ABSTRACT
TIME MANAGEMENT AND
PROJECT SCHEDULING
[Document subtitle]
Time Management is about controlling the use of
your most valuable (and undervalued) resource.
Consider these two questions: what would happen if
you spent company money with as few safeguards as
you spend company time, when was the last time
you scheduled a review of your time allocation?
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Time Management .......................................................................................................................... 9
The four generations of time management ................................................................................... 9
First generation: reminders ........................................................................................................ 9
Second generation: planning and preparation ........................................................................... 9
Third generation: planning, prioritizing, controlling ................................................................ 10
Fourth generation: being efficient and proactive..................................................................... 10
Project management .................................................................................................................... 10
The Project Manager ................................................................................................................ 11
The Traditional Triple Constraints ............................................................................................ 11
Time ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Cost ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Scope ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Meaning of the Term “Project” .................................................................................................... 12
Project in the Rural Development Context ................................................................................... 13
From a Problem to a Project ......................................................................................................... 14
From the Idea to the Project......................................................................................................... 15
Project Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 15
Stages of Project ....................................................................................................................... 15
Project Emergence .................................................................................................................... 17
Creating the Project .................................................................................................................. 18
Motivation Triangle................................................................................................................... 18
Definition of Purpose ................................................................................................................ 19
Quality criteria for an identified and relevant objective .......................................................... 20
Types of Project ........................................................................................................................ 21
Main Concept and Aspects of Project ........................................................................................... 21
For and Against of Project Development ...................................................................................... 22
Positioning of the Project ............................................................................................................. 23
The project compass rose ......................................................................................................... 24
Metaplan or the Card Method ...................................................................................................... 24
Metaplan or the Card Method .................................................................................................. 24
The Problem Tree and the Solution Tree ...................................................................................... 26
Writing an Objective ..................................................................................................................... 27
Diagram of Objectives ................................................................................................................... 28
Example of a Diagram of Objectives ......................................................................................... 28
Actions ...................................................................................................................................... 28
Tools of Scheduling ....................................................................................................................... 29
The Planning Table .................................................................................................................... 29
The GANTT Chart ...................................................................................................................... 29
Example of the GANTT Chart .................................................................................................... 30
The PERT Chart.......................................................................................................................... 30
Example of a PERT Chart ........................................................................................................... 30
The TREND Chart ....................................................................................................................... 31
Example of a Trend Chart ......................................................................................................... 31
Meaning of Leading a Project ....................................................................................................... 32
Basics for Leading a Project ...................................................................................................... 32
Key Points of a Project Leading................................................................................................. 32
Software Support for Project Emergence and Leading ............................................................ 35
Monitoring and Evaluation ................................................................................................... 35
Quality Control ...................................................................................................................... 35
Systemic Approach................................................................................................................ 35
Evaluation of context ............................................................................................................ 36
Evaluation of input ................................................................................................................ 36
Evaluation of implementation .............................................................................................. 36
Evaluation of results ............................................................................................................. 36
Monitoring and Control of Results ....................................................................................... 36
EVALUATION REPORT ............................................................................................................... 37
INTERMEDIATE REPORT ............................................................................................................ 37
INTERMEDIATE REPORT ............................................................................................................ 37
FINAL REPORT ........................................................................................................................... 37
Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 37
Links .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Abstract:
Time Management is about controlling the use of your most valuable (and undervalued)
resource. Consider these two questions: what would happen if you spent company money with
as few safeguards as you spend company time, when was the last time you scheduled a review
of your time allocation?
The absence of Personal Time Management is characterized by last minute rushes to meet
dead-lines, meetings which are either double booked or achieve nothing, days which seem
somehow to slip unproductively by, crises which loom unexpected from nowhere. This sort of
environment leads to inordinate stress and degradation of performance. Possibly, the reason
Time Management is poorly practiced is that it so seldom forms a measured part of appraisal
and performance review; what many fail to foresee, however, is how intimately it is connected
to aspects, which do. The most daunting external appointments are deadlines: often, the
handover of deliverables. Do you leave the work too late? Is there commonly a final panic
towards the end?
The basic idea is that your management of personal deadlines should be achieved with exactly
the same techniques you would use in a large project, using project management (project
scheduling) tools: check the specification - are you sure that you agree on what is to be
delivered, break the task down into small sections so that you can estimate the time needed for
each, and monitor progress, schedule reviews of your progress (e.g. after each sub-task) so that
you can respond quickly to difficulties. If simple project planning and time management show
that the task can not be done, then it will not be done - but by knowing at the start, you have a
chance to do something about it.
Trainer team: xxxxxxxxxxx
Presentation period: twice during December 2006 and March 2007
Duration: 4 weeks, 20 hours
Venue: Contact lessons (2x 4 hours) plus 12 hours online
Cost:
50 € for onsite training, theoretical online training - free
The target groups:
Farm women working managing larger farms with many parallel activities.
Farm women, who have an interest in exact time and project management tools and skills.
It is not for beginners. There is an assumption to have some managerial experiences and skills.
The requirements:
For the onsite course: xxxxxxxxxx
For online learning: Computer access, Internet access
The course will be made available in English and can be easily located to other languages and
cultures.
Objectives:

Learn about the needs of effective time scheduling and work allocation

Learn about the role of projects in modern agricultural companies

Learn about the different kinds of projects and its relations to personal time
management

Learn about some exact tools for time scheduling, project emergence and leading

Acquire computer based basic skills

Transfer the skills to suitable areas of work and life
Didactical approaches/teaching methods:
Basically, a blended e-learning approach will be applied. There will be introductory onsite
session with best practices demonstrations, where the learners get an introduction to all topics.
This session is followed by a four-week tutor-moderated online workshop; where the
trainees acquire skills and improve their abilities and knowledge in time scheduling,
problem analyzing, project emergence and leading.
Team- and pair-work will be used intensively in the online sessions.
In a final session the trainees try out their skills.
Structure and topics of the Course:

Lesson 1: Personal Time Management with relations to Project Scheduling 4 hours

Lesson 2: Projects in the Rural Development Context – 2 hours

Lesson 3: From a Problem to a Project, Project Stages – 2 hours

Lesson 4: Personal, Collective, Company and Territorial Projects – 4 hours

Lesson 5: Time Scheduling Tools 4 hours

Lesson 6: Tracking Progress and Slippage Management, workshop 4 hours
Contents and tasks of the course:

Lesson 1: Introduction 4 hours
Introduction to the Time and Project Management, analysis of needs on the initial workshop
Learning and working online
Presentation of best practices.
Practical fieldwork with sheep and border collies

Lesson 2: Warm-up – Projects in Rural Context – 2 hours
Meaning of the Term “Project”.
Special project features in rural areas. Agricultural companies are in doubt, the farmer
profession in doubt (pollution, quality). Higher risks in all activity segments and in all regions.
Finding and sharing information

Lesson 3: From a Problem to a Project – 2 hours
There is no project without questioning, without a problem
You do not express a problem without intending to solve it, without a project. Defining a
problem is the first stage in finding solutions, solving it, that is mobilizing the actors in a project.
Main role always plays the limited time frame.
Sharing of information in the virtual classroom

Lesson 4: Project Types – 4 hours
Main Concept and Aspects of Project of various levels - Personal, Collective, Company and
Territorial. Working with project templates.
Finding and sharing information on best practices and Cases.

Lesson 5: Time Scheduling Tools 4 hours
Meta Plan, Action Sheet, Time Sheet, Gantt Chart, WBS Chart, Network Diagram
Elaboration and analyzing of simple projects using these tools.

Lesson 6: Tracking Progress, Managing Slippage, Reflecting the reality.: Tolls or
comparing Project Baseline and Schedule with the reality. Updating project parameters,
rescheduling time plans. Trials, mediation, transfer 4 hours
Classroom: Mediation, reflection, transfer of the theories and skills.
Resources, literature, media:
Case studies and best practices will be broadly used.
Literature
Blair, G.M.: "Personal Time Management for Busy Managers", IEE Engineering Management
Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 33-38, Feb 1992.
Morgenstren, J: „Time Management From The Inside Out“, Henry Holt and Co, New York, 2004
Kerzer H.: Project Management: A System Approach to Planning, Scheduling and Controlling.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000
Links
http://ga.timemanagements.net
http://www.projectmanagement.com
http:// www.OrganizeWay.com
Assessment:
Each trainee will elaborate a small project based on her real-life experiences.
Furthermore, there will be a group presentation of each trainee’s project with major regard to
its time schedule.
Time Management
Time management includes tools or techniques for planning and scheduling time, usually with
the aim to increase the effectiveness and/or efficiency of personal and corporate time use.
These are embodied in a number of books, seminars and courses, which may offer conflicting
advice. The common denominators of these strategies are a to-do-list, setting priorities and
goal management. Some of the best known examples of time management strategies are tied
to specific lines of time management products. Time management for personal use is a type of
self-management. In a corporate setting, time management software can satisfy the need to
control employees, make it easier to coordinate work and increases accountability of individual
employees. Planning time and writing to-do-lists also consumes time and needs to be
scheduled. This is one of the major criticisms of time management.
Time management strategies are usually associated with the recommendation to set goals.
These goals are written down and broken down into a project, an action plan or a simple to-dolist. Deadlines are set and priorities are assigned to the individual items on the to-do-list. This
process results in a daily plan with a to-do-list. Some authors recommend a weekly instead of a
daily perspective (en.wikipedia.org).
The four generations of time management
First generation: reminders
Aficionados of this approach limit their time management efforts to keeping lists and notes.
They see these papers as reminders. Items that are not done by the end of the day are
transferred to the next day's list in the evening. Covey also calls this type of style the "Far
Eastern, Go with the Flow".
Second generation: planning and preparation
People in the second generation use calendars and appointment books. They will note where
meetings are held and identify deadlines; this is sometimes even done on a computer. As
opposed to the first generation, the second generation plans and prepares, schedules future
appointments and set goals.
Third generation: planning, prioritizing, controlling
Third generation time managers prioritize their activities on a daily basis. They tend to use
detailed forms of daily planning on a computer or on a paper-based organizer. This approach
implies spending some time in clarifying values and priorities.
Fourth generation: being efficient and proactive
Stephen R. Covey in First Things First, refers to his approach as the so-called 4th generation
time management. For the fourth generation, he emphasizes the difference between urgency
and importance in planning.
However some critics of time management methods consider that the whole concept of
prioritizing by importance is flawed since once a project has been taken on all the work relating
to it needs to be done. Questions of importance or non-importance are irrelevant. An
illustrative example would be the building of an automobile, where the engine and wheels may
be more important than the rear-view mirror and the carpets, but nevertheless a complete
automobile would need the rear-view mirror and the carpets just as much as the engine and
wheels. The critics would say that Covey correctly notes that, if you always action things on the
basis of urgency, non-urgent things are never going to get done. But he fails to note that exactly
the same applies to importance - if you always action things on the basis of importance then
when do the non-important things get done? If trivial things are allowed to build up, they will
gum up the works so effectively that the important work won't get done either.
Once an item that is characterized as unimportant is perceived to be necessary to an important
objective, however, its priority should be adjusted to a higher level. Planning cannot be static.
As von Moltke is reputed to have said, "Planning is everything. Plans are nothing."
(en.wikiedia.org)
Project management
Project management is the discipline of organizing and managing resources in such a way that
these resources deliver all the work required to complete a project within defined scope, time,
and cost constraints. A project is a temporary and one-time endeavor undertaken to create a
unique product or service. This property of being a temporary and a one-time undertaking
contrasts with processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent ongoing
functional work to create the same product or service over-and-over again. The management of
these two systems is often very different and requires varying technical skills and philosophy,
hence requiring the development of project management.
The first challenge of project management is ensuring that a project is delivered within the
defined constraints. The second, more ambitious, challenge is the optimized allocation and
integration of the inputs needed to meet those pre-defined objectives. The project, therefore,
is a carefully selected set of activities chosen to use resources to meet the pre-defined
objectives.
The Project Manager
Project Management is quite often the province and responsibility of an individual project
manager. This individual seldom participates directly in the activities that produce the end
result, but rather strives to maintain the progress and productive mutual interaction of various
parties in such a way that overall risk of failure is reduced.
Any type of product or service - buildings, vehicles, electronics, computer software, financial
services, etc. - may have its implementation overseen by a project manager and its operations
by a product manager.
The Traditional Triple Constraints
Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain
constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as: scope, time, and cost. A further
refinement separates product 'quality' or 'performance' from scope, and turns quality into a
fourth constraint.
The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project. The cost
constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers
to what must be done to deliver the project. These three constaints are often competing
constraints: increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time
constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean
increased time and reduced cost.
The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable
the project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these
constraints.
Time
Typically broken down for analytical purposes into the time required to complete the
components of the project, which is then further broken down into the time required to
complete each task contributing to the completion of each component.
Cost
Cost to develop a project depends on several variables including (chiefly): labor rates, material
rates, risk management, plant (buildings, machines, etc.), equipment, and profit. When hiring
an independent consultant for a project, cost will typically be determined by the consultant's or
firm's per diem rate multiplied by an estimated quantity for completion.
Scope
Requirements specified for the end result. The overall definition of what the project is
supposed to accomplish, and a specific description of what the end result should be or
accomplish. A major component of scope is the quality of the final product. The amount of time
put into individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some tasks may require a
given amount of time to complete adequately, but given more time could be completed
exceptionally. Over the course of a large project, quality can have a significant impact on time
and cost (or vice versa).
(en.wikipedia.org)
Meaning of the Term “Project”


Why do we speak about “projects” so much?
We could say we are in a “project” culture.
Nevertheless, this word has a vast meaning, and includes numerous realities.
For example, what do these projects have in common: someone who wants to build a house, a
young woman recently qualified wishing to travel abroad, a group of farmers who wants to
develop new activities or a project to maintain and ensure the social and economic
development of a territory?
The project, or a dream becoming an action, is the answer to a need of rationality when you are
faced with the complexity of development.
Therefore, all development projects are the blend of 4 different ways of reasoning:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The State’s reasoning
The territorial authorities reasoning
The companies reasoning
The local authorities reasoning
The State’s reasoning , descending, whose purposes are the nation balance and who
participates through financial, statutory and decision-making tools
The territorial authorities reasoning (communes, associations of communes, departments,
regions, different administrative areas according to the division into countries of the European
Union); this reasoning is called horizontal and it ensures social, cultural and economic
prosperity with financial tools and infrastructures
The companies reasoning , according to the integration of chains (product – distribution –
consumption), by supervising profitability and economic value added search
The local authorities reasoning , ascending, who take action individually or collectively around a
story, a living environment, economic opportunities and links.
These 4 ways of reasoning are all legitimate. The difficulty is to analyze and link them in order
to obtain coherent projects. There are too many experiences wherein projects come to clash
with each other or even sometimes disappear, resulting in a waste of energy, means and wishes,
to everybody’s disadvantage.
Project in the Rural Development Context
In the rural development context, the project concept also tries to answer the uncertainty of
the future.
In the following table you can see some main actual features of the rural context, which
motivate the project concept in order to face the changing future.
YESTERDAY: We knew where we were going
TODAY: An uncertain future
Reproducible patterns derived from research Loss of patterns: what works in one place does
results aiming at increasing productivity
not necessarily work in another
Many farms, a worthy image of the farmer Companies in doubt, the farmer profession in
profession
doubt (pollution, quality)
Strong and homogeneous demands from “Zapper” consumers and with fragmented
consumers
needs
Low and identified risks
Development was thought as a result of
Higher risks in all activity segments and in all
regions
Development is the result of economic, social
economic growth
and environmental aspects
Easily defined objectives, pre-established
You must start off from men and ideas, each
case individually
A wide range of answers
Guide mobilization
An advisory approach: imitation
Insure support for individual and collective
projects
The transition from the advisory service to the project can be summarised as follows
ADVISORY SERVICE
PROJECT
Spread operational information, what works
Work on adapting
Field of certainty
To have ideas, convert them into projects,
actions
Low or no risks
Field of uncertainties
Easy decision-making
There are risks: who takes the responsibility?
If one starts, the others will follow
Difficult decision-making
The adviser
The rural development agent
He must communicate the information, make He works on setting-up, introducing
the message understood, mobilise, convince
information and methodology, support
The farmer, or the craftsman
entrepreneur is a “spectator”
or
the The farmer, or the craftsman or the
entrepreneur is an actor, “project sponsor”
From a Problem to a Project
If we look at the etymology of the word “project”, we realise that “project” and “problem” are
two associated concepts [1] .
PROJECT comes from the Latin projicere, which means to launch forward.
PROBLEM comes from the Greek word proballein, which also means to launch forward.
Project and Problem both express the idea of launching forward either an intention or a dream
(for the word project), or a difficult question to be solved (for the word problem).
This close linguistic link shows us the complementarity of these words:
There is no project without questioning, without a problem
You do not express a problem without intending to solve it, without a project.
A project arises as an answer to a problematical situation. Wanting to “elaborate a project”
without carefully analysing what problems we want to tackle, is frequently destined for failure.
Defining a problem is the first stage in finding solutions, solving it, that is mobilising the
actors in a project.
Therefore we can define the project as an action sponsored by an individual or a group, aiming
at results that can be assessed during a limited period of time, in order to solve an identified
problem the individual or the group is concerned with.
From the Idea to the Project
Project Procedure
The aim of the project procedure [2] is for the actors to appropriate a set of methods serving
the action. This procedure includes three complementary approaches over a certain period of
time:



collect, analyse, choose (the actors, information, ideas, objectives)
dare, plan, lead (clues for solutions, actions)
valorise, assess, follow (the successes and the failures, reaching the objectives,
reorientations).
Stages of Project
In order to lead a project, which means to transform a vague idea, an imprecise wish, an
unclear problem, into a choice of stakes, priorities, strategy and actions, you must respect
several different stages.



Emergence phase
Elaboration phase
Completion phase
Emergence Phase : IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROJECT
a) identifying the problems, ideas, wishes
b) identifying the actors, the project sponsors
c) identifying the context, the territory
d) identifying the purposes and objectives
OPPORTUNITY OF THE PROJECT
Elaboration Phase : SETTING-UP THE PROJECT
a) imagine and examine the possible solutions to the problems, ideas, wishes
b) select solutions according to the chosen objectives
c) study the feasibility of these solutions from a technical, organisational and financial point of
view
d) finalise your choice according to conscious and organised criteria
e) plan the actions and mobilisation of the necessary resources in the long run
DECIDE THE ACTION
Completion Phase
a) implementing the means
b) launching the actions
c) following the actions
d) communicating information about the actions
e) quantitative and qualitative assessment
ACTING, FOLLOWING AND ASSESSING
We can see these different stages in the following graph:
Even if this presentation seems a bit fragmented, it is important to respect these different
stages: you can not move on to the next stage without checking the sponsors have finalised
and appropriated the previous stage.
Project Emergence
A phase called Emergence, is the phase “from the idea to the project”
This phase is a key point in the project formalisation. You lay the foundations in this phase. The
better you work on this phase, the easier it will be to build the project.
The initial idea may come from, either:



a wish for improvement (of living and working conditions, of the quality of work and
environment)
an expressed problem (there is too much unemployment, I no longer have the time, we
can't manage, there is too much pollution)
or a possible solution (let's create a cooperative, I am going to sell directly to the
consumer, we need more activities for young people)
In principle, every idea can lead to development. But only after it has been processed.
Dealing with the idea as a technical project may lead to forgetting hidden objectives, other than
those apparent.
The emergence phase allows you to “work on the initial idea”, and check it is a “real problem”
In order to reflect on the idea, one must consider:




express the idea, analyse what problems it refers to, what is it based on, what are the
motivations, what stakes does it answer (the content)
identify who the sponsor is, who expressed the idea first, who is associated, who
upgrades it, who develops it, who is against it (the play of the actors)
in what context is it expressed, what are the triggering elements, what does it involve,
how to approach it (the first research)
what coherence regarding the people, the axes of development of the territory, the
sectorial strategies, the potential partners (the opportunity)

assess the motivation of the actors until you decide to act, to move on from the idea to
the project (the decision)
Creating the Project
Creating the project means building the architecture of the project.
This phase can be considered as a global feasibility study of the clues for solutions identified
during the emergence work. The aim is to define and measure the change, risks, stakes, that
lead to the creation of the project.
This phase can mobilise specific study techniques and training approaches – assist the
operation sponsors.
Concerning studies, we can use bibliographies, experiences, and various studies: technical,
marketing, legal, financial, statutory … These vary according to the kind of the project.
Assistance is based on the analysis of motivation. It is worth implementing this latter, with
every operation sponsor. In order to do so, the “motivation triangle” is an interesting tool for
analysis.
Motivation Triangle
I must
I would like to
I can
I must : this concerns values and beliefs, the person’s references
I can : this concerns rationality, coherence, the analysis of advantages / disadvantages
I would like to : puts forward feelings, emotions, the irrational
In the absolute, a “good decision” is a balance between these three points. In practice, it is
necessary to check with the project sponsor (individual or group) where he positions himself in
this triangle. This helps the sponsor analyse the project from the other angles of the triangle.
For example, concerning a project to develop a rural tourism activity,
- “I must” may require a sense of welcoming, of solidarity between the town and countryside, …
- “I can” analyses the available space, the heritage to be developed, the local products to be
proposed, …
- “I would like to” puts forward the wish for open-mindedness, motivates meetings,
opportunities to change daily life, ...
These elements enable the group to identify its purposes and objectives: to choose alternatives.
This “creation” stage involves “writing” the project.
Definition of Purpose
The development of actions within a project involves five levels of expectation and organisation:
PURPOSE (or general objective)
GENERAL OBJECTIVES (or aims)
OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES
ACTIONS
MEANS
The purpose must be apprehended as a very wide objective we will not reach immediately; the
project will contribute to the target but it will not solve it alone.
For example:
To develop the attractiveness of a territory
To reduce the rural exodus of the young people
To develop a tourist area in the territory: with the necessary services and offering various
products.
When you move on, from the general objectives (or aims depending on the authors) to the
operational objectives, you specify in more detail what you intend to do.
For example:
To see to the living environment, implement a housing policy in rural areas, organise cultural
events through out the year, promote quality labels for the local agricultural products, … are
more specific objectives which contribute to the purpose of developing the attractiveness of a
territory.
Setting up 20 young farmers over a 4-year period is a specific objective contributing to the
reduction of the exodus of the young.
Concerning a rural development project for a territory, you notice it takes over 20 years to
reach the purpose. The general objectives (or aims) are set for 10 to 15 years. The operational
objectives are set for 3 or 4 years.
Therefore, establishing and writing the objectives are the key points at this stage.
Quality criteria for an identified and relevant objective
One specific result per One specific result and not a vague activity, intention or wish
objective
That can be assessed
Always consider “how are we going to assess the degree of
completion?”
With a deadline
The objective must set specific time of realization
Realistic and achievable
The objective must take into account the context and constraints
identified during the previous stage. There is always a risk of nonachievement of the objective; therefore the objective should not
be too high.
That can be
By the project sponsor or by the Rural Development Agent who is
responsible for support. Control means the ability to re-adjust
before it is too late.
controlled
Satisfying
This is the operational expression of wishes, of modification and
improvement expectations, as an answer to the needs expressed
and analysed during the emergence stage.
The project gives the action a meaning, an orientation, a coherence
It is necessary to define clearly what we are going to do
It must be sponsored
It encourages creativity and innovation.
We can distinguish several types of projects:




Personal Project
Company Project
Collective Project
Territory Project
Types of Project
Personal Project
Concerns wishes, ideas, actions of an individual
Company Project
On an institutional scale, to clarify the objectives and actions, in search of a “meaning”, strategy
and reasoning.
Collective Project
Together, several people try to answer a set of identical or similar questions they meet.
It is the result of alchemy between the charisma of a leader, the motivations of a group, the
originality of an action and the implementation possibilities.
Territorial project
The local authorities decide what are the maintaining and development axes of a specific
experienced and geographical area.
A long-term development project aims to strengthen the local economy, counting on solidarity
and local identity, ensuring participation and managing environmental quality.
Main Concept and Aspects of Project
The project answers the evolution of society, of change, of uncertainty management.
The project formalizes intentions.
There is a project when an individual or a group of people



is faced with an analysed and shared problem
defines purposes, an aim (what we want to do)
clarifies the objectives (results that can be assessed)


mobilises the necessary resources to reach the objectives (human, material,
organisational, financial, time-slots)
and foresees criteria and tools for monitoring and evaluation
In the Rural Development Agent’s case, to encourage and follow a rural development project
resources:



to master the project methodology
to integrate the project in a global development dynamics
to mobilise guidance methods which enable the group to “create”, express ideas,
examine clues for solutions, manage the way of working of the group
Four main aspects characterise a project [1]:
1. The project meets a unique and singular need. Therefore, there must be a certain uniqueness
between the person who puts forward the idea and the one leading the project.
2. The project takes place during a limited period of time: it has a beginning and an end.
3. The project is innovatory: this is ingenuity in order to adapt to each case. An answer to a
project cannot be transferred and used in another project. A project is not “repeatable”; it does
not meet a pattern reasoning.
4. The project is complex: beyond simple determination, you can no longer reason in a causal
relation. A project is complex, uncertain and it has numerous causes.
For and Against of Project Development
When developing project, one must not enter a “project dictatorship”. The project can deprive
the actor of his idea. It is an illusion to believe a project will solve everything. The project can
give an impression of postponing the necessary decisions.
The project can create powers and lead to a balance of power. The project can become an aim
in itself and forget what problem it intended to solve.
Advantages
It enables the management of uncertainty and complexity
It allows you to become an actor –author
It enables thinking in terms of innovation and creation
It enables interaction and negotiation between various
actors: creates a social link
It enables more efficient actions thanks to anticipation
and creation
It allows you to clarify the ideas
It questions the meaning of the action
Threats
This escape may hide an inability
It questions the actors competence
The procedure takes over the process
An “Actors Project” becomes a “project for an institution”
It creates a gap between the initial ambition and the
modesty of the action
Risk of disproportionate costs
Heavy procedures smother creation
Positioning of the Project
The very important issue one must consider while developing a project is to find a sponsor.
There is a grid which allows positioning the project type in order to adapt the support to the
sponsor of the individual or collective project. For this purpose you can consult the twodimensional space of the project and the compass rose [2] .
The project compass rose
Sector 1: technical innovation project
Sector 2: social change project
Sector 3: in search of meaning project
Sector 4: individual creative project
Each one of these motivations is legitimate. They are linked to different situations and contexts.
It is necessary to assess the type of project in order to find the best procedure to support and
lead the project.
Metaplan or the Card Method
The Metaplan method stimulates the communication and exchange of ideas in a group. It
enables group participation. It helps take into account the different opinions and structure
group work.
Metaplan or the Card Method
Objectives:

To help everyone express themselves

To enable the verbalization of different opinions

To produce ideas

To help a group take shared decisions
The three-question method:
1.
A broad question to start the debate (it can be the participants opinions about the initial
idea)
2.
A question to analyse the ideas. It must be precise and operational (for example about
the consequences of the situation).
3.
A question to draw priorities (for example by asking each participant to choose one key
element).
Instructions :
The meeting leader introduces a question and checks everyone has understood (to avoid any
misinterpretations).
He gives each person a few cards to write the answers to the question (depending on the case,
1 to 3 cards are handed out to each person).
Instructions on how to use the cards:

One idea per card

No more than 7 words to describe the idea

Big letters so they can be read from a distance

The meeting leader sticks the cards on a board or any other equipment, he reads them,
and asks for more details if necessary. Then, he asks the participants to group the cards
expressing similar or identical ideas. You obtain groups of ideas.

You follow the same procedure for the further question.
As for the question about priorities, the meeting leader asks each participant to come and tick,
with a felt pen, the group of ideas he has chosen. Then you count the number of ticks, but this
does not mean you abandon the other ideas. This allows you to see what the priorities are and
to organise the next stages of the project.
The Problem Tree and the Solution Tree
People often express a problem, a complaint, and expect an outside solution. When working
together to analyse the problem and look for solutions, this simple and operational guidance
aid allows you to clarify the “problem”.
Objectives

To transform a concern into a problem which will be analysed together

To set a global context of analysis

To identify the causes and consequences

To define priorities for the actions
The 4-Stage Method
1. The complaint, or concern, or initial idea is the tree trunk
2. The causes are the roots
3. The consequences are the branches
4. The discussion about the tree allows you to transform problems into clues for solutions
(the solution tree) and to establish priorities, the action plan.
Instructions

A white paper board or any other flat aid can be used to “draw” the tree.

Listen carefully to the initial idea, complaint (use the exact expression used by the
people, take your time to agree on this “main problem”).

Ask the participants to find the causes of this situation: where does it come from.

Identify the consequences: what it arises.

Sometimes, people prefer to think about the causes and consequences at the same time.
In this case, the meeting leader asks the group to specify whether it is a cause or a
consequence.

Do not hesitate to restate the ideas to make sure you understood them correctly.

Either the people express themselves orally and in this case, the meeting leader writes
the ideas on the tree. He must make sure everyone can participate.

Or the people write on the roots or branches. The meeting leader makes sure all is
comprehensible and coherent for everybody.

Once the tree has been built, the next task aims to propose clues for solutions for each
point of the problem: symbolically, the leaves become fruit.

Now, the group can choose to work on certain points of the tree before others. The
group realises that its specific action contributes to a wider problem.
There are other guidance support tools for this emergence phase. They all enable everyone to
communicate, a participatory work, to identify complex elements, produce reflection (and not
only to get together and talk …) and to analyse the initial idea in order to assess the opportunity
of the project.
Writing an Objective
Practical advice to write an objective:

Start with a specific action verb (avoid verbs such as “to know”, “to be able to”, “to
encourage”, …

One idea only per objective (write several objectives, rather than put several ideas into
the same objective)

Write short and precise objectives for a limited period of time, (for example, “organize
10 cultural meetings in the territory over the next 5 years”

Distinguish objective and mean (for example, creating an association is a mean, the
objective is the answer to “what do we want to do which requires the creation of this
association?”; “to have a meeting” is not an objective, the objective is “what objective
are we looking for by holding this meeting?”)

The objective must be assessable, that is measurable in a qualitative way (especially
regarding the general objectives to be reached compared to the stakes) and in a
quantitative way.
Diagram of Objectives
The objectives are organised using a Diagram of Objectives. Presenting the project as a shortterm project (3 to 4 years) illustrates this organisation and gives consistency to the project.
Example of a Diagram of Objectives
Actions
The following sheet can be used to make a global presentation of the objectives of the project:
“Expressing the project”
Purpose
1.:
General objectives
1.1:
1.2:
2.:
2.1:
2.2:
3.:
3.1:
Operational objectives
3.2:
The project sponsors
4.:
3.3:
4.1:
This type of presentation completes the diagram of objectives. This presentation remains static
whereas the diagram of objectives gives you a dynamic dimension of the project (interactions
between the objectives).
However, depending on the target public, this “Expressing the project” chart can be very useful
in order to formalise the project.
Tools of Scheduling
The Planning Table
The planning table is a table with columns (months or weeks) and rows in which planned
actions are marked. Lines show the period and duration of each action.
Planning also allows the compulsory milestones to be seen, where particular attention must be
brought. It allows checking (with the diary) that nothing has been forgotten and that the
schedule is observed.
The GANTT Chart
The GANTT Chart allows, in addition to the planning, the taking into account of a succession of
actions and to synchronise their completion.
This chart is read both horizontally (for the duration of each task) and vertically (for the linking
of the actions, called “Summary tasks”). It allows also the workload and the simultaneity of
several actions to be shown. This is especially important for resources management (human,
financial, material) and consequently for the proper project's sequencing.
Example of the GANTT Chart
The PERT Chart
The PERT Chart (or Network Diagram) displays tasks and task dependencies in a network or
flowchart format. A box (sometimes called a node) represents each task, and a line connecting
two boxes represents the dependency (and its type eventually, where FS means Finish to Start,
SS means Start to Start etc.) between the two tasks. Using this diagram is a best way to analyze
logical dependencies between project tasks – see the following figure.
Example of a PERT Chart
The TREND Chart
The Trend Chart is an overall tool, which shows, at a glance, the essential information on the
project's progress by grouping together the objectives, the resources used, the participants
involved. The trend chart must, moreover, be clear and simple in order to be a real tool for
managing, visualisation and follow-up.
Some advice for producing a Trend Chart

Show the strategic objectives and the key points for success of the project

Thoughts for helping the resolving of questions

Target some indicators that will help in the decision making

It is not just a matter of financial indicators

Involve different actors in the production and use of the trend chart

Make sure the trend chart is well appropriated whilst realising that such a thing requires
time

Update the trend chart continuously during the project's progress

Illustrate it and communicate the results
Example of a Trend Chart
Actions Actors
Objectives
1.
1.1
1.2
2.
2.1
3.
3.1
3.2
Partners Development Financing
Schedule
Meaning of Leading a Project
At this stage of a project's life, it is a matter of conducting the project's operational
management. In that, leading a project means recognition of the "living" and progressive aspect
of any project.
The confrontation with realities always makes what one has best forecast and planned,
different. Let us not forget the meaning of the project's concept contemplating the future
always introduces surprises. In order to hold true to reacting best to unavoidable changes, the
method of leading a project helps to carry out quickly the necessary readjustments.
You must bear in mind that the project must suit the reality and complexity ground and not to
force the complexity and the richness of the ground into a strict framework.
Basics for Leading a Project

The project is complex: representations such as the diagram of objectives reflect this.
They allow best to adapt and react without losing the consistency of the whole project.
They help emphasise possible contradictions in the project.

The project is unique: one can base on the same method of working (emergence,
creation, leading) but that is never reduced to a typical “cut and pasted” reproduction.

The project's sponsor (an individual or a group) is clearly identified: in the linking of
actions and responsibilities, this aspect is always present.

The project introduces opportunities: the procedure based on objective allows
contemplating what is possible and innovating.
The project leading tools aim at ensuring the procedure’s technical management, time to be
properly managed and to be given “signals” for attracting attention to key points and key stages.
Key Points of a Project Leading
KEY POINT
Content
Recommendation
1. The purpose
Formulise it in writing, as soon as
This is the “WHAT?” of the
possible,
with
the
project
project.
sponsor(s).
2. The reasons
This is the explanation, the This stage can need an in-depth
“WHY?” of the project.
study. The project sponsor(s) must
appropriate it.
KEY POINT
Content
Recommendation
3. The objectives
The objectives can only be defined
This is the “WHAT EXACTLY?”, after a careful analysis of the needs
the “HOW MUCH?”, the “FOR and the opposing actors.
WHEN?” of the project. It is an
exact and solid declination of The more the objectives are exact,
what one wants to end up the more the project will be “easy”
to lead, to follow-up and to
with.
evaluate.
KEY POINT
Conten
4. The resources
This is the “HOW?”, the “WITH Be aware that one can no longer do
WHAT?” and the “WITH it all alone: one has an interest in
WHOM?”.
“playing partners”.
5. The schedule
Be both pragmatic and realistic. Do
not under-estimate the time to be
This is the “TIME AXIS”, the invested in group guidance and
project sequencing in the long dynamics so that action time is
run
effective. Being able “to lose time”
at the beginning in order to gain it
later.
KEY POINT
content
Recommendation
Recommendation
Give a particular importance to
circulation of information between
people.
6. The roles
These are the “PEOPLE” who Clarify who does what, and the
will be involved in the project rules.
throughout its completion.
Allow time to get to know one
another, match formal times with
informal moments
Provide for consistency and co-
operation in the group.
KEY POINT
content
Recommendation
It is normal for there to be some.
7. The fears
These are the DIFFICULTIES, the Keep a place where they can be
RISKS that arise.
expressed, a framework where they
can be processed.
To be constantly concerned with
adaptation to the ground.
8. The adjustments
These are the TYPES
POSSIBLE
ANSWERS
adapting to the realities.
KEY POINT
content
OF
for Reason through Better Solutions of
retrenchment (MESORE) in order to
better
manage
the
difficult
situations.
Recommendation
It is essential to communicate
internally and externally.
9. The communication
KEY POINT
10. The assessment
Enhance the “small stages” rather
This
is
the
“WHAT than wait for the big media “deals”
INFORMATION?”,
“TO .
WHOM?”, and “WHEN?”.
Know how to choose the best
adapted communication tools and
be concerned with their usefulness
and their impact.
content
Recommendation
The follow-up aims at continuously
managing
and
permanently
This is both the project's readjusting.
FOLLOW-UP, the CONTROLS
The controls are necessary for
and the EVALUATIONS.
reporting.
The evaluations aim at making a
statement at a given moment in
order to see “how one is
progressing”.
They are used for improving the
project's action.
Software Support for Project Emergence and Leading
Project management software comes in many different levels of sophistication and at prices
ranging from $25 to $20,000 or more. Software itself does not make project managers more
effective; it just makes them more efficient.
Project management software does not teach how to define scope or how to make clear
assignments to the team members. In the majority of cases it helps only in the phase of project
scheduling, sometimes in the phase of project planning.
The most powerful software for project management at a professional level - multi-project
environment, large project up to thousands of tasks and thousands of resources, LAN and team
communication capabilities include Microsoft Project 2007 (Standard or Professional with
Server) and Primavera Project Planner.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Among other products Open Plan, Cobra, Enterprise PM or Micro Planner X-Pert play a quite
important role.
The Monitoring of activities and Evaluation of results play a very important role in the project
cycle. The evaluation is often considered a last phase of the project management process.
Actually, in order to ensure the positive results of the initiative, more complete and effective
method is to include in the activity of evaluation also the monitoring of actions in course.
Quality Control
The activities of Monitoring and Evaluation must contain both quality of product, so it is of an
initiative undertaken and quality of process, what means an integrated system of activities,
which starts at analyses of territory’s needs and ends at the evaluation of results.
Systemic Approach
The most complete approach to the Evaluation and Monitoring activity, is among other
different approaches, the Systemic Approach. According to this approach, the evaluation is a
continuous process, which comprises the series of steps, from information gathering to their
critical analysis. A characteristic element of this approach is the feed-back mechanism, based
on following phases: action-evaluation-decision-action.
The process of systemic evaluation is made up by four phases:
1. Evaluation of context
2. Evaluation of input
3. Evaluation of execution of the operation
4. Evaluation of results
Evaluation of context
The territorial context is analysed during this phase. The activity of territorial animation is
ascertained in refer to other development actions and to local needs.
Evaluation of input
The aim of the evaluation of input is to improve the experimental and formalized procedures,
which are devoted to evaluate the relations between interventions of territorial development
and results planned. Available resources and objectives to achieve are evaluated in this phase,
information necessary for planning of the intervention is gathered and the model of evaluation
to use is defined.
Evaluation of implementation
In this phase the continuous monitoring of the process of the activities implementation is
carried out, in order to notice timely the difficulties in the achievement of objectives or
eventual defects in planning of the intervention. Such an evaluation has the advantage that the
corrections can be made in the action’s course not waiting for the conclusion.
Evaluation of results
The evaluation of results finishes the process. In this phase information about effects of the
activity on the territory is gathered. The global evaluation of the intervention is carried out by
gathering data of all four levels of activity, for the continuous improve.
Monitoring and Control of Results
The Monitoring activity should determine the following data:

administrative – from the activity management process (Administrative Auditing);

productive – from the activities’ accomplishment process (Activity Auditing);

about the impact on the Project’s Beneficiary (Benefit Survey).
EVALUATION REPORT
The monitoring process must envisage Reports on the progress and on the results achieved.
Reports may be:

MidTerm or Intermediate Report - in course

Final Report – at the end of the project
INTERMEDIATE REPORT
The intermediate monitoring report describes the activities carried out and the results obtained
in each phase, and in particular:

the achieved results of activities’carried out;

the problems met, strong and weak points of project’s implementation;

to what extend the planned objectives of the project have been achieved;

the activities envisaged for the next phase.
INTERMEDIATE REPORT
The intermediate monitoring report is an essential document for discussing the project, for
planning and for the internal partnership’s control and may be a base for the payments from
the Contracting Authority.
FINAL REPORT
The final report describes the general activities carried out and the results achieved during the
activities’ implementation. It contains the summary of the most important results too.
It is important reports are prepared according to the rules determined by the financing
organisation.
Literature
Blair, G.M.: "Personal Time Management for Busy Managers", IEE Engineering Management
Journal , vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 33-38, Feb 1992.
Morgenstren, J: „Time Management From The Inside Out“, Henry Holt and Co, New York, 2004
Kerzer H.: Project Management: A System Approach to Planning, Scheduling and Controlling.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000
Links
http://ga.timemanagements.net
http://www.projectmanagement.com
http://www.OrganizeWay.com