Measuring Physiological Responses Of
Consciousness
States of consciousness cannot be directly observed or
measured. Concepts that cannot be directly observed such
as intelligence, or personality traits such as warmth, honesty
or anxiety are called hypothetical constructs. Because we
cannot directly observe these concepts, they are difficult to
measure. Most of the knowledge we have about states of
consciousness we have inferred from information we have
collected about their behaviour, their physiological
responses, and from information given by the individuals as
well.
The most objective (and therefore the most reliable)
information we can gather about states of consciousness
comes from measuring their physiological responses in
different states of consciousness. Different patterns of
physiological responses are associated with different states
of consciousness. Once psychologists determine how our
body reacts during ordinary waking consciousness, any
changes that occur in measurements can be associated with
ASC. Measurements of physiological responses, such as
brain wave patterns, heart rate, body temperature and
electrical conductivity of the skin can provide psychologists
with information about an individual’s state of
consciousness.
Electrical Activity of The Brain
The electrical activity of the brain can be measured by using
an electroencephalograph (EEG).
Frequency refers to the number of brain waves per unit of
time. The higher the frequency, the faster the brain waves
move which means that there are more brain waves per unit
of time.
Low frequency
High frequency
Amplitude refers to the size of the peaks and troughs – the
height of the brainwave.
Low amplitude
High amplitude
These variations have enabled researchers to identify four
different types of brainwaves: alpha, beta, theta and delta
waves, each having its own characteristic brainwave pattern.
These different brainwaves accompany different states of
consciousness.
Types Of Brain Waves
Beta brain waves have a high
frequency and low amplitude.
Are associated with NWC,
and focused attention
(someone who is awake, alert
and active).
Alpha waves have medium
frequency and medium
amplitude. Associated with a
relaxed, wakeful or
meditative state.
Theta waves have a
relatively low frequency and
a mix of high and low
amplitude waves. Are
associated with early stages
of sleep.
Delta waves have the lowest
frequency and highest
amplitude. Are associated
with the deepest stages of
sleep.
Heart Rate
In some ASC’s, heart rate increases, whilst in other ASC’s,
heart rate decreases from that in NWC. For example, in
meditation, sleep and whilst unconscious the heart rate is
likely to decrease. In contrast, when in an ASC through the
use of stimulants, the heart rate is likely to increase.
Body Temperature
A general pattern has been identified that indicates that
body temperature changes slightly during some ASC’s. The
most obvious is that whilst asleep the body temperature
decreases markedly.
Galvanic Skin Response
The Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is a physiological
response which indicates changes in the electrical
conductivity of the skin to an electrical current (through
perspiration). The experience of high emotional arousal
leads to an increase in perspiration, increasing the electrical
conductivity of the skin. Since ASC’s involve heightened and
reduced emotional reactions, the GSR can be used to
indicate a change in consciousness.
Although these measurements of physiological responses are
useful in helping us determine state of consciousness, they
should not be used alone. Physiological changes can occur for a
number of reasons, not just because there is a change in a
person’s state of consciousness. For example, if we were
extremely excited, or very anxious about something, or we have
just had a cup of coffee, this would cause changes in our
physiological responses. We are not necessarily in a different
state of consciousness. Psychologists need to use other
methods as well as measuring physiological responses to
determine an individual’s state of consciousness. They need to
make observations of behaviour and obtain self-reports from
subjects in conjunction with measuring physiological responses.
Review Questions
1. Give two examples of naturally occurring ASCs and two examples of self induced
ASCs.
Self induced_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Naturally occurring_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How can internal factors such as moods, expectations and motivation impact on
an individual’s experience of pain? Use an example to illustrate your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Complete the following table which summarises the indicators for four
physiological measurements of states of consciousness.
Measurement of
responses
Electrical activity
of the brain
(EEG)
Heart rate
Body
temperature
Galvanic skin
response
Normal waking
consciousness
Altered state of
consciousness
Higher in altered states
associated with the use of
stimulants
4. Complete the following:
(a) Electrical activity in the brain is measured with an
____________________________
(b) Brainwave patterns associated with normal waking consciousness have a _______
frequency and _______ amplitude. These are called beta waves.
(c) A _____________ construct, such as consciousness, is a term used to describe
something that is believed to exist but cannot be directly observed or measured.
(d) _______________ is an ASC characterised by deep mental and physical
relaxation and a reduction in physiological arousal.
(e) Brainwaves that have a low frequency and high amplitude are called
______________ waves, and are associated with the deepest stages of sleep.
5. Complete the following table by cutting and pasting the information on the next
page into their correct places.
Normal Waking
Consciousness
Characteristics of
ASC’s
Perceptual and Cognitive
Distortions
Disturbed Time Sense
Changes In Emotional
Feeling
Self-Control
Altered State Of
Consciousness
Cut out the following boxes and paste them into their correct position on the table on
the previous page. 
Time seems to pass at a
different speed- some
faster or slower
depending on the state
and individual.
Individuals emotional
feelings are normal.
Their expressions of
these emotions are
appropriate and
predictable.
Memory is normal,
thoughts are organised
and individuals are in
touch with reality.
In some instances
individuals become more
receptive to external
stimuli or dulls them so
that they are not
experienced at all.
Sometimes
hallucinations occur.
Difficulty coordinating
movements, controlling
emotions. Individuals
can be more susceptible
to suggestion.
Emotions and behaviour
are easily controlled.
Individuals are less
susceptible to
suggestion.
Individuals can be more
or less emotional.
Unpredictable and
inappropriate emotional
reactions can occur.
Time appears to pass at
a normal speed. It is not
distorted in any way.
Activity 2: Identifying characteristics of states of
consciousness
For the following scenarios state whether they constitute a normal state of
consciousness or an altered state of consciousness. For each you need to discuss
where each of the four main characteristics of ASC’s are present (or not).
1. Anthony is daydreaming in class, looking out the
window and thinking about his football game on the
weekend.
State- ________________________________________________________________
Perceptual and cognitive distortions_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Disturbed time sense_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Changes in emotional feelings_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Self-control_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Joanne accidentally touched the sizzling hot iron and
her finger is in pain.
State- ________________________________________________________________
Perceptual and cognitive distortions_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Disturbed time sense_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Changes in emotional feelings_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Self-control_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Tony is at the dentist having just woken up from the
general anaesthetic and is still experiencing its
effects.
State- ________________________________________________________________
Perceptual and cognitive distortions_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Disturbed time sense_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Changes in emotional feelings_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Self-control_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Jean is engaged in a concentrated state of meditation
by staring at a blue dot on the wall. While
concentrating, a yellow halo appears around its
perimeter. She feels totally physically relaxed and
time seems to slow down.
State- ________________________________________________________________
Perceptual and cognitive distortions_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Disturbed time sense_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Changes in emotional feelings_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Self-control_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Tom was arrested for drunk driving. His blood
alcohol level was above .05 and he was unable to
remember the address where he was staying, or the
number of drinks he had consumed. He was also
totally uninhibited and swore profusely at the police
officer.
State- ________________________________________________________________
Perceptual and cognitive distortions_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Disturbed time sense_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Changes in emotional feelings_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Self-control_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Ways To Study Sleep
With advancements in sleep technology, researchers have
been able to gain deeper insights into the mystery of sleep.
The techniques that we will be studying include sleep
laboratories, electroencephalographs (EEG),
electromyographs(EMG) and electrooculargrams (EOG).
 Sleep laboratories- most research on sleep takes place in
sleep laboratories. They are often attached to hospitals
and contain small rooms furnished like bedrooms and
decorated to be like ‘home’. An important piece of
equipment in sleep labs is the polygraph. This is a
machine that is located in a separate room and records
the output of the various devices attached to the sleeper
(e.g., electrical activity of the brain, heart rate, electrical
signals from muscles and movement of the eyes).
 Electroencephalograph (EEG)- is a device that detects,
amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain.
Different brain wave patterns can indicate different
stages of sleep.
 Electromyograph (EMG)- is a device used to detect,
amplify and record electrical activity of the muscles.
Recordings generally show changes in muscle activity,
muscle tone or muscle tension.

Electro-oculargram (EOG)- is a device used to detect,
amplify and record electrical activity of the muscles in the
eye that control eye movements. Is most commonly used
to measure changes in eye movements in different stages
of sleep.
Stages Of Sleep
It has been found that within the sleep cycle there are two
distinct types of sleep: REM sleep (rapid eye movement
sleep) and NREM sleep (non-rapid eye movement sleep).
These occur in continuous cycles, with one following the
other. A complete sleep cycle consists of a period of NREM
sleep (but not necessarily all 4 stages) and a period of REM
sleep (which increases in duration as the night progresses). A
complete cycle usually lasts for about 80 to 100 minutes and
we go through this cycle four or five times per night.
NREM sleep- approximately 80% of our sleep is in NREM sleep.
Is believed to be the time when our body recuperates. Consists of
four separate stages:
 Stage 1- occurs as we drift into and out of a true sleep state.
Decrease in heart rate, respiration, body temperature and muscle
tension (sometimes hypnic jerks). Mix of alpha and theta waves.
Lasts for around five to ten minutes.
 Stage 2- the point when we are truly asleep. Body movements
lessen, breathing becomes regular, blood pressure and body
temperature continues to fall, heart rate is slower. Sleep spindles
occur on EEG (brief bursts of higher frequency brain wave
activity). Mostly theta waves. Lasts for around 20 minutes.
 Stage 3- is the start of the deepest part of sleep. Heart rate, blood
pressure and body temp continue to drop and breathing is slow
and steady. Extremely relaxed and less responsive. Mix of theta
and delta waves.
 Stage 4- deepest stage of sleep. Muscles are completely relaxed
and we rarely move. People are hard to awaken from this stage
and when woken they find it difficult to reorient themselves (sleep
drunkenness). As night progresses, less and less time is spent in
stages 3 and 4. It is during stages 3 and 4 that sleep phenomena
and disorders occur.
REM sleep During REM sleep the eyeballs rapidly move beneath
the closed eyelids
 Consists of beta brain waves, similar to alert
wakefulness. It is considered to be deep sleep though
due to the fact that it is difficult to wake people in
REM sleep
 Heart rate is faster and more irregular, blood pressure
rises, breathing is quicker and more irregular
 Sleeper is totally relaxed, although there can be
occasional twitching movements in the muscles.
 Is also known as paradoxical sleep, as the brain and
body are active internally but appears calm and
inactive externally.
 Dreaming occurs during REM sleep (can also occur
during NREM sleep but is less frequent, less
memorable and less vivid)
 As the night progresses, the time spent in REM sleep
increases.
The graph below shows the amount of REM, NREM and
time awake the average person has during different stages of
their life.
Purpose Of Sleep
Researchers have pondered the question of why people sleep. Two
theories have been proposed and, while these two theories are
different in their approach, they are by no means mutually exclusive.
It may be that there are a number of reasons for why we need to
sleep. These two theories are called the restorative theory and the
survival theory.
 Restoration theory- suggests that sleep provides ‘time out’
for the body to replenish the stores of energy that have
been depleted during the day. It also allows any damaged
cells to be repaired and muscles to be detoxified.
Empirical research shows that during sleep muscles are
relaxed, body functions decrease and neural activity
decreases. NREM is said to restore the body and REM
sleep restores the mind. One criticism of this theory is
that people who are confined to bed or a wheelchair still
require the same amount of sleep as someone who is
highly active.
 Survival theory- suggests that sleep evolved to enhance
survival by protecting an organism by making it inactive
during the part of the day when it is most risky or
dangerous to move about, enhancing the survival of the
species. Empirical research shows that animals with few
natural predators spend most of their day sleeping.
Grazing animals that have many predators and find it
difficult to hide spend few hours per day sleeping. One
criticism of this theory is that it does not explain why
sleep involves a lack of consciousness.
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep deprivation refers to going without sleep. The extent of
the effects of sleep deprivation depends on the amount of
sleep lost and the period of time across which it occurs.
Sleep deprivation can be categorised into 3 separate
categories: total deprivation, partial deprivation and
selective deprivation.
Effects of sleep deprivation include:
 Psychological effects: problems with attention,
confusion or misperception. When required to
complete simple, monotonous, repetitive tasks they
make more errors than when not deprived of sleep.
However, when asked to complete complex, difficult
tasks, they show little difference.
 Physical effects: shaking, drooping eyelids, difficulty in
focusing eyes and increased sensitivity to pain. After
five days and nights the heart and respiratory systems
slow and some biochemical changes occur. No long
term serious effects have been found. Once person has
caught up on some of the lost sleep all negative effects
disappear.
 Behavioural and cognitive effects: in cases of extreme
sleep deprivation people can experience hallucinations
and delusions (Tripp).
Total sleep deprivation is difficult to measure because after
two or three days people automatically drift into periods of
microsleep (short periods of sleeping or drowsiness that
occurs while the person is apparently awake).
Microsleep brain wave patterns resemble early stages of
sleep. Once awoken from microsleep, individuals rarely
recall what happened.
The effects of sleep deprivation are temporary and only last
until the person is able to sleep. We do not need to fully
compensate for the hours of sleep lost. We only need a few
extra hours each night for a few nights.
Review Questions
1.
NREM
stage 1
EEG
records
EOG
records
EMG
records
Other
physiological
responses
Duration of
stage
Type of
dreams
Complete the following table summarising the main
distinguishing characteristics of NREM and REM sleep
periods. (From page 224 of your textbook).
NREM
stage 2
NREM
stage 3
NREM
stage 4
REM
2.
Write a paragraph or two comparing and contrasting the
restorative and survival theories of sleep. What
research has been done for each theory to support it?
What is a criticism of each theory?
Restorative theory__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Survival theory__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3.
What are the psychological and physiological effects of
prolonged sleep deprivation?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
4.
What are the possible effects of prolonged sleep
deprivation on performance of simple and complex tasks?
Give an example of each of these types of tasks.
Simple tasks__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Complex tasks__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
5. What is a microsleep? When is it more likely to occur?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
6.
Which stage of sleep is characterised by the following?
(NREM stage 1 sleep, NREM stage 2 sleep, NREM stage
3 sleep, NREM stage 4 sleep, or REM sleep?). Tick the
box for the stage each belongs in.
Sleep Activity
Sleep spindles
Slow wave sleep
Dreaming
Hypnic jerks
Very relaxed state. Least
responsive to external
stimuli
Paradoxical sleep
NREM
stage 1
NREM
stage 2
NREM
stage 3
NREM
stage 4
REM
Theta waves
Rapid eye movements
Slow delta waves begin
to appear
Occupies about 20% of
total sleep time
Follows REM sleep
EEG indicates the
dominance of delta
waves
Muscle paralysis
Occurs mostly in the first
half of the night
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Involves a person getting insufficient or poor-quality sleep.
There are 3 separate patterns: difficulty staying asleep
(sleep-maintenance insomnia), difficulty getting to sleep
(sleep onset insomnia) and awakening prematurely from
sleep (also called sleep-maintenance insomnia). Other
symptoms include consistently reduced amount of sleep,
complaint of poor sleep, and feeling tired during the day
(insomnia is diagnosed if one or more of these patterns are
present with specific symptoms at least 50% of the time over
several weeks).
An insomniac also generally shows more body movements,
higher heart rate and body temperature during sleep.
Causes of insomnia can be psychological (stress, changes in
lifestyle, etc), or physiological (illness, pain, use of drugs,
etc).
Treatment includes medication, dealing with issues, learning
relaxation, exercise and developing regular sleep patterns.
Hypersomnia
Involves excessive sleepiness during the day or sleep of
excessive duration. Has difficulty awakening and falls asleep
within seconds of getting to bed. They experience confusion
and disorientation upon awakening and are drowsy during
the day regardless of amount of sleep obtained.
Other conditions that may result in insomnia include
insomnia, depression, substance abuse, sleep apnea and
narcolepsy.
Occasional episodes have no long-term effects, but if persists
it can effect everyday functioning of the individual
Sleep apnea
A temporary suspension in breathing for short periods
during sleep. Breathing stops from periods between 30
seconds to two minutes and usually terminates in a loud
snore, body jerk, arm flinging or sitting upright. Some
people may have many attacks during the night, resulting in
chronic tiredness.
Two main causes are the failure of the ‘breathing centres’
of the brain or a narrowing of the airway (sometimes caused
by an excess of fatty tissue around the neck, the shape of the
jaw, obstruction of the airway or some illnesses or
medication).
Treatment depends on the cause. Some are treated with
tranquillisers to relax throat muscles, surgery to unblock
obstructions, or a nasal mask and pump to maintain
breathing during sleep.
Narcolepsy
Is a sleep disorder in which people experience sudden,
excessive and uncontrollable onsets of daytime sleeping
where they go from being awake straight into a period of
REM sleep (without going through NREM sleep). The
attacks occur without warning and can last from a few
minutes to an hour, recurring several times a day. Between
sleep attacks, people may feel tired and lethargic.
The onset of narcolepsy-induced sleep is often accompanied
by cataplexy (complete loss of muscle tone), leading to
collapse. However, sometimes cataplexy doesn’t coincide
with sleep attacks. The person appears to be asleep, but the
person is aware of what is going on around them.
Other effects include vivid and frightening dreams,
hallucinations, and episodes of paralysis upon waking up.
The cause is unclear but researchers think it may be due to a
chemical imbalance in the central nervous system.
Treatment includes prescribing stimulants, exercise,
avoiding boring repetitive jobs, discouraging alcohol, eating
small frequent meals and taking daytime naps.
Insomnia
Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep; also, not feeling
rested after sleeping.
Myoclonus (restless legs
syndrome)
Restless and annoying twitching movements in the leg muscles
that disturb sleep.
Narcolepsy
Sudden, irresistible, daytime sleep attacks that may last anywhere
from a few minutes to a half-hour. Victims may fall asleep while
standing, talking or even driving.
Sleep Apnoea
During sleep, breathing stops for 20 seconds or more until the
person wakes a little, gulps in air, and settles back to sleep; this
cycle may be repeated hundreds of times per night.
Sleep-wake schedule
disorder
A mismatch between the sleep-wake schedule demanded by a
person’s bodily rhythm and that demanded by the environment.
REM behaviour disorder
A failure of normal muscle paralysis, leading to violent actions
during REM sleep.
Nightmare disorder
Vivid recurrent nightmares that significantly disturb sleep.
Sleep drunkenness
A slow transition to clear consciousness after awakening;
sometimes associated with irritable or aggressive behaviour.
Hypersomnia
Excessive daytime sleepiness. Can result from depression,
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnoea, sleep drunkenness, nocturnal
myoclonus, drug abuse, and other problems.
Source: Coon, D. (1995). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and
Applications, Seventh Edition, St. Paul: West Publishing Company,
p162.
Sleep Disorder Cut and Paste
Below is a table containing information on sleep disorders. Cut out the boxes of
information on the following page and paste them into their correct positions on the
table below.
Sleep
Disorder
Insomnia
Hypersomnia
Sleep Apnea
Narcolepsy
What is it?
Causes?
Associated
effects?
Treatment/
Cure?
Cut out the following boxes and paste them into their correct position on the table on
the previous page. 
No known
treatment or cure
has been specified.
Treated using
stimulants to
prevent daytime
drowsiness. Other
drugs can be used
to minimise other
effects. Exercise,
adequate sleep and
daytime naps are
encouraged.
Is a problem which
involves
continually getting
poor quality or
insufficient sleep.
Other conditions
that can result in
this include
insomnia,
depression, drug
abuse, narcolepsy
and sleep apnea.
Associated effects
include loud
snoring, body jerks
and may be
awoken hundreds
of timed during the
night.
Causes include
failure of
‘breathing centres’
of the brain or a
narrowing of the
airway.
Treatment includes
tranquilisers to
relax throat
muscles, surgery to
open airways and
nasal masks to
regulate breathing
during sleep
Psychological
causes include
stress, fear or
anxiety.
Physiological
causes include
medical problems,
severe pain or
overuse of drugs.
Involves excessive
sleepiness when
awake or sleep of
excessive duration.
Treated using
medication to assist
with sleep.
Meditation, regular
sleep patterns,
stress management
and regular
exercise are also
used.
Involves sudden,
excessive and
uncontrollable
onsets of daytime
sleeping where
they go from
awake straight into
REM sleep.
Involves a
temporary
suspension in
breathing for short
periods during
sleep.
Associated effects
include lethargy,
cataplexy, vivid
and frightening
dreams,
hallucinations and
episodes of
paralysis for a
period of time after
waking up.
Associated effects
include difficulty
falling or staying
asleep as well as
awakening
prematurely. Can
involve more body
movements, high
heart rate and body
temperature.
Cause is still
unclear, but
researchers believe
it to be a
biochemical
imbalance in the
central nervous
system.
Associated effects
include extreme
difficulty
awakening,
drowsiness during
the day and
confusion upon
awakening.
Sleep Phenomena
As we have already seen, the brain is not inactive during
sleep. The brain remains active during REM and NREM
sleep, but the pattern of brain activity during sleep is
different to that of normal waking consciousness. This brain
activity has been linked to a range of sleep phenomena such
as nightmares, night terrors, sleepwalking and sleep talking.
Sleep phenomena are quite common in children and
adolescents. Adults can experience these too, however this is
more unusual. Sleep phenomena have the potential to
disrupt sleep. If they occur frequently and continue to
disrupt sleep, then they are considered to be sleep disorders.
‘Night terrors common to small children’
By Sally Squires
SUDDENLY, and with no warning, a
sleeping child jumps out of bed with a
scream. No amount of comforting helps to
quell the terror. And then just as quickly, the
child is silent again and quietly goes back to
sleep, often never even recalling the episode
the next day.
A psychotic attack? No. A bad dream? Not
exactly. It’s a night terror, one of the many
sleep disturbances known to afflict most
children and adolescents at some time during
their lives.
Children who experience night terrors are
suspended in an altered state of consciousness
between deep sleep and dream sleep. Unlike
nightmares, which may be recalled in minute
detail, youngsters who suffer night terrors
often have no recollection of the event.
Night terrors are one of a group of sleep
disturbances known as parasomnias. These
disturbances range from the benign sleep
talking to bruxism (teeth grinding), sleep
walking and the most extreme -–night terrors.
Yet despite their sometimes bizarre
appearance, sleep problems are a common
event of childhood. For many youngsters,
they are a kind of rite of passage as a child
moves from one developmental brain stage to
another.
“Thirty to 40 percent of all children have a
parasomnia attack once or twice during
childhood,” said Thomas Anders, an
American physician who directs a child and
adolescent psychiatry clinic. Less than one
per cent of children have it as a serious
recurrent problem that requires major
attention.”
Sleep disturbances can begin as early as the
first year of life. Night-long video studies of
babies show that inflants sleep for about three
to four hours, then wake up.
For about 20 percent of youngsters, night
wakenings are a regular occurrence that
continue through the first two years of life,
said William Sonis, director of the mood,
sleep and seasonality program at the
Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic in the
United States. By age two to three, about 11
to 14 percent of children still wake up
regularly, and by age four, about eight
percent of parents report that their youngsters
still do not sleep regularly all night.
Although it can sometimes be difficult to tell
the difference between one of the
parasomnias and night terrors, the general
rule of thumb is that night terrors occur in the
early part of the night, within the first two to
three hours of sleep. Nightmares, on the
other hand, happen most often during the
early morning hours during the part of sleep
known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
Children are more vulnerable to all sorts of
sleep disturbances because they fall more
quickly into deep, non-rapid eye movement
(non-REM) sleep than do adults. During
non-REM sleep, the brain rests and restores
itself.
REM sleep, by comparison, enables the brain
to dream. During REM, muscles are
paralysed, the eyes may twitch rapidly and
the heart rate can fluctuate greatly. Four to
six times each night, the brain normally
cycles between non-REM and REM sleep.
For children who experience frequent sleep
disturbances, it appears that this switching
mechanism is immature and slower to
develop.
Boys are three to four times more afflicted
with night terrors than girls. And there is
some suggestion that night terrors may run in
families.
Parasomnias of all types also can be triggered
by loud sounds that may occur just after a
youngster has drifted into deep sleep.
In children between one to three, parasomnias
often begin gradually with whining and
whimpering during sleep. But for older
children and adolescents, they often start with
a terrifying shriek. Children may sit up in
bed screaming or they run around the room
wildly. In extreme cases, some may be so
frightened that they can injure themselves or
others.
Yet most children who experience the gamut
of parasomnias, from sleep walking to night
terrors, never remember the event the next
day. If they are awakened by those around
them during the attack, night terror sufferers
say that they feel very frightened but can’t
explain why. Their hearts race and they show
all the physiological symptoms of being
scared, but unlike those who have had a
nightmare, they simply cannot explain what
has frightened them.
This same type of disorientation has been
simulated in experimental sleep studies by
keeping people awake for several days, then
allowing them to fall asleep for a few
minutes. Being sleep deprived, they quickly
go into non-REM sleep, but when they are
awakened by researchers about 20 minutes
later, they show all the signs of a night terror.
For most children, night terrors seem to abate
by adolescence. A small percentage of cases
– perhaps one per cent – continue into
adulthood.
---- Washington Post
 Nightmares- are unpleasant dreams with content that is
frightening and upsetting and remembered upon waking.
During a nightmare the body is stationary and the
dreamer appears to be having normal sleep. Likely to
occur in times of stress, fatigue, trauma and if you are
female (twice as likely as males).
 Night terrors- characterised by sudden awakening from
sleep in a state of extreme distress, little or no body
movement, difficult to console, increased heart rate and
little or no recall of dream. Usually occur during stage 3
or 4 of NREM sleep. Mainly happens to children.
 Sleep walking- also called somnambulism and involves
walking while asleep and sometimes conducting everyday
activities (e.g., dressing, eating, packing bag, etc). Mainly
occurs in children and adults experiencing high stress.
Occurs during stages 3 and 4 NREM sleep and occurs for
around 5-30 minutes.
Sleepwalkers are generally unresponsive to their
environment, are preoccupied with their own thoughts
and have no recall of the episode.
 Sleep talking- involves verbalisation whilst asleep. Mainly
occurs during NREM sleep but can occasionally occur
during REM sleep. Usually sleeper will not be able to
engage in conversation, but occasionally they can. People
are often unaware they have talked in their sleep but they
wake whilst talking they will know what they have been
talking about and recall what they were saying.
Types Of Dreams
We have all, at one time or another, had a dream. Some people
remember their dreams more vividly than others. Dreams usually
occur during REM sleep, and they are remembered more readily if
they occur towards the end of the period of sleep (since REM sleep is
more frequent). Some dreams are about ordinary daily occurrences
while others are more exciting or unusual. Below is a graph showing
the frequency of common dreams.
Source: Griffith, R., Miyago, O. & Tago, A. (1958). ‘The Universality of
Dreams’, American Anthropologist, 60, pp.1173–1179.
Source: Charles, T., Edwards, L., & Rogers, A. (1996). Psychology: A Course for VCE Units 3 and 4.
Melbourne: Oxford University Press, p. 62.
Types Of Dreams
 Nightdreams- most dreams occur during REM sleep and
we can usually recall what happened in them. Research
has shown that dreams last for the same amount of time
as similar actions would in real life. It has also shown that
half our dreams are in black and white and half in colour,
and that the typical dream is usually about mundane,
everyday events with familiar people in familiar places.
The typical dream involves two characters in addition to
the dreamer, events are more passive than active, take
place indoors, involve unpleasant rather than pleasant
experiences, have more males than females, and few
involve taste, smell or pain.
In dreams which occur during REM sleep the focus of our
attention is internal, but external events can become part
of our dream (e.g., phone ringing can become part of our
dream).
 Daydreams- is an altered state of consciousness in which
we shift our attention from external stimuli to internal
thoughts and feelings. Is most likely to occur when we are
alone, waiting to fall asleep, on public transport, or doing
routine, boring activities. Freud believed that
daydreaming allows us to complete fantasies that we are
unable to do in reality. By doing this we reduce the
frustration and tension we would have as a result of
unfulfilled wishes and dreams. Other researchers suggest
daydreaming allows us to mentally try out alternative
solutions to problems, allow us to stay mentally alert in
situations where there is insufficient external stimulation.
 lucid dreams- are dreams in which the dreamer is
consciously aware that they are dreaming and feel as
though they are awake when having the dream. Some
people also feel as though they have some control over the
dream. With proper training, some people can also learn
to solve problems in their dreams or use them to deal with
unresolved conflicts. Some possible uses for lucid dreams
include developing creativity and for use during therapy.
Can also be used during nightmares to help the dreamer
to ‘reshape the monsters’ that haunt them in their
dreams.
Concept Map – Sleep Disorders and phenomena
Concept maps are useful to clarify relationships between sleep disorders and sleep
phenomena with either the REM or NREM stage of sleep. To complete this
activity, you will need to use the textbook as a reference, and you might also like to
use other textbooks for wider reference.
Do you recall how to draw a concept map? If you are unsure as to what a concept
map looks like, refer to the example on the following page.
You should include the following terms in your concept map:

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










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Insomnia
Hypersomnia
Sleep Apnea
Narcolepsy
Nightmares
Night Terrors
Sleep Walking
Sleep Talking
Trouble sleeping
Excessive sleepiness
REM sleep
NREM sleep
Cataplexy
Suspension in breathing
Distress
Verbalisation during sleep
Walking whilst sleeping
Unpleasant, frightening dreams
You need to provide a linking word/s between each concept to explain the
relationship between these concepts. Examples of some linking words are: aids,
allows one to, causes, enables, falls into, leads to, permits, detracts from, disables,
inhibits one from, prohibits, stops, suffers from. Of course you can use your own link
words. On the following page is an example of a concept map.
Source: Grivas, J., Carter, L., & Bennett, J. (1996) Psychology For The
VCE Student – Units 1 and 2. Milton, QLD: Jacaranda Press, p.53.
Now create your own concept map trying to give as much information as possible
about sleep disorders and sleep phenomena. Aim to avoid crossing over lines.
Part of your concept map has been completed on the following page. To finish this
you will need to:



Place the remaining concepts into the blank boxes (make sure they are close to other
concepts that are similar or related!).
Place arrows between concepts that are linked (do not cross over lines!!). Don’t forget
to place the arrowhead in the direction of the association.
Write a brief explanation on every link to show how they are associated (keep each
explanation short. Only a few words).
Unpleasant,
frightening
dreams
involve
Nightmares
Occur in
Verbalisation
during sleep
involves
Sleep Talking
Occurs in
REM sleep
Is a
Is a form of
NREM sleep
Occurs in
Sleep walking
Sleep Disorders and
Phenomena
Cataplexy
Is a symptom
of
Narcolepsy
Night Terrors
Walking whilst
sleeping
Review Questions
1. Complete the following table on the comparison between
nightmares and night terrors:
Nightmare
Night Terror
Stage of sleep
Activity
Emotion
Mental state when
awakened
Physiological changes
Recall
2. What are five of the characteristics of a nightdream?
1.___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2.___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4.___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5.___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What are three ways that REM dreams differ from NREM
dreams?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. List the benefits of daydreaming reported by psychologists.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Identify whether the following are characteristics of lucid
dreaming or daydreaming.
Characteristics
Is associated with minimal eye movements and high
levels of alpha brain waves
Freud believed purpose was that it allows us to do
in fantasy what we cannot do in reality
The dreamer is consciously aware that they are
dreaming and feels as if they are awake
Brain waves indicate person is in REM sleep
Is more likely to occur when we are alone, waiting
to fall asleep, travelling on public transport or doing
routine or boring activities
Possible uses are in developing creativity
Is useful in helping people who experience
nightmares. If they are taught to recognise they are
dreaming, they may be able to ‘beat’ the monsters
that are haunting them
Some people report that once they are aware they
are dreaming, they can shape the course of their
dream
Occurs in approximately 90 minute cycles during
normal waking consciousness
Can be used to help people solve problems or to
deal with unsolved conflicts
Attention is shifted from external stimuli to internal
thoughts and feelings
Content usually consists of a series of disjointed,
unrelated and emotional thoughts
Brain waves resemble stage 1 of NREM sleep
Lucid dreaming or
Daydreaming