Teaching Science by - cmaste
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Draft copy for review Pseudoscience for Learning Scientific Inquiry and the Natures of Science: a lesson package for elementary classrooms “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” Carl Sagan. Published by the Centre for Mathematics Science and Technology Education (CMASTE) for Dougal MacDonald, PhD Department of Elementary Education University of Alberta Edmonton AB Canada 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 1 Draft copy for review © Dougal MacDonald, 2009, Dougal MacDonald <doogmacd@shaw.ca> Free download for classroom use from www.CMASTE.ca under Curriculum Resources and then Elementary Resources. Hardcopies may be purchased from: Centre for Mathematics Science and Technology Education (CMASTE) University of Alberta 382 Education South Edmonton AB T6G 2G5 Canada www.CMASTE.ca cmaste@cmaste.ca P: 780-492-0148 F: 780-492-0162 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 2 Draft copy for review Table of Contents Introduction What is pseudoscience? Why investigate pseudoscience in a science classroom? Program of Studies Programs of Study and Pseudoscience Sample content links to Programs of Study Links to other subject areas Teacher Background Knowledge The nature of science Nature of scientific theories Characteristics of scientific theories/explanations Scientific evidence Science and Pseudoscience Distinguishing between science and pseudoscience Pseudoscientific claims: Ten warning signs Inquiring into Pseudoscience Scepticism Alternative explanations The need for independent testing Scientific inquiry [Teaching-Learning Activities on the next page] 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 3 Draft copy for review Teaching-Learning Activities Table of Contents Finding Out Students’ Existing Ideas Survey of Beliefs Introductory Activity Flat or Round Earth? I. Mental Powers 1. Unknown Psychic 2. Do You Have ESP? 3. One Ahead 4. More ESP Tests 5. Spoon Bending 6. Cold, Warm, and Hot Reading 7. Auras 8. Thoughtography 9. Predicting the Future 10. Nostradamus II. Spirit World 1. Astrology 2. Ouija Board 3. Poltergeist III. Natural Mysteries 1. Energy Necklace 2. Perpetual Motion 3. Dowsing 4. Magnetic Water 5. Aromatherapy 6. Bermuda Triangle 7. Cryptids 8. Easter Island Statues 9. Crop Circles 10. Firewalking 11. Earth in Upheaval IV. Aliens and UFOs 1. Are We Alone? 2. Is Anyone Out There? 3. Has Anyone Visited Us? 4. Alien Abductions Further Reading 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 4 Draft copy for review 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 5 Draft copy for review Introduction What is Pseudoscience? “Pseudo” means “false” and pseudoscience is false science. Pseudoscience is any body of knowledge claiming to be scientific (or at an even higher level than science) but which contradicts both the methods and content of science because it: Fails to comply with the usual scientific tests. Is inconsistent with existing, well-established scientific knowledge. There are many examples of pseudoscience, so it is useful to classify pseudoscientific claims into four broad categories (although some claims may defy classification!). Mental powers. Spirit world. Natural mysteries. Aliens and UFOs. Specific examples of each category include Mental powers: auras, Edgar Cayce, ESP, EST, firestarting, firewalking, Indian rope trick, Kirlian photography, mind reading, Nostradamus, precognition, primal scream therapy, psychokinesis, psychic surgery, remote viewing, spoon bending, thoughtography. Spirit world: astral travel, astrology, Carlos Castaneda, channeling, contacting the dead, evil eye, exorcism, ghosts, hauntings, Lobsang Rampa, near death, ouija board, out-of body, palmistry, poltergeist, reincarnation, Seth, speaking in tongues, tarot, witchcraft. Natural mysteries: abominable snowman (yeti), aromatherapy, Atlantis, Bermuda Triangle, Bigfoot, cattle mutilations, crop circles, crystals, dowsing, face on Mars, fairies, kraken, Ley lines, Loch Ness monster, Mary Celeste, Ogopogo, perpetual motion, pyramidology, spontaneous human combustion, unicorns, vampires, werewolves, zombies. Aliens and UFOs: alien abductions, alien autopsies, alien implants, Area 51, Dark Side hypothesis, Erich von Daniken, flying saucers, Illuminati, Men in Black, Roswell. Why Investigate Pseudoscience in a Science Classroom? Many people believe in the unsupported claims of pseudoscience and accept pseudoscientific explanations for events. Because pseudoscientific explanations are often substituted for scientific explanations, the spread of pseudoscience poses a danger to science and to rational thinking in general. In the science classroom, scientific inquiry into pseudoscience can: Teach students relevant science content. Clarify what science is (and isn’t). Engage students in and clarify their understanding of scientific inquiry. Improve students’ science-related cognitive skills, e.g., designing experiments. Enhance students’ creative and critical thinking skills. Engage students in scientific thinking and clarify what it means. Help students develop an evidential style of belief such that they are able to question and test their own beliefs and the beliefs of others. Equip students to intelligently evaluate scientific and pseudoscientific claims in the future. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 6 Draft copy for review Programs of Study Programs of Study and Pseudoscience Suggested Teacher Text: Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon-Haunted World. NYC: Random House. Sagan’s book provides a broad discussion of many pseudoscience topics. The study of pseudoscience can be linked to Alberta science programs of study in many ways: Science content topics (see below). Scientific inquiry: students conduct inquiry into pseudoscientific claims. Science-related cognitive skills: students observe, infer, design experiments, etc. Scientific attitudes, e.g., students show respect for evidence. Nature of science, e.g., students learn about the relationships between theory and evidence. Everyday applications of science, e.g., students analyze media reports of the “paranormal”. Links to Alberta Programs of Study Alberta Elementary Science Program of Studies (1996) Grade One Unit Activities Creating Colour Seasonal Changes Building Things Senses Needs of Animals and Plants Two Three Four 533580797 Auras Perpetual Motion All Mind and Mental Powers’ topics; Ouija Board; Aromatherapy; Energy Necklace. Cryptids; Has Anyone Visited Us? Exploring Liquids Buoyancy and Boats Magnetism Dowsing; Magnetic Water; Aromatherapy Bermuda Triangle More ESP Tests (Compass); Energy-Boosting Necklace; Perpetual Motion; Magnetic Water; Crop Circles Hot and Cold Temperatures Small Crawling and Flying Animals Rocks and Minerals Building with a Variety of Materials Testing Materials and Designs Hearing and Sound Animal Life Cycles Waste and Our World Wheels and Levers Firewalking Easter Island Statues Thoughtography; Perpetual Motion; Easter Island Statues Thoughtography; Perpetual Motion; Easter Island Statues Cryptids; Has Anyone Visited Us? Perpetual Motion; Easter Island Statues www.CMASTE.ca 7 Draft copy for review Five Six Building Devices and Vehicles That Move Light and Shadows Plant Growth and Changes Electricity & Magnetism Mechanisms Using Electricity Classroom Chemistry Weather Watch Wetland Ecosystems Air & Aerodynamics Flight Sky Science Evidence and Investigation Trees and Forests Perpetual Motion; Easter Island Statues Auras, Thoughtography Crop Circles Energy Necklace; Perpetual Motion; Magnetic Water; Crop Circles; Is Anyone Out There? Is Anyone Out There? Magnetic Water, Aromatherapy Crop Circles Cryptids Has Anyone Visited Us? Has Anyone Visited Us? Is Anyone Out There? Has Anyone Visited Us? All activities Cryptids Alberta Junior High School Science Program (2003) Grade Seven Eight Nine 533580797 Unit Interactions and Ecosystems Plants for Food and Fibre Heat and Temperature Structures and Forces Planet Earth Mix and Flow of Matter Cells and Systems Light and Optical Systems Mechanical Systems Freshwater and Saltwater Systems Biological Diversity Matter and Chemical Change Environmental Chemistry Electrical Principles and Technologies Space Exploration Activities Cryptids; Is Anyone Out There? Crop Circles Perpetual Motion; Aromatherapy; Firewalking Easter Island Statues Earth in Upheaval Is Anyone Out There? Auras, Thoughtography Perpetual Motion Cryptids Cryptids Magnetic Water; Aromatherapy All ‘Aliens and UFOs’ activities www.CMASTE.ca 8 Draft copy for review Alberta High School Science Program Grade Unit Ten: Science 10 (2005) Energy and Matter in Chemical Change Energy Flow in Technological Systems Cycling of Matter in Living Systems Energy Flow in Global Systems Chemical Changes Eleven: Science 20 (2006) Twelve: Science 30 (1995) 533580797 Changes in Motion The Changing Earth Changes in Living Systems Living Systems Respond to Their Environment Chemistry in the Environment Electromagnetic Energy Energy and the Environment Activities Magnetic Water; Aromatherapy Perpetual Motion Is Anyone Out There? Poltergeist Magnetic Water; Aromatherapy Perpetual Motion Earth in Upheaval Crop Circles Cryptids; Is Anyone Out There? Magnetic Water; Aromatherapy Energy Necklace; Perpetual Motion; Magnetic Water; Crop Circles; Is Anyone Out There? All ‘Spirit World’ activities www.CMASTE.ca 9 Draft copy for review Topics by Science Area Activity Flat or Round Earth Unknown Psychic Do You Have ESP? One Ahead More ESP Tests Cold, Warm, and Hot Reading Auras Thought Photography Predicting the Future Nostradamus Astrology Ouija Board Poltergeist Energy Necklace Perpetual Motion Dowsing Magnetic Water Aromatherapy Bermuda Triangle Cryptids Easter Island Statues Firewalking Crop Circles Earth in Upheaval Are We Alone? Is Anyone Out There? Has Anyone Visited Us? Alien Abductions 533580797 Physics x Earth Sci. x Astronomy x Chemistry Biology x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x www.CMASTE.ca 10 Draft copy for review General Links to Other Subject Areas Inquiry into pseudoscience can be linked with other subject areas. For example: Language Arts: Students study, analyze, and discussing what the mass media (e.g., newspapers, books, movies) presents on pseudoscientific topics. Mathematics: Students use simple statistics while testing for ESP. Social Studies: Students investigate Nostradamus’ predictions (history), Easter Island Statues (geography). Art: students work with photographs of paranormal pehenomoena, e.g., UFOs, cryptids. Teacher Background Knowledge The Nature of Science A good starting point when investigating pseudoscience is to consider what science is. The term “nature of science” (NOS) refers to the features or characteristics distinguishing science. NOS refers not to specific science content, e.g., “Like poles repel” but to matters applicable to ALL science content, for example, standards defining acceptable evidence and scientific explanation. Many scientists, philosophers of science, and science educators disagree as to what is an authentic view of the nature of science. A useful consensus can be found in Science For All Americans (Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1989). It is the result of a lengthy process of deliberation involving a three-year collaboration of several hundred scientists, philosophers, educators, historians, engineers, mathematicians, and physicians. The consensus was the basis for the description of the nature of science in the U.S. National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996). The above consensus view of the nature of science in part addresses three topics very relevant to the investigation of pseudoscience: validity of scientific claims, role and nature of hypotheses, and theoretical explanations. Validity of Scientific Claims The validity of scientific claims is eventually resolved by referring to observations of phenomena. Scientists use their senses and instruments that extend the senses to gather accurate data through observations and measurements in both natural settings and under controlled conditions (e.g., in laboratory experiments). To be valid, scientific arguments must adhere to the principles of logical reasoning (e.g., in how conclusions are inferred from evidence). Role and Nature of Hypotheses Formulating and testing hypotheses is a fundamental scientific activity To be useful, a hypothesis should be testable and should suggest what evidence would support it and what evidence would refute it. Theoretical Explanations Science produces knowledge by making observations of phenomena and inventing theoretical explanations to make sense of them. Theoretical explanations should use or be consistent with currently accepted scientific ideas. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 11 Draft copy for review Theoretical explanations must be logically sound and incorporate a substantial body of valid observations. Theoretical explanations should have predictive power and should fit both known observations and additional observations not used in formulating the theories. New scientific theories may encounter vigorous opposition from the scientific community in the short run, however, in the long run, theories are judged by their results. When a scientist proposes a new theory that explains more phenomena or answers more questions than a previous theory, the new theory eventually becomes established in its place. Nature of Scientific Concepts The main goal of science is to develop theoretical explanations of natural world phenomena and events, so it is useful to be aware of some defining characteristics of scientific concepts.. Characteristics of a Scientific Concepts Explains observed natural phenomena. Is internally consistent with itself and externally with accepted scientific theories. Is sparing in proposed entities and assumptions (“parsimonious”). Is empirically testable--can be confirmed or disconfirmed by observable evidence. Is based upon the findings of controlled, repeated experiments. Is altered as new data are discovered and interpreted. Explains more phenomena or answers more questions than previous concepts. Admits the possibility of error rather than asserting certainty. Example The nebular hypothesis explains the origin of our solar system. The elastic rebound theory of earthquakes is logical and is consistent with plate tectonics concepts. The behavior of molecules explains many physical phenomena, e.g., heat, sound, chemical reactions. The theory of continental drift is supported by fossil and rock evidence. The germ theory of disease has been repeatedly tested through the use of antibiotics. Biologists explain evolution by natural selection but disagree on how natural selection occurs, e.g., slowly or quickly, via genes or the whole organism. The theory of molecular domains expands on the molecular theory of magnetism. Scientists still debate the possible causes of the extinction of the dinosaurs. Scientific Evidence Evidence Knowledge claims about the world such as scientific theories need to be based on evidence. Evidence is the result of experience (personal and of others) and reasoning. Evidence in respect to a claim may be supportive or contradictory. New evidence requires reassessment of claims. Scientific claims and theories must be supported by scientific evidence, e.g., scientific information, data, findings, other than the claim itself. Scientific evidence is like evidence in general but is more complex, more dependent on instruments (e.g., microscope), and more dependent on pooling evidential resources (e.g., findings from more than one investigation). Particularly important is empirical scientific evidence that is based on direct experience and gathered through observation, using the senses and instruments. Everyone can experience empirical evidence and it can be repeated so that others can check it. The evidence of authority (experts, textbooks) is the most common alternative to empirical evidence but since authoritarian 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 12 Draft copy for review evidence may be reliable or unreliable each authority must be checked before accepting its evidence. Gathering evidence through observation is an active and selective process. Scientific observation is influenced by theory--there is more to observation than what meets the eyeball. Further, accurate observation requires talent and skill, perhaps even special training and/or knowledge. Warranting Claims The warrant for a claim refers to the quality of the evidence with respect to the claim. The warrant comes in degrees (of certainty) and changes as new evidence comes in. A claim is warranted by a combination of evidence and reasons. “Reasons” refers to other beliefs (what is accepted as true) held by an individual or group. Beliefs come in degrees, e.g., strongly held or “likely that”, weakly held or “possible that”. The quality of evidence with respect to a claim is judged under the influence of background assumptions and depends on factors such as: How warranted (secure) the evidence itself is, independent of the claim. To what degree the evidence supports the claim. How much relevant evidence can be gathered. To confirm a claim does not mean that the claim is “proven”. Evidence confirms a claim when New evidence raises the claim’s degree of warrant. Old evidence is found to be supportive of the claim. A prediction (especially a novel prediction) derived from the claim is verified. Scientific Community Most scientific claims/theories begin as informed but speculative conjectures. New claims may Seem close to certain but turn out to be wrong (e.g., Cyril Burt’s heritability of intelligence). Seem very unlikely but turn out to be right (e.g., Wegener’s continental drift). Turn out to be right in part and wrong in part (e.g., Mendel’s precise statistical results). Change in content to stand up to new evidence in an adapted form (e.g., black hole theory). The warrant for accepted scientific claims begins as personal experience and beliefs, then may become a group warrant, and eventually may be accepted by the scientific community. The notion of a “scientific community” is imprecise, rather there are constantly shifting subcommunities. To say a claim or theory is well warranted, then, is to say it is well warranted by evidence possessed by some person or group (but perhaps not by others). Members of the scientific community may agree or disagree about claims and evidence. At times, several competing claims may all be warranted to some degree. At the same time, scientists communicate with each other and depend on each other’s competence. A claim should be accepted on the basis that it is well warranted. However, it is possible that a claim might be accepted because it fits with someone’s beliefs or because someone important endorsed it. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 13 Draft copy for review Science and Pseudoscience Distinguishing Between Science and Pseudoscience Distinguishing clearly between science and pseudoscience can be difficult. Rather than drawing an absolute boundary it is more useful to view the differences on a continuum. Gardner (2000) suggests the following five rather loose categories, moving from pseudoscience to science: Preposterous-------Less Weird-------Controversial-------Conjectural-------Undisputed Preposterous: Beliefs which all scientists consider ridiculous (e.g., the earth is flat). Less Weird: Somewhat less strange claims (e.g., phrenology, which claims that skull structure determines a person’s character and intelligence). Controversial: Claims where this is some evidence but much greater doubt (e.g., quasars are actually nearby objects). Conjectural: Ideas proposed by scientists whom no one would call cranks (e.g., string theory). Undisputed: Well-established scientific knowledge (e.g., galaxies contain billions of stars). Pseudoscientific Claims: Warning Signs The possibility that a claim is pseudoscientific is raised if it exhibits one or more of the characteristics listed below. No characteristics, however, define a claim as pseudoscientific. The Claim 1. The claim is first publicized through the mass media. Bryce Bond and Arthur Shuttlewood of Warminster reported the first “crop circle” to the English media in 1972. Dramatic reports continue to the present day, even though in 1991 two other Englishmen, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, admitted they made the original crop circles using a rope and a plank. Since 1991, other hoaxers have been exposed. 2. The claim is sensational and exaggerated. The Brazilian Arigo claimed he could diagnose instantly, prescribe instantly, and perform surgical operations in less than a minute using unsterilized pen-knives, kitchen knives, and scissors. “Psychic surgeons” claim they can do surgery without instruments using only their minds. 3. The claim is based on untestable anecdotal evidence. The only evidence for Barney and Betty Hill’s 1961 claim that they were abducted and examined by large-eyed, human-like aliens dressed in military uniforms is the Hills’ personal testimony. 4. The claim contradicts accepted scientific principles. Immanuel Velikovsky’s theory that Venus is actually a giant comet that erupted from the planet Jupiter defies the laws of gravity by including the claim that the earth twice stopped spinning. 5. The claim uses scientific-sounding terminology that is actually non-scientific. L. Ron Hubbard, a science fiction writer, created Scientology, a quasi-religious cult that claims to improve members’ mental health by using “dianetic therapy” to erase their minds of “engrams” (implanted neuroses) so that they can become “clear” (free of neuroses). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 14 Draft copy for review The Claimant 1. The claimant has worked alone. Erich von Daniken alone produced his theory that life on earth originated with super-intelligent aliens from another planet. He claimed that the aliens left clues of their visit in the giant statues of Easter Island and the Nazca lines (Peru), and that the aliens later returned to teach humans the basics of technology. 2. The claimant says the methods used to make and test the discovery must be kept secret. John Willard, the inventor of “Catalyst Water”, claimed that when certain ingredients are added to ordinary water the water is transformed into a powerful curative agent, however, the identity of those ingredients is a secret. 3. The claimant says that those in power are trying to discredit his or her findings. Charles Fort spent a lifetime collecting instances of mysterious occurrences that contradicted scientific ideas and constantly complained that the "scientific priestcraft” was suppressing the truth. 4. The claimant appeals to false authority. Practitioners of Roger Callahan’s “thought field therapy” (TFT) list themselves as having credentials such as TFTdx and VT to imitate traditional academic degrees. 5. The claimant says a belief is plausible because it originated in ancient times. Ignatius Donnelly claimed the existence of Atlantis, an ancient island with a highly advanced culture that eventually sank to the bottom of the ocean. Donnelly used the authority of the Greek philosopher Plato to back his claims, even though Plato wrote of Atlantis as a myth. 6. The claimant seeks publicity and profits. Guido Franchi claimed his green powder could transform water into what he called “mota” (“atom” spelled backwards) fuel, and said he would disclose the secret formula for $25,000 up front, $10 million in trust, and a one cent per gallon royalty on all fuel sold. INQUIRING INTO PSEUDOSCIENCE Scepticism Skepticism is the continuous rigorous questioning of the reliability of one’s own beliefs and the beliefs of others and is the way to avoid self-deception and deception by others. Scientists continuously examine the evidence, reasons, and arguments for their beliefs. Most importantly, they test their beliefs against objective reality by predicting their logical consequences. If the consequences match objective reality—as measured by the empirical evidence—they conclude their beliefs are reliable. A skeptic holds beliefs tentatively and is open to new evidence and new (rational) arguments. Skeptics can change their minds or believe something new but only in light of adequate reliable evidence and sound reasons. New claims require strong evidence to justify acceptance. Many scientists believe that, as Astronomer Carl Sagan stated, “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 15 Draft copy for review Alternative Explanations Since all evidence is interpreted in light of background assumptions and beliefs, different investigators may arrive at different conclusions, even about the same or similar evidence. Here is an example of example of how pseudoscientists and scientists might view the same claim (based on Bradley, 2005): Kraken Pseudoscientific Claim: Kraken is an unknown monster of the seas. Scientific Claim: The giant squid is the sea creature most likely identified as Kraken. Sea monsters have been spoken of since ancient times. Sightings of Kraken have been documented since the 1500s. Sailors have long told stories of whales battling with gigantic unknown creatures. Accounts tell of huge creatures rising from the ocean to a great height and attacking ships. A St. Malo, France church contains a painting by sailors showing a giant sea monster attacking a ship. Missionary Kurt Leem described the kraken as 80 metres long with a whale-sized head (1767). Sea monsters of ancient times are real animals now identified by scientists, e.g., the oarfish can grow to 11-15 meters long. The giant squid (Architeuthis), known of since the 1880s, has been observed in combat with whales. Accounts exist of giant squids attacking ships, e.g., the Norwegian tanker Brunswick in the 1930s. There is no evidence that giant squids can grow to the reported size of the kraken. Witnesses of the kraken could keep stories to themselves to avoid ridicule. Ancient voyages took longer than today so sailors would be more likely to encounter sea monsters. Much of the ocean is deep and unexplored so it could hide many unknown creatures. Since ancient vessels were much smaller than today’s ships, a giant squid would have seemed immense in comparison. The Antarctic or colossal squid, which is even larger than the giant squid, can grow to 14 meters. Sailors have told stories of the kraken for hundreds of years. Ancient sailors were less knowledgeable than today and would be more likely to explain sightings of sea creatures as monsters. New techniques such as deep diving submersibles have greatly expanded our knowledge of the ocean, especially the deep ocean. Pseudoscience, then, is one way to explain a phenomenon, however, the same phenomenon can usually be potentially explained in at least five other ways: Non-occurrence of the event, i.e., what was reported did not actually happen. Deliberate fraud or trickery: e.g., using stage magician’s techniques to mind read, making fake Bigfoot photographs, creating crop circles at night using ropes and planks. Human error, i.e., mistaken observations and erroneous inferences drawn from observations, e.g., perceiving an aircraft to be a ‘flying saucer’. Chance, coincidence, statistical anomalies, e.g., a very long run of heads in coin flipping. Science. When faced with pseudoscientific claims, we should consider alternative explanations and make an informed choice. A useful rule of thumb is Occam’s Razor (William of Occam, 1280-1347). Occam’s Razor suggests that when we are faced with more than one hypothesis that explains the data equally well we should choose the simpler explanation. For example, a hairy creature in the woods is more likely to be a bear than a human-like monster called Bigfoot and an unknown object in the sky is more likely to be a weather balloon than an alien space ship. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 16 Draft copy for review The Need for Independent Testing Any claim about the world should only be accepted or rejected based on evidence, which requires testing. Many who uphold pseudoscience assert that their claims get tested, however, others need to carry out independent tests of such claims for at least the following reasons: Pseudoscientific claims are based on a non-evidential, dogmatic style of belief. The overall aim of pseudoscience is to find and sustain mysteries rather than to develop rational explanations of phenomena. Counter-evidence or disagreement with claims is often met with dismissal or antagonism. Claims remain unchanged even when clearly contradicted by current or new evidence. Many pseudoscientific claims are never scientifically tested. Pseudoscientific claims are often too subjective and vague to be scientifically tested. Claimants do not try to generate testable hypotheses that incorporate a prediction based on the claim, i.e., “If this explanation is correct, then the result of Test X should be Y.” Rather than the claimant trying to confirm the claim, the onus is placed on others to show how the claim is wrong. When pseudoscientific claims are tested, the methods and conclusions are questionable. Reliance is placed on untestable anecdotal evidence, mainly personal accounts. Disconfirming data are hidden or twisted to support the claim. Data is used selectively with a strong bias toward finding only confirming evidence. “Experts” who lack any actual expertise are cited to back up the claim. Claims are accepted as proven even when the testing and data are questionable. Others cannot repeat the “positive” results of the claimant’s tests. When controlled tests fail to replicate positive results, believers assert that the claimed pseudoscientific phenomena are “fragile” and have been suppressed by the “sceptical” testing procedures. Scientific Inquiry While scientists agree on general principles of valid scientific inquiry, there is no one “scientific method” or recipe that scientists follow. However, it is helpful to adhere to some general principles for carrying out authentic inquiry. In the specific case of pseudoscientific claims, investigations should include: Making observations. Developing explanations. Testing explanations. The following questions may be helpful guides during the various phases of an investigation: Making Observations What happened? Who said it happened? What do we know about them? Did the event actually occur? How do we know? What empirical, public, testable evidence is available that the event occurred? If the evidence that the event occurred is acceptable, what did happen? If there are contradictory versions of what happened, how can they be resolved? 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 17 Draft copy for review Developing Explanations How can we explain what happened, based on evidence and logical argument? What is the pseudoscientific explanation? What are the alternative explanations? Can the event be explained by human error? How? Can the event be explained by deliberate fraud or trickery? How? Can the event be explained by chance/coincidence? How? Can the event be explained by science? How? Are there any other possible explanations? What are the possible criticisms of each alternative explanation? Testing Explanations How can we empirically—through controlled data collection—test our explanations? Is each alternative explanation testable? Why or why not? How can each of the explanations be fairly tested? What variables need to be controlled? What evidence is gathered through the tests? How can the evidence be checked and verified? What inferences can be drawn from the evidence? What is the best explanation for the event? Why? What further investigation and testing could be carried out? 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 18 Draft copy for review Survey of Students’ Existing Beliefs Students’ existing beliefs can be surveyed before and after their inquiries into pseudoscience. Reasons for differences or similarities in before and after beliefs can be discussed. Below is an example of a general survey. Specific surveys for in-depth questioning regarding specific topics, e.g., ESP, can be constructed using a similar format. 1. Some people can read another person’s mind and can tell what the other person is thinking. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 2. Some people can know what will happen in the future. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 3. Some places are haunted by ghosts. Definitely true. Probably true. 4. The position of the stars at a person’s birth can determine what will happen to that person in the future. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 5. Athletes can improve their performance by wearing certain items like a special necklace. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 6. Some people can find water using a stick that bends toward the ground (dowsing). Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 7. A hairy, human-like creature known as Bigfoot lives in the woods of North America. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 8. Crop circles in fields of grain are created by supernatural forces. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 9. Aliens from another world have visited Earth. Definitely true. Probably true. Probably not true. Definitely not true. 10. Some people have been abducted by aliens from another world. Definitely true. 533580797 Probably true. Probably not true. www.CMASTE.ca Definitely not true. 19 Draft copy for review ACTIVITIES Introductory Activity: Flat or Round Earth? Introduction Ask students how many believe that the Earth is round (all of them). Tell them that you are a member of the Flat Earth Society and that you are convinced the Earth is flat. Flat Earth Show students a model/picture of the flat earth. State that you base your belief on the following: Bodies of water all over the Earth are flat (demonstrate with a container). Nobody falls off the Earth (ask for contradictory evidence). If the Earth was round the oceans would fall down into the sky. Photographs taken from space are fakes. Many people once thought the Earth was flat and some still do. Round Earth Ask students to each write down three reasons why they believe that the earth is round. How Do We Know the Earth is Round? Allow pupils time to research the question of why it is believed that the Earth is round. After doing their research they need to meet in groups and discuss and combine their reasons into a mini-presentation. Reasons could include: Photographs of the earth taken from space show the Earth is round. Departing boats gradually sink below the horizon, as do buildings on the shore from the viewpoint of the sailors. During a lunar eclipse, the dividing line on the moon between light and darkness is rounded. The constellations shift relative to the horizon as you move north and south around the globe, which could only happen if you were standing on a sphere. On the clearest of days, your range of sight is restricted by the horizon. People have sailed or flown around the world. The force of gravity is roughly the same everywhere on the surface of the globe. When you simultaneously measure the length of the shadows cast by identical poles perpendicular to a flat surface that is tangential to the earth's radius at various, distant locations the shadows vary in length from one location to another. We have the 24 hour time zones, e.g., when it is noon in Hawaii, it is approximately midnight in the Middle East and vice versa. At noon on a particular day you can see the sun shining at the bottom of a well but at another location at the same time you can’t. Discussing the Evidence Hold a discussion. Again present your arguments that the Earth is flat. Have each group in turn present their evidence that the Earth is round. Discuss and debate the evidence. At the end, tell them they have converted you and that you are resigning from the Flat Earth Society. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 20 Draft copy for review MENTAL POWERS Activity One: Unknown Psychic Claiming Psychic Powers The teacher states that it is claimed that sometimes people have psychic powers and don’t know it. She explains that psychic powers means the ability to make the mind move material objects. She says she will test some of the people present to find out if they are unknown psychics. Demonstrating Psychic Powers The teacher gives each student participant a packet of ten cards from a deck of 52. The students are asked to follow the following instructions (Note: this is a “self-working” card trick). Shuffle your packet thoroughly. Look through your packet and note a card. Write down the name of the card—this is the card you are predicting you can locate—and set your prediction aside. Note how far down from the top of your packet your card is, for example, 6th from the top. Remember this number. Cut the packet of cards exactly in the middle, i.e., transfer 5 cards in a bunch from the top of the packet to the bottom. Deal as many cards as your card is down in the deck off the top of your packet and place them underneath your packet. Use an elimination shuffle until you have one card left. An elimination shuffle is done as follow: take the top card of the packet and slide it underneath the packet. Take the next card and deal it onto the table. Continue doing this—one under and one on the table—until you hold only one card in your hand. At this point state: “If the card in your hand is the one you predicted, you must have psychic powers.” Students turn over their cards and each one finds it matches their initial prediction. Analyzing the Demonstration Ask students to answer the following questions about the activity: How did it occur that in each case the card matched the prediction? Is this a trick or is something else happening? Why do you think so? How can you tell a trick from “real magic”? Could this have been a result of psychic powers? Why do you think so? Have students devise a way that you could test whether someone could actually make a predicted card turn up without using a trick, i.e., have them describe the controlling conditions. Psychic Powers or Just a Trick? Have students learn a card trick from a book on magic and how to present it so it seems like the result of psychic powers. Have students demonstrate their trick to an audience, then ask the audience if they think it is a trick or the result of psychic powers and why they think so. Have them ask their audience how to test whether it is a trick or the result of psychic powers. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 21 Draft copy for review Activity Two: Testing for ESP What is ESP? ESP or extrasensory perception is the ability to perceive or communicate without using the ordinary senses. It is usually said to include four main types of phenomena: Telepathy: transferring information from one mind to another without sensory contact . Clairvoyance: knowledge of a remote object or event without using the ordinary senses. Precognition: knowing the future. Psychokinesis (PK): the ability to move objects using the mind. Testing for ESP The following tests are designed to help people arrive at their own conclusions regarding ESP and to evaluate the results of testing without complicated statistics (Randi, 1982). The results can be considered indicative (but not conclusive) of possible ESP powers. Failure of any test cannot be declared as conclusive proof that ESP does not exist Professional testers use a set of 25 specially designed cards which have five sets of five different symbols: circle, lines, triangle, square, and star (Zener cards). These can be obtained at magic stores. However, tests can also be done using ordinary playing cards. Obtain five decks with the same back design. Strip out all aces, ones, twos, threes, fours, and fives. Make up sets of 25 cards that include five of each of the above cards. You can arrange it so each set is made up of 25 cards of the same suit. Each test requires three people: an experimenter, a subject, and a judge. The experimenter and subject sit at a table across from each other with a low barrier between them that prevents the subject from seeing the experimenter’s cards. The judge sits where she can see the cards being turned by the experimenter, hear the guesses being made by the subject, and ensure that the experimenter records the data accurately. The judge totals and scores the tests. After a set of tests is completed, the three participants can change roles until all have been tested. Criteria for Fair Testing All tests must be counted, i.e., after a test it cannot be stated it was “just practice”. The number of tests to be done at a particular time must be declared in advance and must be completed. You cannot “quit while you’re ahead”. The number of intended trials should be set as large as is practical (e.g., 200 beats 100.) Conditions for each test must be recorded as well as variations from one test to another. A. Telepathy Tests The cards are shuffled and the experimenter runs through them one at a time while the subject tries to guess what each one is. Odds are one in five or 20% of guessing a single card correctly. The experimenter records both the guess and the actual card on a data sheet. No feedback should be given as to whether responses are right or wrong; this improves the odds because the subject knows which cards are gone from the deck. (Note: Students can find out how casino gamblers try to get an “edge”, for example, in Blackjack, by counting cards). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 22 Draft copy for review The judge reviews the data sheet and records the total “hits” (correct guesses) and the total misses (wrong guesses). The judge also looks up the significance data on the statistical table (below) and determines if the results are average, above average, or below average. B. Clairvoyance Tests The test for clairvoyance is similar the telepathy test except the experimenter makes no attempt to see the identity of the card being guessed and must not know the identity of any card until AFTER the subject makes a guess. C. Precognition Tests It is different to tell the difference between clairvoyance tests and precognition tests! A way to conduct the precognition test is to have the subject guess the card before it is selected, then the experimenter chooses a card at random from the pack. Replace the card and reshuffle the deck. The significance of the results in all three tests can be judged using the statistical table (below). If any subject “demonstrates ESP” (above significance) he or she should be retested. Number of Calls Hits Needed for Significance Percentage 25 9 36% 100 28 28% 250 63 25% 500 116 23% 1000 223 22% 2000 436 22% (Randi, James (1982). Test Your ESP Potential. NYC: Dover Publications. 1982.) Designing a Psychokinesis (PK) Test Ask students to design a psychokinesis test using dice. (Example: Agree on a desired number in advance, e.g. five. Throw a die or dice from a cup onto a padded table. Observe and record the face(s). Two fives are to be expected, on chance, in twelve throws.) ESP and Fraud Have students research the role of fraud in the famous experiments of J. B Rhine, a pioneering ESP researcher at Duke University. Rhine found out that his assistant, Dr. Walter Levy, had cheated to make some animal-ESP tests results more successful. Levy confessed and was fired. Background Information: How Pseudoscience Explains ESP The usual pseudoscientific explanation given for ESP is that since the brain generates electromagnetic activity, this “brain wave” energy can be transmitted from person to person. Have students discuss what arguments might scientists make against the above claim? [Possible answers: (a) To transmit electromagnetic waves requires an adequate power source and the brain lacks the power required to project these waves beyond the skull. (b) Electromagnetic waves diminish in strength over distance.] 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 23 Draft copy for review Activity Three: One Ahead A Psychic Feat The teacher proclaims her psychic powers (acquired or revealed the night before!) and says she will now perform a psychic feat to prove it. Before she begins the performance, students are requested to prepare to write down their observations of what happens as well as to begin developing possible explanations. They must not speak out or interrupt during the performance but only keep a written record of their thoughts, questions, and explanations. What the Audience Sees The “psychic” passes out ten envelopes with paper and pencil and asks ten different audience members to each print a simple question, place it in one envelope, and seal the envelope. The ten sealed envelopes are passed to the front of the room. The psychic selects an envelope and holds it to her forehead and concentrates, then answers the question inside. The psychic asks if someone asked the question, which is confirmed. The psychic rips open the envelope, glances at the question and nods, throws the question aside into one container and tosses the ripped envelope into another container. The psychic picks up the next envelope, holds it to her forehead, concentrates, and answers the question. The psychic continues until all ten audience questions are answered and confirmed. The questions are passed out to the audience to further confirm they were the actual questions. Student Explanations After the performance, have students try to explain what happened, based on their evidence. Five possible types of explanations are to be considered: psychic powers, human error, fraud or trickery, chance, or science. Give students an opportunity to do independent research. Encourage them to investigate the possibility that someone else may have done such a performance and that it may be possible to find out about it through research. They are allowed to consult with the teacher informally and to ask clarifying questions. The teacher can decide how much to “let out” at this point in time. Have students report on their explanations and the evidence supporting and/or contradicting it. Others listen and then discuss. Eventually the teacher reveals the mechanism of the trick (see below) and there is a general discussion on the possibility that many (all?) psychic phenomena could be explained on the basis of some kind of fraud or trick. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 24 Draft copy for review Background Information: How the Trick is Done A common stage magician’s trick known as “one-ahead” is used. Unknown to the audience, the first question answered is not in the first envelope. It is a question written by a confederate in the audience (a student who is approached earlier and sworn to secrecy, or perhaps an invited guest), who places his or her question in a previously marked envelope so the performer can identify it. The teacher shuffles the marked envelope to the bottom of the pile of envelopes as they are collected so that it is actually the last question seen by the teacher. When the teacher picks up the first envelope, he or she answers the confederate’s (last) question, which is not actually in the first envelope. When the teacher asks the audience to confirm that someone asked the question the confederate does so. The teacher then rips open the first envelope to glance at the question, pretending to casually confirm it, then throws it into a container. But what the teacher is actually doing is looking at and silently memorizing the real first audience question, which is then used as the basis for the teacher’s second response. After the second question is answered (which is really in the first envelope), the teacher again asks who in the audience contributed the question, then tears open the envelope and states the first, memorized question while glancing at the question in the second envelope. In other words, the teacher continually answers the memorized question from the previous envelope while pretending to answer the one in the current envelope. Further, the real purpose of tearing open the current envelope is to memorize the next question to answer. For the last question, the teacher picks up the marked envelope with the confederate’s question in it and answers the question in the second last envelope. All ten questions have now been answered. All the audience questions are now retrieved from the disposal container and random questions are given to various audience members to confirm that the teacher really did answer the actual audience questions. The distribution destroys any evidence of the order of the answers and confirms the teacher’s psychic powers! Further Research: Seeing Drawings Have students do research to find out how psychics perform the feat of “seeing” drawn pictures which are then placed in sealed envelopes (Possible methods: knowing what people commonly draw, watching how the person making the drawing moves her hands, peeking, holding the envelope up to the light, receiving a signal from a confederate). Have students try their newly learned techniques, then discuss how such trickery might be thwarted by knowledgeable experimenters (Possible methods: drawing an unusual image, hiding hand movements, ensuring the “psychic” has no access to the envelopes in which drawings are placed, keeping the psychic isolated from anyone except the experimenters). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 25 Draft copy for review Activity Four: More ESP Tests Introduction The following are five more of the “standard” tests for ESP. Have students try each one in turn and discuss the results. Further, after each test, have students try to think of ways in which the test could be “rigged” so that the results indicated the subject had psychic powers (e.g., in the Moving Compass activity, the subject might have a tiny magnet concealed on her person). Further, have students try to think of ways to make each test a fair test (e.g., in the Hidden Pictures activity, ensure that no one can use any kind of code to pass on information about the pictures to the subject). Number Prediction Ask the subject to write down five numbers from 1 to 100, which he or she thinks are about to be picked by a random number generator. After the prediction is made, use the random generator program on a computer to generate five numbers. Compare the predictions with the results. Chance of getting one number correct is one in twenty. Hidden Pictures Prepare five sealed envelopes that each has a different picture concealed inside. Make sure the pictures cannot be seen through the envelopes. Ask the subject to handle each envelope in turn and, when ready, to state what picture is on each card in each envelope. Note down their statements, then reveal the results. Chance factor is one in five. Transmitting Pictures Ask the subject to look at and concentrate on a picture in an attempt to transmit the image to a receiver located in a different room. Allow five minutes, then check the results from the receiver. Rotate the participants, so that the transmitter becomes the receiver and vice versa. Conduct the test again using a different picture. Psychometry Give the subject a ring or other small piece of jewelry that belongs to someone else in the room. Ask the subject to handle the item for about ten minutes. After ten minutes, ask the subject what she can tell you about the item’s owner, e.g., physical description, occupation, sex, character, etc. Moving Compass Place a compass that is in good working order on a flat surface. Turn the compass until the needle points precisely toward magnetic North. Wait for the compass needle to settle. Ask the subject to try to mentally manipulate the movement of the compass needle. The subject cannot be in any physical contact with the compass. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 26 Draft copy for review Activity Five: Spoon Bending Geller Bends a Spoon A favorite trick of “psychic” Uri Geller, a former stage magician, was to pretend to bend spoons by using his mind alone (psychokinesis or PK). Students can view and analyze this online video which exposes how Geller actually bends a spoon by hand. http://www.skepticreport.com/psychics/urispoon.htm How to Bend a Spoon Spoon-bending is a stage magician’s trick. It requires a spoon that is not too strong but also not flimsy. There are several methods of doing the trick. Here are five. One Before the performance, the “psychic” repeatedly pre-bends the spoon at the desired spot, until the metal cracks and weakens and the spoon is just ready to sag. She shows the pre-bent spoon to the spectators, being careful not to let anyone see the crease in the middle of the stem. She then gives the spoon a simple, sharp flick that causes it to bend. The flick is disguised so that it appears smooth and natural. Two The psychic pre-bends the spoon as in #1. He shows the spoon to the spectators, again making sure to conceal the preparation. He taps it to show it is a solid spoon. He talks about what is going to happen while at the same time he is secretly breaking the spoon in two but still holding it like it is unbroken. He concentrates, releases his hold, and the spoon droops down. Eventually he lets it go, which makes it appear like he made it melt and then break. Three The “psychic” pre-bends the spoon into a right angle. She cuts the stem off another identical spoon. She holds the real bent spoon so the bent stem is concealed, also holding the other identical stem with the index finger and thumb so looks like it’s connected to the bowl of the bent spoon. The extra stem is then allowed to “melt” and droop down. When the stem looks almost as bent as the real spoon actually is, she grabs the cut off stem with one hand, concealing it as she turns the real spoon around and surreptitiously trades the piece for the real spoon. The real spoon is then given out and the extra stem is surreptitiously pocketed. Four The psychic hands out the spoon for examination by the spectators. Taking it back, he turns to his side to tap it against something, saying "see it’s a solid spoon." While turning, he bends the spoon against his thigh, so it’s not quite a right angle, but close (the typical bend, where the bowl meets the handle, requires relatively little force). While tapping it, he keeps the spoon moving, holding it in the middle to hide the bend. He then holds the spoon in front of the spectators again, with the spoon still appearing to be straight. He concentrates, then slowly starts to rotate the spoon towards himself. By keeping the bend of the spoon at the same height the entire time he turns it, the effect for the spectators is that the spoon visibly bends! The spoon is then handed around the audience. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 27 Draft copy for review Five (In this version the spectator bends the spoon) The “psychic” gives the spoon to a spectator. She tells the spectator to put pressure on the spoon but not enough to bend it. (But how does the audience member know how to put enough pressure on the spoon but not enough to bend it?) Then the psychic asks the audience member to concentrate on the spoon, and it will bend due to the unconscious effort put forth by the spectator. Becoming a Spoon Bender Have students practice the above techniques in front of a mirror until they find which one they can do the best. Have some students demonstrate their psychic powers for the class. Students can also research and try to find a description of another stage magician’s trick of a similar nature that uses a simple household object to demonstrate “psychic powers”. They can practice the trick until they can present it to the class. Project Alpha Hoax Have students read about and discuss Project Alpha, a hoax organized by famous magician and skeptic James Randi. Two fake psychics, Steve Shaw and Michael Edwards, were planted into a paranormal research project. The other researchers became convinced the pair really had psychic powers. When the hoax was later revealed, it created a backlash against the entire paranormal field. One point of student discussion could be why such a hoax did not “convince” many people that psychic demonstrations are fraudulent: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Alpha 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 28 Draft copy for review Activity Six: Cold, Warm, and Hot Reading Character Assessment Pass out the following twelve-point “character assessment” to all class members, subtly implying that everyone has received a different assessment. Have them give it an overall rating on a scale of one to twelve as to how well it fits their personality. The majority of students will highly rate the accuracy of the character assessment in terms of their own character (Gordon, 1987, p. 47): 1. Some of your hopes and goals tend to be pretty unrealistic. 2. At times you are outgoing, easy to get along with, and sociable, while at other times you are introverted, cautious, and reserved. 3. You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others. 4. You pride yourself on being an independent thinker and do not accept the opinions of others without satisfactory proof. 5. You prefer a certain amount of change and variety in your life and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations. 6. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decisions or done the right things. 7. Disciplined and controlled on the outside you tend to be worried and insecure on the inside. 8. Your relationships with others have presented some problems for you. 9. While you have some personality weaknesses you are generally able to compensate for them. 10. You have a great deal of unused ability that you have not turned to your advantage. 11. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. 12. You have a strong need for other people to like you and admire you. Reveal to the students that they have all received the same character assessment (for example, by having them switch descriptions with each other) and that all of them agree it is a fairly accurate description of their own character. Ask them to discuss how this is possible. Students should eventually see that the key is that the assessment is expressed in such general psychological terms that it could apply to almost anyone. Warm Reading Explain to students that what you have just done is called “warm reading”. It involves using known principles of psychology that apply to almost everyone. For example, most people are or have been in some kind of relationship, keep pictures of close family members on them or near their bed, and travel or want to travel. The psychic will say something like “Are you planning a trip?” When the subject nods affirmatively the psychic says, “Thank you”, and moves on as if she had used special powers to come up with the statement about the trip. Psychics who use warm reading may “specialize”, e.g., in “communicating with the dead”. They are aware of what principles apply to almost everyone in their specific area. For example, statistically there are only half a dozen ways people die, so with probing and the verbal and nonverbal cues from the client, the psychic can appear to get more hits than is really the case. One routine is to focus on the chest or head areas, and then explore whether it was a slow or sudden end, working through the possibilities and then filling in the blanks. For example, the psychic starts with, "I'm feeling a pain in the chest." Following a positive response, the psychic continues. "Did she have cancer? Because I'm seeing a slow death here." Getting another positive response, the psychic takes the hit. If the client hesitates, the psychic quickly shifts to heart attack. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 29 Draft copy for review Have students get out a piece of paper and a pen. In front of them, but without letting them see what you wrote, write down the following three words and seal in an envelope: “Red”, “Chair”, “Rose”. Tell them to quickly write the answers to three questions you will now ask them. Emphasize they must write down their first thought. The three questions are, “Name a colour”, “Name a piece of furniture”, and “Name a flower”. Make a retrieval chart of their responses on the board, then reveal your “Predictions”. Ask them to explain successful predictions. Have them see this is another example of “warm reading”. Hot Reading Tell students that “hot reading” is another psychic technique. Hot reading involves using known information about the client, while pretending that it was obtained through paranormal means. In another variation, the psychic does “accurate” readings on collaborators planted in an audience. Ask students what techniques psychics might use to find out information about their subjects before a performance, without the subjects realizing (E.g., information cards, casual conversation, interviews, research, informants connected by an electronic device, collaborators). Cold Reading Explain to students that “cold reading” is done when the psychic knows nothing about the subject and is “fishing”. The psychic asks many questions and makes many statements, some general and some specific, then sees what sticks. For example, “I am getting a name starting with ‘S’. Who is that?” Or, “I am seeing something red. What is it?” The psychic is usually wrong but subjects tend to remember only the correct hits. As well, the psychic moves along quickly with the questioning. A psychic requires only a few hits to convince a subject that the psychic is genuine. Here are some websites for learning more about cold reading, including some sample scripts: www.skeptics.com.au/articles/coldread.htm; www.skeptics.ca/articles/coldread.html; www.denisdutton.com/cold_reading.htm Have students try to find or develop a list of questions or a script to be used for psychic cold reading. Suggest students try some of the following techniques: Throwing out common names like John or Lisa, hoping the client connects with one of them, then guessing or even asking for the connection. Making comments such as, “Why is this person crying?” or “She’s nodding her head as if to say yes” to elicit a response. Using questions that don’t seem to be questions, for example, “Somehow I feel Mary was related to you or lived near you.” Employing vague modifiers such as “I think…”, “I feel…”. Agreeing by saying, “Yes, of course”, then repeating a statement made by the client as if you knew it all along. Saying, “Yes, I get that very strongly” when the client makes a statement. Declaring, “Now we’re putting it all together” when the client says something that connects with what the psychic threw out. Have students try out their cold reading on someone else (e.g., a student in another class) and have them get their subjects to rate them on a scale of 5 in terms of their “psychic ability”. They should then explain the technique to their subject. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 30 Draft copy for review Activity Seven: Thought Photography Are You Serios? Some “psychics” claim they can take photographs of the images in their minds. The most publicized “thoughtographer” was Ted Serios who became famous in the 1960s through a book written about him. A thoughtographer turns the camera toward his own head, holds a small tube in front of the camera lens, and takes a picture. Serios called his little tube the “gizmo”. When an image of some kind, e.g., a building, appears on the developed film the thoughtographer claims that it is a photograph of her mental image. Have students read about Ted Serios: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Serios Obtain a copy of: The World of Ted Serios: "Thoughtographic" Studies of an Extraordinary Mind by Julia Eisenbud (McFarland and Company, 1967/revised 1989). Have students view some of the thoughtographs in the book and discuss whether they are actually of images in Serios’ mind or are created using some trick. Becoming a Thoughtographer Have students make their own gizmo and try taking some thoughtographs. They require a cardboard tube (e.g., from a toilet roll), a convex lens with a short focal length, and a camera. Students need first to find the focal length of their lens: Find a room with white walls that has a window facing an open space Stand on the opposite side of the room from the window, holding the lens. Move the lens nearer to and further from the wall Find the point where a clear upside-down image of a far away object visible through the window appears on the wall. Measure the distance between the lens and image; that distance is the focal length of the lens. Students now need to make a gizmo: Cut the cardboard tube so its length is the same as the focal length of the lens. Attach the lens (tape) to one end of the tube. Tape a small photographic slide with an image on it to the other end of the tube. Hold the gizmo in front of one eye and look through the lens end. Point the gizmo toward a window or light source. Have students answer the following questions: When you look through the tube, what do you see? How is the human eye similar to a camera? If your eye was a camera, what image would form on the camera lens? How could a “thoughtographer” make a gizmo small enough to conceal in one hand? (By choosing a lens with a very short focal length and a very small slide). Testing Have students try taking some thoughtographs using the gizmo and a camera. Discuss the results. Ask them what they now think about Ted Serios and thoughtography. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 31 Draft copy for review Activity Eight: Auras Psychic Energy Field Some psychics claim that they can detect an “aura” or field of visible psychic energy surrounding the body of certain individuals. The aura may change colours, for example, depending on your state of health. Some people even claim to have photographed auras, not only around human beings but also around other objects like leaves and animals. Seeing Auras If you can find a psychic who claims to see auras, conduct the test with the psychic instead of the three volunteer observers (below). Before the test is conducted have the psychic see if she/he can observe any auras in the classroom. Be sure to include some of the students with identified auras in the group of ten subjects that are used for the test (below). Pick three volunteers (assuming no psychic is available) who will try to see if they can observe any auras above their classmates, and send the volunteers out of the room to wait. Find ten more volunteers who will agree to be checked for auras. The rest of the students can observe and ensure the test is carried out fairly. Seat the ten volunteers one to a chair, side-by-side, a meter apart, facing the same direction. Set up a screen or set of screens tall enough so that each seated volunteer is just hidden. Have the three observers return to the room and look carefully to see if they can observe any auras above any of the screens. Record the results. Send the three observers out and randomly rearrange the same volunteers behind the screens. Have the observers return and look for auras again. Record the results. Repeat the experiment a third time. Record the results. Have students attempt to explain the results of the test, whether positive or negative. Have students discuss whether they think they conducted a “fair test”, i.e., whether the test was a valid test for auras and whether significant variables were controlled. Making Auras Have students experiment with Polaroid cameras or computer software such as Adobe Photoshop to try to create “aura” photographs. Ask students to devise a test as to whether a photographic aura is produced by a subject or by the camera. (Possible answer: Take a photograph [with no person in the photo] against a black screen. If an aura is still produced this shows the camera not the person is producing the aura!) 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 32 Draft copy for review Activity Nine: Predicting the Future Tabloid Predictions At one time many tabloid newspapers (National Enquirer, Star) published predictions for what would happen in the new year, drawing on the resources of “psychics” such as Jean Dixon. The only newspaper still doing that is the British tabloid The Sun. In the following article, Gene Emery of the Sceptical Inquirer comments on the lack of accuracy of the Sun’s 2004 predictions. http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/predictions-2004.html The Sun’s 2004 Predictions You can use Emery’s article about the Sun as a source of 13 “psychic” predictions for 2004: Osama bin Laden will die of kidney disease. Saddam Hussein will be shot to death. Fidel Castro will die. Pope John Paul II will pass away in June. The Hoover Dam will collapse. A tidal wave will wipe out Tokyo and the Korean peninsula. Hollywood area will have a colossal earthquake. Nuclear weapons will accidentally detonate in North Korea and kill thousands. Rosie O'Donnell will adopt Siamese twin girls. Giant animal bones will be discovered on Mars Colin Powell will be elected president after switching parties. A live dinosaur thousands of years old will be captured. An anti-gravity engine will be developed and patented. Have students research whether any of the above predictions were accurate for 2004 (No!). Then have students compile a list of three major 2004 events that the Sun psychics did not predict. More Predictions Have students try to find a copy of the Sun (or other tabloid) newspaper’s predictions for the year previous to the present year and research their accuracy. Have students try to find out if any psychics predicted previous well-publicized events, e.g.: Any major student-selected Canadian news event, e.g., the 1985 Air India bombing. Death of Princess Diana in a car crash in 1997. Air attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. Asian tsunami, December 26, 2004. Have students research the accuracy of the predictions in People's Almanac Presents Book of Predictions, edited by Wallechinsky and Wallace, William Morrow and Co., 1980. Accurate Predictions? Mention that sometimes psychics claim to have made accurate predictions. Ask what might be other explanations for this alleged accuracy. (Possible answers: The claim is false, very general predictions are made, so many [wrong] predictions are made that one may be right.) Have each student make two predictions for next year, to be evaluated by next year’s class. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 33 Draft copy for review Activity Ten: Nostradamus Michel de Nostredame The most “famous” predictor of the future was the French astrologer Michel de Nostredame or Nostradamus(1503-66). His writings have been preserved for over 500 years. Some claim Nostradamus made some accurate predictions, the two most famous being of the Kennedy assassinations (John in 1963, Robert in 1968) and the rise of Adolph Hitler in Germany. His most famous false prediction was of the end of the world in July 1999. Sceptics assert that Nostradamus made no accurate predictions at all and that his followers simply make his vague statements fit history after-the-fact. Kennedy Assassinations Read the following to students and ask them what event they think it might be predicting: “The great man will be struck down in the day by a thunderbolt. An evil deed, foretold by the bearer of a petition. According to the prediction another falls at night time. Conflict at Reims, London, and pestilence in Tuscany” (Prophecies of Nostradamus). Explain to students that some people claim the prediction is of the assassinations of John and Robert Kennedy. Have students answer the following questions: Is specific mention made of the name Kennedy? (No.) Does the prophecy state specifically that it would be the brother or even a relative who would “fall at night time”? (No.) Was Robert Kennedy shot at night-time? (He was shot in the day-time.) Did the assassinations trigger conflict in Reims and London, and pestilence in Tuscany? (No.) Could this prophecy just as easily apply to other assassinations, e.g., Abe Lincoln? (Yes.) If someone who had never heard of Nostradamus was presented with the prediction would he or she state that it referred to the Kennedy assassinations? (Try it and see.) Rise of Hitler Tell students that this is supposed to be the Nostradamus’ prediction for the rise of Hitler: “Beasts wild with hunger will cross the rivers, the greater part of the battlefield will be against Hister. He will drag the leader in a cage of iron, when the child of Germany observes no law.” Have students research to find other possible meanings of the word “Hister” (It is most likely that “Hister” referred to the river Danube, from its Latin name “Ister”.) Have students do their own further analysis of whether the above prediction is accurate. The July 1999 End of the World Tell students that this is Nostradamus’ failed prediction for the end of the world: “In the year 1999, and seven months, from the sky will come the great King of Terror. He will bring back to life the great king of the Mongols. Before and after War reigns happily. Have students research to find out what researchers have summed up as the percentage of Nostradamus’ prophecies that were clearly false. An excellent reference is James Randi’s 1993 book, The Mask of Nostradamus. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 34 Draft copy for review Spirit World Activity One: Astrology Signs of the Zodiac Ask students how many have heard of astrology. Explain to students that in Western astrology everyone is said to belong to one of twelve zodiacal signs (sun sign). A person’s sign is determined by the position of the sun in relation to the twelve zodiacal constellations on the date of his or her birth. The twelve signs and their dates (display to all students) are: Aries, March 21-April 20 Taurus, April 21-May 21 Gemini, May 22-June 21 Cancer, June 22-July 22 Leo, July 23-August 21 Virgo, August 22-September 23 Libra, September 24-October 23 Scorpio, October 24-November 22 Sagittarius, November 23-December 22 Capricorn, December 23-January 20 Aquarius, January 21-February 19 Pisces, February 20-March 20 Have all students to note which is their own astrological sign. Continue explaining to students that astrologers believe a person’s character is determined by a combination of his or her zodiacal sign and ascendant. The ascendant is the sign that was rising in the eastern horizon when the person was born. Knowing a person’s birth date and time, an astrologer can supposedly cast a horoscope that will describe what will happen to that particular person during his or her life. Ask students how many have ever read their horoscopes or had someone else read it. Ask sutdents whether the stars can determine their own or someone else’s character. Newspaper Horoscopes Find a newspaper with a set of horoscopes in it that describes different personalities for the different astrological signs. Make a code sheet by listing the twelve astrological signs and a code letter beside each. Cut out the horoscopes without the signs (or dates) and paste each one on a separate card. Place the appropriate code letter beside each horoscope after you glue it on its card so that you can identify it later. Copy the horoscopes so there is one for every student. Hand a set of coded horoscope cards to each student. Ask students if they can pick out their own sign (according to their birthday) by reading the personality descriptions. Have each student write down his or her guess as to which description is of is his or her sign. Tally up and record the correct and incorrect guesses. Is it in the Stars? Have students explain and discuss the results of the experiment. Have them revisit the question as to whether the stars can determine someone’s character. Have students devise additional ways in which to test the veracity of astrology, e.g., find the horoscope of a famous person and see if their life subsequently went as predicted. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 35 Draft copy for review Activity Two: Ouija Board The Talking Board The Ouija (“Talking”) Board dates back to Greek and Roman times. In the modern era the board was popularized in the US by the Fox Sisters, who claimed in 1848 that they could use it to communicate with the dead, first using knocks and raps, then later a code for letters of the alphabet. This gave birth to the modern spiritualism movement, which spread rapidly across the U.S. and Europe. Spiritualists held seances where interested people sat around a table in a darkened room and try to receive messages from deceased relatives and friends. The Fox Sisters later confessed that their seances were fraudulent. You can read the confession here: http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/Foxtxt.htm The Ouija Board, patented in 1854, was introduced as a game in 1890. The board consists of written letters of the alphabet spread in twin arcs across the middle, with the numbers one to ten written below the letters. The words “Yes” and “No” are written in the corners. A planchette (wedge), a small heart-shaped board supported by castors, moves about the board when lightly touched by the fingers, crossing over various letters, numbers, etc., which are then interpreted for messages by the spiritualist. Parker Brothers, the game company, took over the rights to the Ouija Board in 1966 and sold millions of them to the public. For more information about Ouija Boards: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouija Testing the Ouija Board The Ouija Board test is best carried out at a site previously identified as a place where apparitions have been see, unexplained energies have been felt, objects have moved of their own accord, etc. You may need to get permission to use the location. You should also be aware of your students’ sensibilities, e.g., religious. Here is a list of thirty-seven of Alberta’s “haunted places”: http://www.juiceenewsdaily.com/1104/news/haunted_canada.html Materials: Ouija Board and planchette, blindfolds, cameras, audio and video equipment. Organization Participants should work in teams of 3-4. No participant should see the Ouija Board before the test (note: you may wish to use a unique board design so no participant knows where on the board the letters and numbers are located). Two students who are NOT using the board should be designated to ask written questions (see below, “Guidelines for Asking Questions”). Answers should be recorded in writing. The experiment should be recorded using cameras and audio and videorecording equipment. A session should last about 30-45 minutes. Each team should be tested in turn. Using the Board Participant for the first team are seated at the table, blindfolded, and the blindfolds checked. The boards are brought out and participants lightly rest their hands on the planchette. Teams follow the directions for using the Ouija Board (provided by the instructions included with the Board), e.g., the planchette is moved around the board to “warm up” the board. Questions are asked of the Ouija Board and the movement of the planchette is observed. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 36 Draft copy for review Some Guidelines for Questioning the Ouija Board Begin by asking the name of the spirit guide. Start with general questions. Start with simple 'Yes' or 'No' questions. Ask personal or universal questions. Ask the question once and accept the answers given. Once an answer is given you can ask for more information or clarification. Ask questions that can be verified in the next few days. A word may come through with the letters in the wrong order. Some spirits may speak other languages or have trouble spelling or creating sentences. Do not ask spirits to bring you things you could not otherwise have or to harm others. If the spirit asks you to do strange things stop the session. If a new spirit guide comes through start again by asking its name. Some days the board may work for you, but other days you may get no responses. The Walking Hairpin Have students try the following activity. Provide each student with a ruler and a metal hairpin. Set the hairpin astride the ruler so its legs just touch a table. Challenge students to hold the ruler perfectly steady (without resting the hand on the table) so that the hairpin does not move. No matter how hard they try imperceptible muscular vibration of their hand will make the pin “walk”. Relate this to the Ouija Board. Now, have students discuss the results of the seances. Houdini and Spiritualism Have students find out how the famous magician, Harry Houdini exposed spiritualists as frauds. Background Information: Explaining the Ouija Board The pseudoscientific theory that explains “success” with a Ouija Board is that ghosts (spirits) are a form of energy. They use energy to get noticed, e.g., by moving objects, making noises, or even creating sensations by touching. In the case of the Ouija Board, ghostly energy is used to move the planchette in certain ways so as to transmit messages from the spirit world through the board to those using the board. If the board does not “respond”, this may be because the ghosts have decided not to communicate, lack the necessary energy, or are communicating in ways that cannot be understood, e.g., spelling out in code. The scientific explanation attributes the movement of the planchette to subconscious muscular nerve impulses. Human muscles can move without conscious thinking and this has been confirmed by outfitting people with electrodes to measure those impulses. So people can in fact move the planchette without being aware they are doing so. Also, suggestions made by others can influence the mind and affect motor behaviour, so it is important to blindfold participants to prevent them from guiding the planchette deliberately to certain letters on the Ouija Board to spell out a predetermined message. Further information about the Fox sisters and spiritualism in general can be found in this interview with psychic investigator Joe Nickell. http://www.scifidimensions.com/Oct00/jnf_spiritualism.htm 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 37 Draft copy for review Activity Three: Poltergeist Noisy Ghost Poltergeist (“noisy ghost”) activity is like uncontrolled psychokinesis (PK). A poltergeist is an invisible ghost that moves and affects inanimate objects. Poltergeist activities include thumping, knocking, footsteps, shaking beds, moving furniture, slamming doors, flying objects, and even people lifted into the air. The activity tends to focus around one person, sometimes called an “agent”, whose mind is somehow the source of the activity. Sometimes poltergeist activity is said to have a connection to a person who has died under the influence of a powerful emotion. The Falling Vase Students are surprised when a large vase suddenly falls off a shelf and breaks for no apparent reason. The teacher suggests some might think that this is an example of poltergeist activity. She also suggests there may be an alternative explanation. The remains of the vase are collected and displayed for all to see. Students observe that the vase not only contained water but plasticine. Give students tall plastic glasses, plasticine, and a matchstick, and ask them to try to figure out how the water and plasticine might have been used to make the vase fall and create the poltergeist effect. The teacher assists them and then demonstrates (see below). Have students try to create a “poltergeist” phenomenon of their own. The Enfield Poltergeist Have students read about the Enfield poltergeist and discuss whether they think the activities were faked: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfield_Poltergeist Special Effects Have students watch parts of the film Poltergeist (1982, 114 minutes). Ask them to observe the following five events carefully and then to try to figure out what special effects were used, in each case, to create the “supernatural” phenomenon. Weird walk of the family and the ghosts (The actors walked backward and then the film was played in reverse). Crawling steak (A steak was laid over a slot cut between the countertop tiles, two wires were fastened to the bottom of the steak, and someone hidden under the counter moved the wires). Chairs wobbling and moving across the room by themselves (A wire was fastened to one leg of the chair under the set and someone pulled on the wire). Swirling, flickering lights coming from the closet during the rescue (An aquarium full of water was placed in front of a spotlight and a fan blown on the surface of the water). The house sucked into a black hole at the end of the movie (An industrial strength vacuum sucked up a model house.) (Information from: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084516/trivia) Have students try to create a very brief special effects video of a poltergeist-like activity. Have other students try to figure out how they did it. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 38 Draft copy for review Background for Teacher: Preparing the Falling Vase The vase (which can be purchased from a thrift shop) is prepared by using plasticine to make a partition down the middle (from top to bottom) so that water can be retained on either side of the partition. A plug made of a matchstick is inserted near the bottom of the plasticine so that if water is in one section, the removal of the plug allows the water to slowly seep into the other side, changing the vase’s balance. The vase is carefully balanced on the edge of a shelf with the water in the back section. A thread is attached to the plug and then to a small bead that hangs outside the vase, out of sight. At the proper time, with no one noticing, a pull on the bead removes the matchstick, starting the flow of water to the front of the vase until it overbalances and falls. The teacher will have to experiment to get a sense of how long it will take from the moment the plug is removed to the moment the vase falls (Randi, James [1975]. The Magic of Uri Geller. NYC: Ballantine). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 39 Draft copy for review Natural Mysteries Activity One: Energy Necklace Boosting Athletic Performance Mention to students that you saw a news item that discussed how professional athletes are wearing certain kinds of necklaces because they feel the necklaces enhance their athletic performance. Tell them you have some necklaces with you and you would like the students to test them. Tell them that you are using the same test that the manufacturer of the energy-boosting necklaces uses in order to justify the claim that the necklaces work. Testing the Necklace Materials: 7 necklaces, 7 bricks wrapped and taped in brown paper, 7 plastic bags with handles. Explain to students that the test requires lifting an object with one arm. The object is wrapped in brown paper and inside a plastic bag with handles. Groups need to decide ahead of time which two members of their group will be tested because no one should handle the materials before the test is done. Remind students that in every good experiment/fair test the variables need to be controlled. Explain that the test involves, first, stretching out one arm, grasping the handle of the bag (without lifting), then on a signal lifting the bag with the outstretched arm and holding it for a count of three, then lowering it back to the table. Then, second, having the necklace draped over the outstretched arm, lifting the object again and holding it for three seconds. The subjects are then to be asked if they noticed any difference in their performance with and without the necklace. Have each group perform the test on one of their members and keep track of the results. Explaining the Test Results Ask each group to discuss their findings in their small group and to account for them: What did you observe? How do you explain your observations? Is there more than one possible explanation? Why? Was what you did a “fair test”? Why? How else might you test the claimed energy-boosting property of the necklaces? Have each group report to the rest of the class. Discuss the significance of the findings. Background Information: Why the Brick Feels Lighter Students may feel lifting is easier the second time. Why? When the student tries to first lift the object his or her brain makes a rough estimate as to how much strength will be required. With an unknown object, this estimate will be inaccurate and, since the brick is small but heavy, the estimate will likely be an underestimation. The necklace test is the second try, by which time the student’s brain knows exactly how much strength is required. So the student’s muscles are prepared and the brick now seems easier to lift. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 40 Draft copy for review Activity Two: Perpetual Motion Running into the Laws of Thermodynamics A perpetual motion machine runs forever without being driven by an external source of energy. Many ideas have been proposed and prototypes built but no one has ever achieved perpetual motion. The basic reason is that perpetual motion machines violate the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, laws that have been repeatedly verified. (Note: Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation.) The First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy) basically states that the total energy in a closed system remains the same, i.e., “you can’t get something for nothing.” Mechanical perpetual motion machines, for example, rely on rising and falling weights. But the amount of energy you can get out of a falling weight is exactly the same amount that it took to raise the weight in the first place. No matter what the weights do, you can't get more energy out of the system than you put in. Energy output from the system can never be greater than energy input because energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed. The Second Law of Thermodynamics basically states that in a closed system whenever energy is transformed some of it degenerates into waste. The energy goes from a usable form to a less usable form. Magnetic perpetual motion machines, for example, involve an arrangement of magnets that is supposed to keep a motor turning forever. However, the motor may rotate for a while but it will eventually run down because it cannot be 100% efficient and inevitably useful energy will dissipate as heat due to the force of friction. Another way to state the Second Law of Thermodynamics is to say that all systems and processes tend toward increasing disorder, i.e., “things fall apart.” For example, a cube of sugar dissolved in coffee will become evenly distributed throughout the coffee but will never form a cube again. Molecules of perfume will disperse into the air when the bottle is opened but will never return to the bottle again. This universal tendency toward randomness is known as “entropy”. Perpetual Motion Toys At the start of the lesson(s), the teacher sets in motion a “perpetual motion” toy such as Top Secret, available from: http://www.officeplayground.com/perpetualmotion.html Students try to explain why the toy goes for hours, sometimes days, and why it eventually stops. The First Law: Conserving Work To illustrate the First Law of Thermodynamics, students can find out how a closed system conserves work. Work is done when movement occurs as a result of application of a force, and is calculated by multiplying force times distance (W = F x D). Students can use a spring scale to measure the forces required to move four different weights different distances, then calculate the amount of work in each case and compare. Students are to: Move an 800 gm weight .5 metres. Move a 400 gm weight 1 metre. Move a 200 gm weight 2 metres. Move a 100 gm weight 4 metres. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 41 Draft copy for review The Second Law: Steam Power To illustrate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, students can make a simple steam engine as follows. Using a straight pin, poke two holes on opposite sides of a pop can about 3 cm from the bottom. Push the pin toward the back of the can each time to angle the holes to form jets. Push the pin through a 1 cm square of aluminum. Centre a piece of masking tape over the pin and push it down so the pin goes through it with the tape sticky side up. Push a cork down on top of the pin. This creates a handle for the steam engine. Fill the can with about 10 ml water. Place a Styrofoam cup upside down over the top of the can. Tape around where the cup meets the can to make a tight seal. Ensure the handle assembly is centred and tape it to the bottom of the upsidedown cup. Hold the engine over a Bunsen burner and it should start to spin. How does your steam engine work? What energy transformations occur? How is energy lost? How do the laws of thermodynamics relate to this activity? Entropy: Coloured Solutions To illustrate entropy, students can work in groups of two with coloured solutions. Students place three drops of blue food colouring in each of two identical Erlenmeyer flasks (or jars) and three drops of yellow food colouring in each of two more identical flasks. One student of the dyad fills one blue and one yellow flask right to the brim with cold water and records the temperatures. At the same time, the second student fills the other blue flask with warm water and the other yellow flask with ice water. Each student covers the top of their blue flask with a laminated 3x5 card. Holding the card tightly (!) against the mouth of the flask, each student inverts their blue flask and places it carefully and exactly on top of their yellow flask. Each student pulls her card out and clamps the top flask firmly in place. The flasks are allowed to stand and the time is recorded for solutions in all four flasks to turn the same shade of green. When is order highest and entropy lowest (When the colours are distinct and separate.) When is entropy increasing? (When the molecules of each colour diffuse into the other flask.) When is entropy the greatest? (When all the molecules are diffused evenly and the flasks appear the same shade of green.) Designing a Perpetual Motion Machine Have students now try to design/build a prototype of their own perpetual motion machine. They should make a rough sketch of their design before starting to build, make additional drawings part way through building that refine and elaborate on their initial sketches, and make a final presentation drawing of their final prototype. Students can come up with their own idea for a design for a machine or use an idea from classic perpetual motion machines displayed at this site: http://www.jimloy.com/physics/perpet.htm Students discuss the specifics of why their perpetual motion machines were unsuccessful, referring to the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics and to entropy. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 42 Draft copy for review Activity Three: Dowsing Finding What is Hidden Dowsing (AKA water-witching) is the ability to find hidden water or other substances using a forked twig, known as a divining or dowsing rod. For example, German miners used dowsing in 15th century in their search for iron ore. Known since ancient times it is still practiced today by many people who try using it to locate everything from hidden oil to sunken ships to lost money. The basic process of dowsing involves the dowser walking around holding a branch of the dowsing rod in each hand with the point facing forward horizontally. The twitching or dipping of a dowsing rod indicates the location of hidden substances. Making a Dowsing Rod There are two main types of rods Forked twigs Pairs of L-shaped rods. Forked Twigs The most traditional material is a forked hazel twig but you can use any suitable wood. Look for a Y-shaped branch that is a bit thinner than your little finger (about 1 cm) below the divide and that splits into two branches of equal length (about 30 cm). Trim off any side branches. With a forked twig, hold the ends of the branches in your hands with your palms up and your thumbs pushing the ends outward so the twig is in tension. The point should be horizontal. L-Rods You will need two L-rods. Each one can be made from a wire coat hanger, and a ball point pen tube. Use pliers to snip the hanger in two places as in the diagram. The short arm should be about 10 cm long and the long arm 40 cm. Straighten the bend to give a right angle. Slot the short arm into a pen tube to make a handle. The rod should swivel easily within the pen tube. With L-rods wrap your fingers around the pen tubes on the short arms and point them forward like pistols. Hold the rods firmly but loosely enough so they can swivel. Practice Dowsing Practice walking around with the rod(s) and reading the response. Holding the rod(s) out in front of you, walk about (ideally outside). The twig may twitch or dip, while the L-rods should swing together or apart. Do not try too hard to make them move or to hold them still. Try to get your rod to give you a consistent response to water that you can see, for example a bucket of water. Walk up to your bucket and see if the rod responds. Keep practicing until it bends. Now you are ready to search for hidden water. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 43 Draft copy for review Finding Water in Pop Bottles Collect ten to twenty small plastic pop bottles of the same size Collect ten to twenty small cardboard boxes to match (so the bottles do not rattle around inside the boxes) Out of sight of the students, fill one quarter of the bottles with water Place each bottle in a box and seal each box so that the contents cannot be seen Number the boxes on the outside Set up a small bridge, for example, a strong table or a wooden plank on some bricks, so there is room for a bottle box to be placed underneath it Divide your class into partnerships of two, one student to be a dowser and the other to be a recorder Have the dowser stand on the “bridge” with a dowsing rod Have the partner stand or sit on the floor nearby with a recording sheet Set each box/bottle under the bridge in turn and have each dowser try to detect whether the bottle contains water while their partner keeps score of the yesses and noes Be sure to carry each box/bottle in the same way or else have the dowsers avert their eyes while each bottle box is set in place Discuss the test results and what they indicate about the authenticity of dowsing. Groundwater Have students research how water is found under the ground. E.g., water saturates the soil below a certain level (water table) creating what is called an aquifer. Anyone who drills into the aquifer will find water. Water is abundant under the earth so in many areas water could be found by drilling almost anywhere. Finding Metal Coins in Envelopes Some dowsers claim they can find metal. Have students do a follow up activity where they use dowsing to try to find which of ten identical envelopes spread out across the floor contains a metal coin. Again, have students discuss the test results. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 44 Draft copy for review Activity Four: Magnetic Water Making Water Wetter Commercial advertisements can be found for magnetic devices that can supposedly increase the effectiveness of laundry detergents (or even eliminate them) by making water "wetter" through reducing its surface tension. This purportedly then allows the water to more easily penetrate into the fabric of the clothing and more efficiently wash the dirt away. E.g., here is an online ad for Life Miracles’ “Magnetic Laundry System”: http://www.lifenatural.com/laundry.htm Assessing Surface Tension The claim that magnetism can reduce the surface tension of water can be easily tested using a permanent magnet and a capillary tube. If required, students can do a preliminary activity that demonstrates the phenomenon of surface tension, for example, seeing how “full” of water they can fill a small measuring cup. They can then design and carry out a simple experiment that assesses surface tension by measuring how far the water ascends in a capillary tube “before and after” the water has been exposed to magnetism. When the lower end of the capillary tube (held vertically) is placed in water, a concave meniscus forms. Surface tension pulls the water column up the tube until there is enough weight of water for the gravitational forces to overcome the forces of intermolecular attraction among water molecules. (Note: Water surface tension may also be measured with a tensiometer or with a hygrometer). Science vs Pseudoscience The basic pseudoscientific explanation for how the “perceived” changes in surface tension due to magnetism “soften” the water—with accompanying scientific critique—is: Pseudoscience Science Water is a polar molecule, resembling a little magnet. In normal water, positively charged hydrogen atoms are attached to neighboring negatively charged oxygen atoms. This causes water to have a high surface tension so it sticks together. A magnetic field causes the polar molecules align and separate, thus making the water softer. Water is polar but this has nothing to do with magnetism. Rather it is because of the higher nuclear charge of oxygen vs the hydrogen. Connections between the hydrogen of one molecule and the oxygen of another are quite weak. High surface tension originates in the intermolecular hydrogen bonding The "softness" of water refers to the level of dissolved salts, not to degree of surface tension. A full discussion and scientific critique of the pseudoscientific explanation can be found at: http://www.chem1.com/CQ/magscams.html Students can be provided with part or all (depending on ability) of only the pseudoscientific explanation and critique it in writing, then check the accuracy of their own scientific understanding of surface tension and related ideas by going to the above website. More About Magnetic Water Treatments These two connected sites give further information on the topic as well as more links: http://www.cheml.com/CQ http://www.cheml.com/chemed/flimflam.html 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 45 Draft copy for review Activity Five: Aromatherapy Power of Smell The practice of aromatherapy involves putting a few drops of a pleasant-smelling, plant-derived “essential” oil in bath water, sniffing it from an inhaler, or massaging it into the skin. Broad claims by proponents about the therapeutic effects of aromatherapy oils include: If you relax in a warm bath with a few drops of oil in it you will end up feeling pleasant. Massages with essential oils help boost the morale. A few drops of an oil can relieve stress. Essential oils can help your memory. Other claims are made about specific oils, e.g., chamomile is good for insomnia if taken in a late bath, a few drops of jasmine cures postnatal depression, patchouli is good for anxiety. Double Blind Randomized Testing Claims about the positive effects of aromatherapy have three main problems They fail to show how the oil itself is the agent of the effect, e.g., would a warm bath alone have the same effect as a bath with oil in it? Would massage alone boost morale? Is it the chamomile or the late bath that makes you sleepy? The effects claimed are vague and unmeasurable, e.g., what does it mean to feel “pleasantness”, relieve stress”, or be “good” for insomnia? Other vague phrases used to describe positive effects include “cleanse the air of negative energies”, “keep the nerves in balance”, “restore harmony”, “freshen the mind”, and “open higher energy centres”. Claims are untested and unexplained, e.g., How could we find out if a few drops of oil relieve stress? How might the drops penetrate the skin and have a meaningful, physiological effect? Have students learn about how to carry out double-blind randomized testing. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-blind Have students try to find an example of a scientific test on aromatherapy. They can search using the terms “aromatherapy research”. For any studies found, students should focus on: Experimental design (Randomised? Blinded? Double-blinded?) Methods used to measure effects (e.g., self reports [“I feel calmer”], heart rate changes, electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings, blood pressure changes) Findings/conclusions (Positive correlation? No correlation?) Have students note and discuss the significance of which journal(s) the studies are published in, e.g., in mainstream peer-reviewed medical journals like Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine or in “alternative health” journals like International Journal of Aromatherapy. Have students read the Wikipedia online article about “peer review”: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review Have students discuss the following statement found in the aromatherapy literature: “It is difficult to design a double-blind randomized study of aromatherapy because the essential oils are strongly fragrant, and many of them are familiar and recognizable.” (Note: An alternative view would be that it is unlikely that a lot of people will know the difference between the odors of rosemary and a carefully selected placebo oil.) 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 46 Draft copy for review Designing a Test of Aromatherapy Have students design and carry out their own double-blind randomized experiment to test the effect of an aromatherapy oil. They can develop their own idea or they can design an experiment to test this claim made in the aromatherapy literature: “Rosemary improves recall (memory).” Have the students write up and present their findings to the class. Two Memory Tests Assistance in making up a valid method of testing memory (recall) before and after the use of the rosemary can be found in the psychology research literature. Here are two suggestions: The researcher reads off strands of random numbers of increasing length. After each strand is read, the subject must restate the strand of number BACKWARDS. Smell and the Brain Have students research the science behind the claim that aromatherapy works because “smell is the most direct route to the brain” and “olfactory information gets to the brain quickest”. (Note: Olfactory information gets to the brain quickly, but so does other sensory information. The time differences would be in milliseconds and of no consequence. The sense of smell is directly linked to the brain’s limbic system, which is concerned with emotionality and memories, but all the senses are part of a single large brain-linked network. Smell has no advantage in access to or speed of access to the brain.) Have students investigate the chemistry behind another bogus claim made by aromatherapists: “Natural oils are better than synthetic ones because natural molecules have memory”. Background for Teacher: Double Blind Randomized Testing To check the effectiveness of a new drug, researchers select two groups of people randomly, give the drug to only one group, then compare the results. Statistical techniques become crucially important: Are the two groups truly random? Are they representative samples? It was noticed during drug tests that people’s beliefs and expectations seemed to have a bearing on their physical state. Those given the medicine thought it was going to be effective and their belief contributed to their perception that they felt some improvement in their condition (placebo effect). So the question arose, is it the drug or the belief about the drug that is having the impact? To check this, scientists began keeping the members of both groups in the dark about who is getting the drug and who is getting the ‘placebo’. This procedure is called a blind test. But then it was noticed that when researchers ask people questions about how they feel after taking the drug, the questioners can give inadvertent clues as to what answer is expected, or even interpret a patient’s remarks to fit what the researcher thinks or hopes is the desired experimental outcome. So the researchers also began keeping themselves in the dark about who is getting the drug and who is not. This is called a double-blind test and is now considered the ‘gold standard’ of drug testing. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 47 Draft copy for review Activity Six: Cryptids Hidden Animals Some people claim to have seen or even photographed creatures yet unknown to zoology. A field of study called “cryptozoology” or “the study of hidden animals” is now devoted to these phenomena. Crytozoologists’ main argument in favour of the existence of unknown creatures or “cryptids” is twofold. First, it is always possible that there are species we have not yet discovered. Second, we continue to make discoveries of new, large animals (e.g., Komodo Dragon in 1910, coelecanth in 1939, and Arunachal macaque monkey in 2003). The two main categories of cryptids are: Hairy hominids such as Bigfoot, the sasquatch, the abominable snowman (yeti) of the Himalyas, and the Yeren (wildman) of China. Sea, lake, and land monsters such as sea serpents, the Loch Ness Monster, Ogopogo (Lake Okanagan), and Mokele-Mbembe (the Congo). Cryptozoologists suggest that some of these may be left over from the dinosaur era, perhaps related to the plesiosaur Other less “believable” cryptids include werewolves, vampires, and the Mothman of West Virginia (subject of a 2002 Hollywood movie). Some reports of cryptids are known hoaxes. One example is the famous Roger Patterson-Robert Gimlin short film (Bluff Creek California, 1967) that shows Bigfoot striding through a clearing (note: you can see the film here: http://www.oregonbigfoot.com/patterson.php). Bob Heironimus, the man who wore the Bigfoot costume has confessed. As well, the husband and wife team who made and sold the costume have also confessed. Several other important eyewitnesses have come forth with corroborating evidence. Another admitted hoax, recently perpetrated over the Internet, is the Ozark Howler (note: students can google search this). No actual claws, teeth, fur, scales, bones, or DNA has ever been shown by empirical tests to be from an identified cryptid. For example, a piece of fur found in Canada’s Yukon in 2005 was suggested by some to be from a Bigfoot, however, it was DNA-tested at an independent laboratory in Edmonton and found to be bison fur (A related article can be found here: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8704462/). By far the main evidence for hidden creatures is based on unreliable sources: eyewitness reports and photographs, often provided by one or two people. Eyewitness Reports Discuss with students some of the background information on cryptids. Set up a surprise event timed to occur just as you finish the discussion. The event involves someone dressed in a particular way—perhaps in a gorilla suit—chasing someone else dressed in another way into the classroom, the two having a brief altercation, then both running out again. After the event is over, have students write down their description of the two protagonists and their account of what happened. Compare student accounts and note the similarities and differences. Ask students to explain why the accounts differ (Possible answers: students see different things; students interpret what they see differently due to different beliefs). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 48 Draft copy for review Mistaken Identity Recall some differences in students’ accounts of the appearance of the two protagonists. Mention to students that eyewitness reports are considered the least dependable evidence regarding an event, for example, when a crime is committed (or thought to be committed). Explain to students what the Innocence Project is, i.e., it is an organization of lawyers and law students who investigate and try to resolve criminal cases where there appears to be a wrongful conviction. Often, the proof of innocence turns on the results of a DNA test. Have students go to the Innocence Project site and read about the prominent role of mistaken identity by eyewitnesses in wrongful convictions: http://www.innocenceproject.org/causes/mistakenid.php Discuss the article with students. Suggest that mistaken identity may be an explanation for some cases that claim the sighting of a cryptid. Have students research to find out examples of sightings of cryptids that turned out to be mistaken identity, e.g., Bigfoot or Yeti turns out to be a bear, Loch Ness monster turns out to be a seal. Frauds and Hoaxes Suggest that frauds and hoaxes are another explanation for some cases that claim the sighting of a cryptid. Ask students why people would want to perpetrate such hoaxes. Have students research the Patterson-Gimlin Bigfoot hoax (see above). Be sure they view the film footage of “Bigfoot”. Have students try to make a convincing photograph or video of a cryptid such as Bigfoot. Have students critique each other’s work and try to figure out how the film was faked. Have students develop criteria that must be met for a photograph or film of a cryptid to be accepted as genuine. The issue of the importance of empirical evidence to back up such a claim (i.e., a piece of fur, a claw, a scale) should be discussed at some point. Extension: Loch Ness Monster Give students a general summary of the story of Scotland’s Loch Ness Monster (e.g., using Wikipedia as a reference) but without mentioning what methods have been used to try to verify the monster’s existence. Also, show students an image of the famous 1934 Robert Wilson photograph, again without comment on its veracity. Have students come up with plans as to how to find out whether there is a monster in the Loch (e.g., cameras, sonar, mini-submarines, drain the loch). Have students read about the findings of previous searches for the monster: http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/11/newsid_3166000/ 3166741.stm http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_6_27/ai_110575749 Have students read about how the 1934 Wilson “Nessie” photograph was faked. http://www.unmuseum.org/nesshoax.htm 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 49 Draft copy for review Activity Seven: Bermuda Triangle Mysterious Disappearances? An area in the ocean between Bermuda, Florida, and Puerto Rico is sometimes known as the “Bermuda Triangle”. Some claim it is an area with a high rate of disappearance of ships (and planes) under mysterious circumstances, without warning, without a trace. Others contest this notion of a high rate and claim that no more ships sink in this area of the ocean than in any other (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1205_021205_bermudatriangle.html). Various pseudoscientific theories have been advanced to explain these purported ship disappearances: a space-time warp, alien abductions, sea monsters. Is there a possible scientific explanation for the claimed high rate of disappearance of ships in the “Bermuda Triangle”? Boat and Bubbles Do the following demonstration for students. It requires a small glass aquarium, metal boat model that just floats, rubber tubing, and a source of air. Fill the aquarium three-quarters with water. Float the boat in the aquarium. Place the rubber tube in the water so that one end is on the bottom of the aquarium beneath the boat. Attach the other end of the tube to a continuous source of air (pump, large balloon, breath). Start the flow of air into the tube and keep it flowing. Observe the bubbles of air and the boat. Why does the boat float when it is first placed in the water? (It is large enough to displace a weight of water equal to its own weight.) What is density? How does density explain floating? (An object floats in a liquid when the object is less dense than the liquid.) What happens to the density of the water when you blow air into it? Why? (The density decreases because air is less dense than water) Why does the boat sink after air is blown into the water? A Statistical Explanation One explanation for the Bermuda Triangle is simply that the statistical anomaly does not exist, i.e., no more ships or planes have disappeared in the area than in many other equivalent areas. One Scientific Explanation The mystery of (some) ships sinking in the Bermuda Triangle could be scientifically explained by giant methane gas bubbles. The bubbles result from underwater landslides releasing frozen methane gas that has built up over millennia. The methane ice is produced by deep-sea bacteria feeding beneath the ocean bed. The effect of a large quantity of these large bubbles rising to the surface is to reduce the density of the seawater, causing ships to sink. This is analogous to when a heavily-loaded ship floats in seawater but then sinks in fresh water, e.g., at the mouth of a river entering the ocean. For further discussion of the above explanation, see the Australian Skeptics online: http://www.skeptics.com.au/features/weird/media/mw-bubbles.htm Other Scientific Explanations Have students research other suggested scientific explanations, e.g. weather patterns, presence of warm ocean currents, presence of deep ocean trenches, shoals and reefs, magnetic anomalies. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 50 Draft copy for review Activity Eight: Easter Island Statues Rapa Nui Easter Island (Rapa Nui) is a small island 3600 km west of Chile in the Pacific Ocean. It is most famous for its huge stone statues called moai (“images”), of which 900-1000 remain. The first Europeans to view the statues were Dutch Admiral Jacob Roggeven and his crew in 1722. The statues range from 3 to 10 metres high and weigh up to 25 tons. They have consistent shapes resembling giant human-like beings with long heads and torsos and prominent chins. Over 200 of the statues were once set upright on stone platforms. Two competing explanations exist for the origins of the statues. The scientific explanation is that the Islanders carved the statues, moved them to their present location, and stood them up. The competing pseudoscientific explanation (generally associated with Erich von Daniken) argues that this was impossible and that the statues are the work of intelligent beings from another world. Find out more about Easter Island and the statues: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island How Did They Do it? Beginning from the assumption that the simplest explanation is the most likely, have students explain, using diagrams, how the local Islanders might have been able to: Carve the statues (which are made of volcanic tuff). Move the statues to their locations. Stand up the statues. Materials: Tuff rock samples, tall stone or concrete slabs, student materials, outdoor space. Demonstrate your method of carving the tuff rock samples. Demonstrate your method of moving the concrete slab (Note: follow appropriate safety procedures to avoid injury). Demonstrate your method of standing up the concrete slab (Safety!). Background Information: Researching Easter Island The stone from which the statues were carved clearly originated from a quarry inside an old volcano on Easter Island. Marks can be seen where the rock was cut out and about 400 unfinished statues are in the quarry. The rock is volcanic tuff and although the surface of the rock is hard the interior is as soft as chalk and can be easily shaped, especially when dampened. The quarry also contains numerous pointed picks made of hard stone. Demonstrations (Thor Heyerdahl, Pavel Pavel, Jo Anne Van Tilburg) have shown that the carved statues could have been moved from the quarry to their sites using human-power and simple local materials such as wooden levers, rollers, and ropes. Further, the statues could have been slowly raised into place by levering them up in small stages and progressively slipping stones or a wooden platform underneath for temporary support. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 51 Draft copy for review Activity Nine: Crop Circles (Cereology) Going Around in Circles Crop circles are areas within agricultural crops, usually cereals, which have been systematically flattened to create various geometric patterns. Crop circles entered the public imagination after their first appearances in England in the late 1970s. Various pseudo-scientific explanations were suggested and the phenomenon soon spread around the world. In 1991 two Englishmen, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, confessed that they had been creating crop circles since 1976 using wooden planks and rope. The commonly accepted view today is that crop circles are humanmade. However, paranormal explanations are still suggested, e.g., UFOs, whirlwinds, vortices, and mysterious electromagnetic forces. How to Make a Crop Circle Choose a field location. Be aware that between May and August crops are green and still supple. Make a drawing of the design (although the design may be conceived on the spot). Arrive at the field at night and walk in already-made tractor ruts to avoid detection Measure out the circle with ropes and poles. Make a centre for the proposed circle by standing in the middle and turning on one foot while pushing the crop down with the other foot. Make the radius of the circle using a long piece of rope tied at both ends to an approximately 1.2-meter board called a stalk stomper (you can also use a garden roller). Have one member of the team stands at the center of the circle while the other walks around the edge, putting one foot in the middle of the board to stomp down the circle's outline. For more information about crop circles and how to make them: http://www.csicop.org/hoaxwatch/cropcircles.html http://www.csicop.org/si/2002-09/crop-circles.html Make a Model Crop Circle The first requirement for making a crop circle is access to a crop. It would not be appropriate to make crop circles in a farmer’s field (unless you can get permission), so an accessible “field” would need to be grown in advance. A field about 3 meters by 4 meters would be sufficient for the teacher to create a small example of a crop circle. Barley is a common crop for circles. The only real challenge may be finding seed. Check seed catalogs, feed stores, and on-line for sources. Plant in the spring, after the ground has warmed and started to dry out. Sow about one grain per square inch of soil, and rake in or roll. Barley likes good soil and plentiful sunlight but will tolerate poor conditions such as cold and drought. An Alternative: Snow Circles Have students make “crop circles” in newly fallen snow in the winter. This is a good chance to have students discuss whether snow circles would be more or less likely than crop circles to be considered “paranormal” in origin. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 52 Draft copy for review Fake and Real Crop Circles? Some commentators agree that certain crop circles are hoaxes but claim other ones are “genuine”. Find out what characteristics are said to indicate “real” crop circles. (Possible answers: A crop circle could be real if a UFO was seen in the area, the soil contains unknown substances, the area shows the effects of heat, the circle has a slightly elliptical rather than a perfectly round shape, the crops still grow.) Discuss whether you agree that the above criteria are valid. Find out if anyone has found any “real” crop circles, according to the above criteria. Debate the question as to whether some crop circles are hoaxes but some are “real”. Crop Circles on the Web Have students view and discuss the photographs on UK Crop Circles site: http://www.ukcropcircles.co.uk/ Each student can then submit a question or comment to the site and monitor the responses. Crop Circles in the Movies: Signs Have students watch part of the movie Signs (Touchstone Pictures, 2002), which stars Mel Gibson as a farmer who discovers mysterious crop circles (and aliens). What messages does the movie convey to the public about crop circles? What effect do you think the movie’s messages might have on people’s beliefs regarding crop circles? Do you think that a movie that “debunked” crop circles would be as much of a commercial success as Signs (which had made $228 million at the box office by September 2006)? Why? 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 53 Draft copy for review Activity Ten: Firewalking Fakirs and Fakers Firewalking rituals, where a person walks barefoot across a bed of glowing coals, have a long history. The iKung Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert have firewalked since their tribal beginnings. The oldest recorded firewalk took place 4000 years ago in India. More recently, firewalking has been revived in North America by so-called ‘self-help’ gurus who make the pseudoscientific claim that not being burned depends on the walker’s proper mental state of ‘mind over matter’ (note: unmeasurable!), which is achieved of course through the guru’s counselling. Such gurus also claim that successful firewalking can bring about better health and increased personal power. A Scientific Explanation In firewalking, what essentially occurs is that two bodies of different temperatures meet: human feet (which consist mainly of water) and burning coals. In general, when two bodies of different temperatures meet, the hotter body will cool off and the cooler body will heat up, until they are separated or until they meet at a temperature in between. Thus, the temperature the foot will become and whether injury is incurred will depend on the amount of heat that is transferred from the coals to the feet. That amount, in turn, will depend on four main factors: the temperature of each body, the mass of each body, the specific heat capacity of each body, and the thermal conductivity of each body. Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by a unit change in temperature. Thermal conductivity is the ability to transfer heat via direct contact. During firewalking, multiple factors act together to prevent the foot from burning: Water (foot) has a very high specific heat capacity while the coals have a very low heat capacity, so the temperature of the foot will rise (heat up) much less than the temperature of the coals will fall (cool off) Both the foot and the coals have relatively low thermal conductivity. When the coals cools down they stop burning, and generates no new heat. The hot coals are often covered with ash, which is a poor heat conductor. The surface of the coals is uneven and the surface area of foot touching the coals is small. Firewalkers move quickly across the coals with each step taking half a second or less, so the time of contact with the coals is minimal. Specific Heat Capacity Have students heat three different metal samples of the same mass in water until each one reaches the boiling point of water. Remove each sample carefully and place it on a sheet of paraffin wax. Allow all the samples to cool. Have students observe how far each one embeds itself into the wax. The sample with the highest specific heat capacity will melt away the most wax and sink itself most deeply into the wax. Heat Transfer Through Conduction Have students skewer three small samples of paraffin wax on a piece of thick metal wire about 15 cm long. Using heat resistant gloves, hold one end of the wire and put the other end in the flame of a burner. The paraffin will melt starting with the piece nearest the flame and working down to the piece farthest away. This shows heat is travelling through the length of the wire 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 54 Draft copy for review Initial Temperature, Mass, and Final Temperature Have students investigate the effects of mass and temperature on the final temperature when heat is transferred through conduction. Place 200 ml of water into a beaker and record the initial temperature. Heat to boiling. While the water is heating, pour 25 ml room temperature water into each of two Styrofoam cups labeled #1 and #2, recording the initial temperature of each. When the water in the beaker boils, remove it, and measure and record the temperature. Carefully pour 100 ml water heated water into Styrofoam cup #1 and 50 ml heated water into Styrofoam cup #2. Cover each cup with a lid. Gently rotate the cup and take the temperature when it stops rising. Record the final temperatures. Repeat the above procedure except begin with 25 ml cold water in two more Styrofoam cups labeled #3 and #4. Have students compare the final temperatures in all four cases and discuss the reasons for the differences in relation to the volumes and initial temperatures of the water samples. Predict-Observe-Explain: Heat as a Function of Mass Have students predict which of a piece of copper shot or a piece of copper wire will stay hotter longer if each is immersed for two minutes in hot water. Have them test their predictions, then explain what they observe. (The copper wire feels hotter longer because of its greater mass, i.e., more molecules to excite). Predict-Observe-Explain: Heat as a Function of Material Have students predict which of a rubber ball or a metal ball (of the same mass) or a piece of copper wire will stay hotter longer if each is immersed for two minutes in hot water. Have them test their predictions, then explain what they observe. (The metal ball will feel hotter longer because of its greater heat capacity, i.e., compared to the rubber ball, a greater amount of heat is transferred from the metal ball to the fingers). Further Research Have students further research the scientific and pseudoscientific explanations for firewalking. There are many web sites. Have them discuss their findings. Fire, Walk With Me (Or Preferably With Someone Else) The bold physics teacher may wish to provide her or his own demonstration! A more reliable option is to have students watch ‘an expert’ do it. Physicist David Willey has created an excellent video, Firewalking - Myth vs. Physics, in which he demonstrates fire-walking and explains the relevant physics. It is available for $59 from Hawkhill Associates, 125 E. Gillman St., P.O. Box 1029, Madison, WI 53701-1029. Phone 1-800-422-4295. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 55 Draft copy for review Activity Eleven: Earth in Upheaval Velikovsky’s Ideas Earth in Upheaval is the second book in the series of Immanuel Velikovsky's unconventional reinterpretations of earth history. Published in 1955, its main goal was to provide empirical evidence for ideas about ancient global natural catastrophes already put forth in Velikovsky’s first book, Worlds in Collision (1950). The main theoretical ideas that Velikovsky tried to support can be summed up as follows: Earth has suffered global natural catastrophes, both before and during recorded history. The geological record provides evidence for these catastrophes. Catastrophes that occurred within human memory are recorded in myths and legends. The causes of these catastrophes were close encounters between Earth and the planets Saturn, Jupiter, Venus and Mars. Electromagnetic forces play a much greater role in celestial mechanics than acknowledged in Newton’s purely gravitational model. Earth was once a satellite of a "proto-Saturn" body, before its current Solar orbit. Venus was originally a comet that was ejected from Jupiter. Ideas in Collision Students can read the following articles about Velikovsky’s ideas: Stephen Jay Gould’s 1977 article, ‘Velikovsky in Collision’, which can be found in his book, Ever Since Darwin, as well as online at: http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/gould_velikovsky.html Martin Gardner’s Sceptical Inquirer article, ‘Welcome to the Debunking Club’ republished in his 1988 book, The New Age: Notes of a Fringe Watcher. The Wikipedia article on ‘Catastrophism’: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophism Pages 155-119 in Earth in Upheaval, where Velikovsky himself discusses why he does not accept the theory of Continental Drift. Researching Velikovsky’s Ideas Have students select one of Velikovsky’s seven ideas (above) and research it in terms of how well it stands up in the face of current scientific knowledge, in particular, plate tectonics theory which antedated his books. Students can present their findings to the class and respond to questions. Background: Arguing Against Velikovsky For more background on criticisms of Velikovsky, teachers can refer to the following two online summaries of counter-arguments by Velikovsky’s former supporter, Leroy Ellenberger: ‘Top Ten Reasons Velikovsky is Wrong About Worlds in Collision.’ http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/vdtopten.html ‘An Antidote to Velikovskian Delusions’ http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/velidelu.html 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 56 Draft copy for review Aliens and UFOs Have students respond individually in writing to the following questions: 1. Are we Earthlings alone in the universe or is there intelligent life on other worlds. Why do you think so? 2. Has Earth actually been visited by intelligent life from other worlds? Why do you think so? 3. Could someone logically answer “yes” to question 1 and “no” to question 2? Why? Activity One: Are We Alone? Probability Since we can’t be sure of the answers to the first two questions (above), we can only estimate the probability that each is true. Probability is a way of figuring out how possible something is, e.g., how possible it is that a certain event will happen. For any event, depending on what it is, we could say very possible, possible, not very possible, impossible, etc. We could also express probability in the form of numbers. When we KNOW something will happen we call that probability 1. You can think of 1 as meaning “1 out of 1”. The probability that the sun will rise tomorrow is 1. Can you think of other events with a probability of 1? The probability of events we are less sure of than the sun rising are expressed as fractions of 1. What is the probability that when you flip a coin it will come up heads? (1/2) Tails? (1/2). Finding Probabilities Have students use common game materials to learn more about probability. Rolling a die (6 numbers) What is the probability of rolling any number? (1/6) What is the probability of rolling an even number? (3/6 or ½) What is the probability of rolling an odd number? (3/6 or ½) Playing cards (52). What are some ways you could classify the 52 cards into some similar groups? Red and black, 4 suits, face and number cards. We can figure out the probability of drawing a certain kind of card out of the deck. What is the probability you will draw a black card? (26/52 or ½). Red card? What is the probability you will draw a heart? (13/52 or 1/4). Diamond? Space? Club? What is the probability you will draw a face/picture card? (12/52 or 3/13). What is the probability you will draw a red face card? (6/52 or 3/26). Can also calculate by multiplying red x face card 1/2 x 12/52 = 6/52 = 3/26. What is the probability you will draw a picture heart? (3/52) Can also calculate by multiplying heart x picture card ¼ x 12/52 = 3/13. (Continue guided and independent practice until students seem to understand the idea of multiplying individual probabilities together to get the “final” probability.) 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 57 Draft copy for review The Drake Equation Astronomer Frank Drake developed the Drake equation in 1961. He wanted to figure out the probability that there were other intelligent communicating civilizations somewhere “out there’. His method was to focus on the important factors that could determine how many intelligent communicating civilizations there might be. Drake developed an equation named after him that included 6 important factors. The Drake Equation is N = Ns x Fp x Ne x Fl x F c x fL Ns represents the number of stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way. (Current estimates are about 100 billion.) Fp represents the fraction of stars that have planets around them. (Current estimates range from 20-50%.) Ne represents the number of planets per star that are capable of sustaining life. Fi represents the fraction of planets where life not only evolves but intelligent life evolves. (Current estimates range from 100%--which assumes that where life can evolve it always will—to down near 0%.) (Current estimates range from 100%--assuming that intelligent life is such a survival advantage that it will always evolve--to down near 0%.) Fc represents that fraction of intelligent life that communicates. (Current estimates range from 10-20%). fL is the fraction of the planet’s life during which the communicating civilizations exist. (This is the hardest question. If we use our Earth as an example, the expected lifetime of our Sun and the Earth is about 10 billion years. Humans have been communicating with radio waves for less that 100 years. How long will our civilization survive? Will we destroy ourselves or will we overcome our problems and survive for millenia? If our civilization was destroyed tomorrow the answer would be 1/100,000,000th. If we survive for 10,000 more years the answer will be 1/1,000,000th.) When all the above variables are multiplied together we get N, the estimated number of communicating civilizations in the galaxy. Have students try solving the Drake Equation. For each variable, they can choose what they think is the best answer. Then they can calculate and see how many communicating civilizations they estimate are in our galaxy. How students find out many other galaxies there are in our universe besides our own Milky Way. How does including that number in your calculations increase the probability that there is other intelligent, communicating life in the Universe? 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 58 Draft copy for review Activity Two: Is Anyone Out There? SETI The SETI ( Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) program, was established in late 1959 by astronomer Frank Drake. The idea behind SETI is to scan the sky and listen for non-random patterns of radio or television waves that may indicate transmissions by another civilization in the universe. Information on SETI can be found at: http://history.nasa.gov/seti.html Have students go online and find out about the SETI program. What is the program’s goal? How is the program carried out? What assumptions is the program based on? What are the program’s results so far? How would you change or improve the program? Should the program continue? Why or why not? Participating in SETI Students can participate in the SETI program using their home computer. The website is: http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/ Message into Space Another way to search for extraterrestrial life is to send a message on a spacecraft. Frank Drake and Carl Sagan created a famous message that was sent on Pioneer 10 in 1972. Have students develop their own message using pictures and symbols (without showing them the Pioneer 10 message). Discuss the student messages, then the Pioneer 10 message. The Pioneer 10 message can be seen at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_plaque Design-an-Alien Have students do the following activity: Research how planetary life forms might interact with their environments (and vice versa) by going to some “astrobiology” sites. Potentially useful sites include: http://www.astrobiology.com/index.html; http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/ Assume that a form of life lives on another planet in our solar system (e.g., Jupiter). Find out as much as you can about the characteristics of your chosen planet that might affect its life forms (e.g., composition, gravity, atmosphere, weather, (no) water, temperature). Make a chart comparing those characteristics with the equivalent characteristics of Earth (e.g., Jupiter’s gravity is 2.36 x Earth’s gravity). Research the kinds of structures, organs, and systems that characterize human beings and the life/survival functions that they fulfil (e.g., hands, eyes, heart, respiratory system). Design a life form that could live/survive on your planet, keeping in mind your planet’s characteristics. Write about, draw, and make a clay model of your life form. Make a chart that compares the features of your life form with human features. Be prepared to explain the reasons for the similarities and differences. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 59 Draft copy for review Activity Three: Has Anyone Visited Us? UFOs UFO stands for Unidentified Flying Object, which is exactly what the acronym originally referred to, i.e., a flying object that was not yet identified. However, among the general public, UFO has become synonymous with “flying saucers piloted by aliens from outer space”. The modern UFO era began June 24, 1947 when private pilot Kenneth Arnold reported seeing mysterious disk-shaped objects flying near Mount Rainier in Washington State. This was followed closely in July by the purported crash of an alien spacecraft near Roswell, New Mexico. More publicity was generated in January 1948 when Captain Thomas Mantell crashed his plane while chasing what he reported was a giant UFO. Many additional sightings were soon reported, which prompted the US Airforce to create a special office to investigate flying saucers. In his 1953 book, Flying Saucers Have Landed, George Adamski claimed he made direct contact with saucer-flying aliens. Adamski said he met visitors from Venus, Mars, and Saturn and rode in their spacecraft, including to the dark side of the moon where he saw cities, lakes, and rivers. Since Adamski, others have made similar claims. Identifying UFOs Ask students what they think is meant by the term “UFO”. Ask them how many believe that earth has been visited by aliens from outer space. Ask them why they think so, e.g., television, movies, peers. Hold a class discussion or debate on the question (a useful teacher reference is UFO’s: A Scientific Debate, edited by Carl Sagan & Thornton Page.) Have students research to find out what other explanations have been given for particular UFO sightings (e.g., clouds, light reflections, ball lightning [plasma], meteors, Mars, Venus, commercial airplanes, secret military craft, weather balloons, satellites, pranks and hoaxes). Ask students if it is possible to prove conclusively that alien UFOs do NOT exist. Once they see it is almost impossible to prove a vague, universal negative, suggest the way to approach the question is that the onus of proof must be on those who claim to have seen UFOs. Ask students what would constitute empirical evidence of a UFO (e.g., impressions made by landing gear, scorched earth, unknown metals or chemicals, footprints, alien artifacts, alien remains). Ask them to find out if anyone has ever provided the evidence that they suggest. Photographing UFOs Tell students that people claim to have taken photographs of UFOs. Provide examples from the UFO literature and ask students to analyze them to see if they think they are “real” or “fake”. This site is an excellent source: http://www.ufoevidence.org/photographs/photohome.asp Challenge students to produce one convincing UFO photograph of their own. Display the photographs and have students discuss how they were created. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 60 Draft copy for review Activity Four: Alien Abductions The Grays Apparently, many North Americans have been visited by members of an alien species and taken from their beds, homes, or cars to an alien craft (or even an alien planet). Most modern abduction accounts follow a general pattern similar to the well-publicized stories told by Betty and Barney Hill concerning their 1961 “abduction” on a dark New Hampshire highway. Prior to the Hills, “aliens” seemed more interested in conquering the Earth than abducting its people. The typical story begins with the person home in bed at night or in a car. She or he sees lights, hears buzzing or humming, feels fearful, and senses a presence. The person is then somehow transported into an alien craft and undergoes various medical procedures, often involving eggs or sperm and the implantation of a device in the nose or elsewhere. The silent, telepathic aliens (now usually referred to as “Grays”) are described as a little more than a metre tall with slim hairless bodies, big heads, and very large black slanted almond-shaped eyes. Throughout the experience the abductee feels paralyzed and helpless. Non-Believers and Believers Discuss the notion of evidence with students. Refer to the section entitled “About Scientific Evidence.” Include examples of situations, both everyday and scientific, where evidence is given to support a claim, and discuss how the reliability of the evidence might be evaluated, e.g., How warranted (secure) the evidence itself is, independent of the claim. The degree to which the evidence supports the claim. The amount of evidence that exists in support of the claim. Have students read the interview with psychiatrist John Mack, a believer in abductions. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/aliens/johnmack.html Have students read the interview with astronomer Carl Sagan, a non-believer in abductions. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/aliens/carlsagan.html Power of Hypnosis The Hills first provided a coherent narrative of their abduction while under hypnosis in 1964. Believers in alien abductions often cite testimony under hypnosis as irrefutable evidence in their favour. Have students research hypnosis-related questions such as: Do hypnotized subjects always tell the truth or can they lie? (They can lie.) Can ‘outside’ information, e.g., news reports, become part of subjects’ “memories”? (Yes.) Can hypnotized subjects be cued/influenced by pre-hypnosis discussions? (Yes.) Can the way in which the hypnotist conducts the session (e.g., chooses and frames the questions) influence what the subject “recalls”? (Yes.) Do law courts admit hypnosis-refreshed memories as evidence? (Most do not.) Is there a need for statements made under hypnosis to be independently verified? (Yes.) A good place to start researching is: Dywan, J. & Bowers, K. S. (1983). The use of hypnosis to enhance recall. Science, 222, 184-185 (Note: the research was done at University of Waterloo). 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 61 Draft copy for review Betty and Barney Hill Have students read the Wikipedia description of the alleged 1961 Barney and Betty Hill alien abduction, the first widely publicized modern abduction account. Tell students to focus in their reading on what evidence exists for (and against) the abduction. http://en.wikipedia.or/wiki/Betty Hill Have each student make a two-column evidence chart: “Evidence and Argument Supporting the Hills’ Story”, “Evidence and Argument Opposing the Hills’ Story”. The evidence in the Wikipedia account can be supplemented by evidence from other sources, including the students. Discuss the evidence in the charts, including the reliability of the evidence. Focus on whether the Hills’ accounts provide any empirical evidence for or against their abduction (e.g., living tissue, images on cameras, footprints, artifacts, documents, hitherto unknown information about the stars learned by the Hills). Have students debate the reality of the Hills’ abduction, based on the evidence. Three ways to wrap up the debate are: leave it unresolved, try to reach a consensus, take a silent vote. Explaining Abduction Stories Several non-pseudoscientific explanations have been suggested for alien abduction stories. One is that the stories are hoaxes made up for money and fame, e.g., a best-selling book about the Hills was published in 1966, followed by a movie in 1976. In the two years following the movie, a UFO organization reported 100 new abduction cases (including Travis Walton which gave rise to two books and a movie), whereas in the 19 years previous there had been only 19 cases. Another suggestion is that some people who tell stories are mentally ill or suffering from an internal physical condition that affects their perceptions (e.g., hallucinations/brain damage). The two main scientific explanations being proposed (which may be linked) are: Stories are the result of dreams that occur during “sleep paralysis”. Stories are “false memories” implanted by psychotherapies such as hypnosis, after the subjects have undergone “unusual” experiences that they want to explain. Have students research “sleep paralysis” and “false memories” and discuss their possible role in scientifically explaining stories of alien abductions. Role of Culture Have each student or pair of students approach four people outside the class and ask them to draw an alien. Have students bring the drawings to class. Discuss the following paragraph with them: “In both the “sleep paralysis” and “false memories” explanations, a prominent role is given to people’s exposure to cultural texts about aliens as sources of the general content of their abduction stories (although story details may differ). Sources include TV programs like The Outer Limits and X-Files, movies like Close Encounters of the Third Kind (which used Barney Hill’s drawing of an alien as the model for ET), various books, etc. This could explain why the Hills and other modern abductees who succeeded them describe the same general scenario and aliens. For example, Betty Hill believed in flying saucers before her abduction and had seen the 1953 movie Invaders from Mars in which big-eyed gray aliens insert needles into a female abductee. Cultural texts could also explain why abductee accounts are much more frequent in Western countries or countries dominated by Western values.” 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 62 Draft copy for review Further Reading Critical Thinking, Reasoning Giere, Ronald (1984). Understanding Scientific Reasoning. NYC: Holt Rinehart & Winston. Gilovich, T. (1991). How We Know What isn’t So: The Fallacy of Reasoning in Everyday Life. NYC: Free Press. Grim, Patrick (Ed.) (1990). Philosophy of Science and the Occult. New York NY: SUNY. Jahoda, G. (1969). The Psychology of Superstition. NYC: Jacob Aronson. Nisbett, R., & Ross, L. (1980). Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgement. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall. Radner, Daisie, & Radner, Michael (1982). Science and Unreason. Belmont CA: Wadsworth. Rothman, M. (1988). A Physicist’s Guide to Scepticism. Buffalo NY: Promotheus Books. Schermer, Michael (1997). Why People Believe Weird Things. San Francisco CA: W H Freeman. Schick Jr, Theodore, & Vaughn, Lewis (1995). How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age. Mountain View CA: Mayfield. General Pseudoscience by Martin Gardner, Joe Nickell, and James Randi Gardner, Martin (1952). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. NYC: Dover. Gardner, Martin (1988). The New Age: Notes of a Fringe Watcher. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Gardner, Martin (1989). Science: Good, Bad, and Bogus. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Gardner, Martin (1996). Weird Water, Fuzzy Logic. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Gardner, Martin (2000). Did Adam and Eve have Navels? NYC: W. W. Norton. Baker, Robert, & Nickell, Joe (1992). Missing Pieces: How to Investigate Ghosts, UFOs, Psychics,and Other Mysteries. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe (1995). Angels, Spirits, Demons, and Other Alien Beings. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe (19999). Looking for a Miracle: Weeping Icons, Relics, Stigmata, Visions & Healing Cures. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe (2001). Real Life X-Files: Investigating the Paranormal. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky (also see next entry). Nickell, Joe (2001). Investigating the Paranormal. NYC: Barnes & Noble. Nickell, Joe, & Fischer, John (1991). Secrets of the Supernatural: Investigating the World’s Occult Mysteries. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe, & Fischer, John (1992). Mysterious Realms: Probing Paranormal, Historical, and ForensicEnigmas. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe, & Randi, James (2004). The Mystery Chronicles: More Real Life X-Files. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Randi, James (1982). Flim Flam. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Randi, James (1991). James Randi: Psychic Investigator. London: Boxtree. Randi, James (1997). An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural. NYC: St. Martins. Other General Pseudoscience Basil, Robert (Ed.) (1988). Not Necessarily the New Age. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Bradley, Michael (2005). World Mysteries Revealed. NYC: Barnes & Noble. Charpak, Georges, & Broch, Henri (2002). Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis and Other Pseudoscience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. Frazier, Kendrick (Ed.) (1981). Paranormal Borderlands of Science. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Frazier, Kendrick (Ed.) (1991). The Hundredth Monkey and Other Paradigms of the Paranormal. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Gordon, Henry (1988). Channeling into the New Age. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 63 Draft copy for review Gordon, Henry (1988). Extrasensory Deception. Toronto ON: Macmillan Harris, Melvin (1986). Investigating the Unexplained. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Hines, Terence (1988). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Hoggart, Simon, & Hutchinson, Mike (1995). Bizarre Beliefs. London: Richard Cohen. James, Peter, & Thorpe, Nick (1999). Ancient Mysteries. NYC: Ballantine. Kaminer, Wendy (1999). Sleeping With Extraterrestrials. NYC: Pantheon. Kelly, Susan (2005). The Skeptic’s Guide to the Paranormal. NYC: Thunder’s Mouth Press. Kurtz, Paul (1992). The New Scepticism. Buffalo NY: Promotheus. Kurtz, Paul (Ed.) (2000). Sceptical Odysseys. Personal Accounts by the World’s Leading Paranormal Inquirers. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Lindskoog, Kathryn (1993). Fakes, Frauds, and Other Malarkey. Grand Rapids MI: Zondervan. MacDougall, Curtis (1983). Superstition and the Press. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Rawcliffe, D. H. (1959). Illusions and Delusions. NYC: Dover. Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon-Haunted World. NYC: Random House. Schultz, T. (ed.) (1989). The Fringes of Reason: A Whole Earth Catalogue. NYC: Harmony. Winters, Paul (Ed.) (1997). Paranormal Phenomena: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. General Pseudoscience for Young Readers Barker, Dan (1993). Maybe Yes, Maybe No. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Nickell, Joe (1989). The Magic Detectives. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Yule, Tim (2000). Sasquatches From Outer Space. Amherst NY: Promethesu. Mental Powers Cold Reading Rowland, Ian (2002). Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. 4th Ed. London: Ian Rowland Ltd. ESP Christopher, Milbourne (1970). ESP, Seers, and Psychics. NYC: Crowell. Hansel, C. (1966). ESP: A Scientific Evaluation. NYC: Charles Scribners. Hansel, C. (1980). ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Re-evaluation. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Hansel, C. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Randi, James (1982). Test Your ESP Potential. NYC: Dover Publications. Houdini’s Investigations Houdini, Harry (1924/1972). A Magician Among the Spirits. NY: Harper. Houdini, Harry (1980). Miracle Mongers and Their Methods. Toronto: Coles. Houdini, Harry, & Dunninger, Joseph (1967). Magic and Mystery: The Incredible Psychic Investigations of Houdini and Dunninger. NYC: Weathervane Books. Mediums & Psychics Christopher, Milbourne (1975). Mediums, Mystics, and the Occult. NYC: Crowell. Fulves, U. (1975). Confessions of a Psychic. Teaneck NJ: Karl Fulves. Fulves, U. (1980). Further Confessions of a Psychic. Teaneck NJ: Karl Fulves. Hyman, Ray (1991). The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Keene, M. Lamarr (1976). The Psychic Mafia. NYC: St. Martins. Marks, David (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. 2nd Edition. Amherst NY: 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 64 Draft copy for review Prometheus Books Marks, David, & Kammann, Richard (1980). The Psychology of the Psychic. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Nickell, Joe (1994). Psychic Sleuths: ESP and Sensational Cases. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Polidoro, Maasimo (2003). Secrets of the Psychics. Amherst NY: Prometheus Books. Randi, James (1975). The Magic of Uri Geller. NYC: Ballantine. Stenger, V. (1990). Physics and Psychics. Buffalo NY: Promotheus. Wiseman, Richard (1997). Deception and Self-deception: Investigating Psychics. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Wiseman, Richard, & Morris, Robert (1997). Guidelines for Testing Psychic Claimants. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Parapsychology (General) Alcock, James (1990). Science and Supernature: A Critical Appraisal of Parapsychology. Bufflao NY: Prometheus. Alcock, James (1981). Parapsychology: Science or Magic? Oxford: Pergamon. Blackmore, Susan (1986). The Adventures of a Parapsychologist. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Kurtz, Paul (Ed.) (1985). A Sceptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Ludwig, J. (ed.) (1978). Philosophy and Parapsychology. Buffalo NY: Promotheus. Taylor, John (1980). Science and the Supernatural. London: Granada. “Pop” Psychology Druckman, D., & Swets, J. (1988). Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Kaminer, W. (1992). I’m Dysfunctional-You’re Dysfunctional; The Recovery Movement and Other Self-help Fashions. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley. Meyer, D. (1965). The Positive Thinkers. Garden City NY: Doubleday/Anchor. Rosen, Richard (1975). Psychobabble. NYC: Avon. Spirit World Carlos Castaneda Fikes, Jay (1993). Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties. Victoria BC: Millenia Press Demille, Richard (1978). Castaneda’s Journey. Santa Barbara CA: Capra Press. Demille, Richard (1980). The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controverises. Santa Barbara CA: Ross-Erikson. Faith Healing Randi, James (1989). The Faith Healers. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Nostradamus Randi, James (1993). The Mask of Nostradamus:The Prophecies of the World’s Most Famous Seer. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Near Death/Out-of-Body Experiences Blackmore, Susan (1993). Dying to Live. Buffalo NY: Promotheus. Blackmore, Susan (1982). Beyond the Body: An Investigation of Out-of-Body Experiences. London: Heinemann. Christopher, Milbourne (1979). Search for the Soul. NYC: Crowell. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 65 Draft copy for review “Strange” Experiences Neher, Andrew (1981). The Psychology of Transcendence. NYC: Prentice Hall. Reed, G. (1972). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience. London: Hutchinson. Zusne, L., & Jones, W. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. General Paranormal Abell, George, & Singer, Barry (eds.) (1981). Science and the Paranormal: Probing the Existence of the Supernatural. NYC: Scribners. Frazier, Kendrick (Ed.) (1986). Science Confronts the Paranormal. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Frazier, Kendrick (Ed.) (1986). Encounters With the Paranormal: Science, Knowledge, and Belief. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Moore, L. (1977). In Search of White Crows. NYC: Oxford. Natural Mysteries Archaeology/History Feder, Kenneth (1990). Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries. Mountainview CA: Mayfield. Nickell, Joe (1991). Ambrose Bierce is Missing. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Astrology Benski, Claude, et al (1996). The Mars Effect. A French Test of Over 1,000 Sports Champions. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Culver, Roger, & Ianna, Phillip (1984). The Gemini Syndrome: A Scientific Evaluation of Astrology. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Culver, Roger, & Ianna, Phillip (1988). Astrology: True or False? A Scientific Evaluation. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Gauquelin, Michel (1979). Dreams and Illusions of Astrology. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Jerome, Lawrence (1977). Astrology Disproved. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Atlantis Ellis, Richard (1999). Imagining Atlantis. NYC: Vintage. Bermuda Triangle Kusche, Lawrence (1975). The Bermuda Triangle Mystery-Solved. NYC: Warner. Crop Circles Delgado, Phil, & Andrews, Colin (1989). Circular Evidence. Grand Rapids MI: Phanes. Schnabel, Jim (1994). Round in Circles: Physicists, Poltergeists, Pranksters, and the Secret History of the Cropwatchers. London: Penguin. Cryptozoology Binns, Ronald (1984). The Loch Ness Mystery Solved. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Campbell, Steuart (1985). The Loch Ness Monster. The Evidence. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Daegling, David (2005). Bigfoot Exposed: An Anthropologist Examines America’s Enduring Legend. Lanham MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Halpin, Marjorie, & Ames, Michael (eds.) (1980). Manlike Monsters on Trial. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. Long, Greg (2004). The Making of Bigfoot: The Inside Story. NYC: Prometheus Books. Messner, Reinhold (2000). My Quest for the Yeti. NYC: St. Martin’s Griffin. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 66 Draft copy for review Crystals Jerome, Lawrence (1996). Crystal Power: The Ultimate Placebo Effect. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Dowsing Vogt, E., & Hyman, R. (1979). Water Witching U.S.A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Graphology Beyerstein, B., & Beyerstein D. (eds.) (1992). The Write Stuff: Evaluations of Graphology. Buffalo NY: Promotheus. Talking With Animals Sebeok, Thomas, & Rosenthal, Robert (eds.) (1981). The Clever Hans Phenomenon: Communication with Horses, Whales, Apes, and People. New York Academy of Sciences. Aliens and UFOs Aliens and Abductions Clancy, Susan (2006). Abducted: How People Come to Believe They Were Kidnapped by Aliens. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Klass, Philip (1989). UFO Abductions: A Dangerous Game. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Korff, Kal (1995). Spaceships of the Pleiades: The Billy Meier Story. Amherst NY: Prometheus. Matheson, Terry (1998). Alien Abductions: Creating a Modern Phenomenon. Amherst NY: Prometheus Intelligent Life Beyond Earth Bova, Ben (2004). Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth. NYC: William Morrow. Drake, Frank, & Sobel, Dava (1992). Is Anyone Out There? The Scientific Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. NYC: Delta. Regis, Edward (1985). Extraterrestrials: Science and Alien Intelligence. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Sagan, Carl (1973). The Cosmic Connection. NYC: Dell. Roswell Klass, Philip (1997). The Real Roswell Saucer Coverup. NYC: Prometheus. Korff, Kal (1997). The Roswell UFO Crash: What They Don’t Want You to Know. Amherst NY: Prometheus. UFOs Condon, E. (1969). Scientific Study of Unidentified Flying Objects. NYC: Bantam. Frazier, Kendrick, Karr, Barry, & Nickell, Joe (Eds.) (1997). The UFO Invasion: The Roswell Incident, Alien Abductions, and Government Coverups: NYC: Prometheus Books. Glenday, Craig (1999). The UFO Investigator’s Handbook. London: Eddison-Sadd. Klass, Philip (1974). UFOs Explained. NYC: Vintage Books. Klass, Philip (1983). UFO: The Public Deceived. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Sagan, Carl, & Page, T. (1972). UFOs: A Scientific Debate. NYC: W. W. Norton. Sheaffer, Robert (1989). UFO Sightings: The Evidence. Buffalo NY: Prometheus. Tacker, Lawrence (1960). Flying Saucers and the U.S. Air Force. Princeton NJ: D. Van Nostrand. 533580797 www.CMASTE.ca 67 Draft copy for review Magazines Sceptic Sceptical Inquirer Websites Amazing Randi Australian Sceptics CSICOP Jim Lippard’s links Skeptic’s Dictionary Skeptic News Prometheus Books Univ. of Syracuse 533580797 http://www.randi.org/ http://www.sceptics.com.au http://www.csicop.org/ http://www.discord.org/skeptical/ http://www.skepdic.com http://www.skepticnews.com http://www.prometheusbooks.com http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html www.CMASTE.ca 68
