
i. Most of this went to wars, not rearmament
ii. Italy devoted twice as much GDP to military as Britain and France
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b. Italy’s armed forces were very poorly coordinated and led
In what ways was Italy economically unprepared for the war?
a. Lacked sufficient raw materials
b. Economic planning was ineffective
i. Steel production actually shrank during the war
ii. Industrial production dropped by 35%
iii. Agricultural production dropped by 25%
1. Food shortages
How successful was Italy in WW2?
a. Invaded France in 1940
i. Because they were on the brink of defeat
1. Still weren’t able to capture territory
b. Invaded British Somaliland and Egypt in 1940
i. British easily defeated Italians in Egypt
ii. British navy defeated Italian navy at the Battles of Taranto and Matapan
iii. British defeated Italian army at Tobruk and invaded Italian East Africa
c. Invaded Greece
i. Fierce Greek resistance
1. German had to invade Greece and Yugoslavia to help
Why did opposition emerge in Italy in 1941?
a. Italy exported many raw materials and food products to Germany
b. Break rations were very low
c. Major defeats in North Africa in 1942-43
i. Libya was lost
d. Factory discipline and productivity was increased once Allied bombing started
e. Allied invasion of Italy in 1943 was met with little resistance and dwindling support for
Mussolini
f. Many politicians, including Fascists, criticized Mussolini’s closeness to Hitler and wanted to
remove him
How was Mussolini removed?
a. July 24, 1943: Fascist Grand Council votes to remove him from power
b. July 25: king orders him to step down; he is arrested and imprisoned
c. September 8: Italy surrenders to the Allies
d. September: German paratroopers rescue Mussolini and take him to Germany
i. Mussolini is installed as leader of the new Italian Social Republic in the NE dominated
by Germany
e. 1944: Allies continue to conquer Italian Peninsula and Germans withdraw
f. April: Mussolini arrested by Italians and shot with mistress