The Gradual and Sudden Paths (漸頓)
of Tibetan and Chan 禪 Buddhism:
A Pedagogical Perspective
Journal of Thought, 33(2). 9-23 (1998).
黃毅英
Ngai-ying Wong
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
“Lord Buddha taught 8400 paths catering for the 8400 types of sentient beings1”. In
essence, these 8400 paths may be categorized into two distinct approaches - the gradual
path and the sudden enlightenment.
The Council of Lhasa was often quoted to show the apparent conflict of these two
approaches. Legend has it that in the 8th century the Indian scholar Kamalashila (蓮花
戒 ) (740-795) 2 engaged in a series of debates with the Chinese monk Hwashang
Mahayana (摩訶衍那：大乘和尚) at Samye Monastery (桑耶寺) in the presence of the
Tibetan king, Trisong Detsen ( 赤 松 德 真 ) (742-797). The former held that
enlightenment can only be attained by gradual yogic practices while the latter subscribed
to the belief of sudden enlightenment. In the debate Hwashang Mahayana was defeated
and left in disgrace because the Tibetan did not accept the idea of sudden enlightenment3
though nowadays Hwashang Mahayana is still highly respected by the Tibetans and is
regarded as one of the eighteen Arhats (羅漢)4.
1
Taken from a speech delivered by H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche, Jigdral Yeshe Dorje (1904-87), the supreme
head of the Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism, in Hong Kong, 3 November 1981. Similar
citation was found in Rong-Xi (1979) (The evaluation of Nyingmapa in Tibet and Chan Buddhism in
China (in Chinese), in M.T. Zhang (ed.) The Studies of Relationships between Chinese and Tibetan
Buddhism, 37-44. Taipei: Mahayana Culture Publications): “The Buddha taught 8400 paths in order to
tame the 8400 different afflictions of sentient beings, just like the emanation of the Medicine King, he
uses 8400 herbs in order to cure 8400 different illnesses”. 融熙(1979)。西藏紅教與漢土禪宗的評
價。載張曼濤(編)。《漢藏佛教關係研究》。台北：大乘文化出版社。「釋迦世尊…以眾生有
八萬四千煩惱，乃廣演八萬四千法門。像醫王出世，以人們病苦有八萬四千症候，不能不廣用
八萬四千藥草」
2
Disciple of Shantaraskshi 寂護(靜命) (725-790)
3
Detailed accounts of this incident may be found in The History of Buddhism in India and Tibet of Buston
(English translation: Obermiller, 1932) and the book chapters of Gomez, L.O. “Indian materials on the
doctrine of sudden enlightenment” and Guenther, H.V. “Meditation trends in early Tibet” (In L.
Lancaster & W. Lai (1983). Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, 393-434. Berkeley: University of
California.)
4
See “Olscak, B.C.; Wangyal, Geshé, T. (1987). Mystic Art of Ancient Tibet. Boston: Shambala
Publications”. According to “Lohia, S. (1994). Lalitavajra’s Manual of Buddhist Iconography. New
Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan”, Hwashang is not included in
the Sixteen Arhats (Sthaviras) in the Indian tradition but is the last of the eighteen Arhats (Gnas.brtan)
in the Tibetan tradition
-1-
In fact, such a debate happened in the history of Chan (zen) 禪 school of Chinese
Buddhism itself. Undoubtedly, sudden enlightenment is the heart of Chan Buddhism.
Its origin may be dated back the dialogue between Sakyamuni Buddha (釋迦佛) and
Kasyapa (迦葉) (see below) and was much elaborated later on by the Sixth Patriarch
Hui-Nang (六祖慧能) (638-713) decades after Chan was transmitted to China by the
Indian master Boddhidharma (菩提達摩). The famous story about Hui-Nang goes like
this. When the Fifth Patriarch (五祖) was about the pass his lineage to his disciples, he
asked those of his followers who wished to take up Patriarchship, to submit verses
illustrating their level of realization. First came the great disciple Xen-Xiao (神秀) (? 706), who wrote
“The body is a boddhi-tree;
The mind is the stand of a clear mirror;
Cleanse it at all times,
So it will not get dirty”;
身似菩提樹
心如明鏡台
時時勤拂拭
莫使惹塵埃
then came Hui-Nang who wrote
“There is no tree in the boddhi (awareness)
Nor has the clear mirror any stand;
There is nothing what-so-ever;
Where can the dirt adhere ?”
菩提本無樹
明鏡亦非台
本乘無一物
何處惹塵埃
These two verses clearly illustrate the difference between gradual path and sudden
enlightenment. By accumulative yogic practices, as in the continual cleansing of dirt, it
is anticipated that one could reach enlightenment. There is a similar line of thought in
the analogy given by H.E. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche5: “When pure gold is covered by dirt
it is not obvious that it is gold, even though this dirt is temporary. But once it is removed
we realize that the gold is gold. In the same way, when our confusion is purified, the
wisdom which is our basic wakefulness is made manifest”. We should note, however,
that this saying does not apply exclusively to either the gradual or the sudden approach to
enlightenment.
5
Urgyen Rinpoche, Tulku (1991) (English translation: Erik Pema Kunsang). The four dharmas of
Gampopa, in Repeating the Words of the Buddha, 13-32. Hong Kong: Rangjung Yeshe Publications.
Tulku Urgyen Tsewang Chokdrup Palbar Rinpoche (1920-1996), leading Reme (non-sectarian) master,
lineage holder of Baram Kagyu lineage and holder of Padmasambhava’s teachings as rediscovered by
Terchen Chogyur Lingpa.
-2-
Figure 1 Ox-herding pictures.
-3-
Traces of sudden enlightenment can be found in the scriptures too. Two parables in
the Surangama Sutra (楞嚴經) tells of a person who suddenly recognizes the different
directions in a city in which he had lost his way while another person realizes he hasn’t,
in fact, lost his head though he sees it in the mirror. The Sad-dharma-pundarikam (妙法
蓮華經) (Lotus Sutra) also talks about a beggar who suddenly realizes he is carrying a
wish-fulfilling gem without noticing it and all of a sudden becomes rich. These parables
clearly contain the notion sudden enlightenment.
Advocates of the gradual path, however, insist that enlightenment can only be fulfilled
through practices over a period of three immeasurable aeons (kalpas 劫) as stated in the
scriptures 6 . Such notions are often pictorially presented in a series of “Ox-herding
pictures” 牧牛圖, usually with poems attached (Figure 1). The pictures are said to be
originated from Ma-Zu 馬祖 (709-788) and followed the gradual Xen Xiao tradition7.
The attached poems were composed by Monk Pu-Ming 普明.
In the pictures, the path to enlightenment is
likened to the process in taming the bull,
beginning with searching for the bull, seeing the
traces, finding and catching the bull, soothing it,
returning home on its back, then the bull is
forgotten and return to the origin and the source to
begin again by entering the market place with
bliss-bestowing hands. A similarly elephanttaming series of pictures is found in Tibetan
tradition8 (Figure 2).
Between the gradual and the sudden approaches
there is an eclectic view. Nan said “It was
mentioned in the scripture that, ‘There is no
definite number of kalpas’” and “who knows for
sure that this life is not the last of the three kalpas
?9” In a way, sudden enlightenment could be the
final stage after lifetimes of gradual practices.
Hui-Nang did mentioned that his way was
specifically tailored with topmost calibre.
6
Figure 2 Elephant-taming
pictures
See, e.g. Chapter 1 of Upasaka Sila Sutra (優婆塞戒經卷一) and Chapter 4 of MahapajnaparamitaSastra (
槃經卷四).
7
Myokyo-Ni (1987). Gentling the Bull. London: Zen Centre. Myokyo-Ni (English translation) (1989).
Otsu, D.R. The Bull and his Herdsman. London: Zen Centre.
8
Rabten, G. (1972). The Graduated Path to Liberation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Buddhist
Society. (Revised, 1983, New Delhi: Mahayana Publications).
9
Nan, H. J. (1955). Measuring a Tiny Part of the Chan Ocean (in Chinese). (Third edition, 1978, Taipei:
Lao Gu Publications), p. 228. 南懷瑾(1955)。《禪海蠡測》。台北：老古出版社。
-4-
The gradual path can best be likened to the elaborate teachings concerning the
generating and completion stages in Tibetan Buddhism, in particular, the Nine Vehicles
(Yanas) of Samatabhadra (普賢王如來九乘). On the other hand, sudden enlightenment
has often been demonstrated by great acts of Chan masters through the ages.
The wide variety of traditions and paths in Buddhism reflects the numerous
capacities of its followers. In Nyingmapa (寧瑪巴：紅教), all these different paths are
synthesized into a single system showing the different stages of spiritual development
under the name of Nine Vehicles of Samatabhadra10. In sum, according to the Tibetan
Buddhist tradition, the Buddhist path exhibits a very structured training schedule which
begins with preliminary practices, visualisation and training of inner energy, and finally
reaches the summit of great perfection (大圓滿). This view may be quite different with
those expressed in the ways Chan masters used to enlighten their disciples.
The Nine Vehicles of Samatabhadra (普賢王如來九乘)
The long journey to buddhahood are often described by the Five Paths 五 道
(accumulation, joining, seeing, cultivation and no-learning 資糧道、加行道、見道、修
道、究竟道). By undergoing such paths, various stages will be attained at times. For
instance, the 60 stages to enlightenment (which are symbolized by the Buddhist stupa 佛
塔 11 ) was one such descriptions. These 60 stages are: the four foundations of
mindfulness 四 念 處 (cattari satipatthani), the four efforts 四 正 勤 (cattari
sammappadhanani), the four psychic powers 四 神 足 (cattaro iddhipada) the five
faculties 五根 (pancindriyani), the five forces 五力 (panca balani), the seven factors of
enlightenment 七覺支 (satta bojjhanga), the eightfold path 八正道 (attha maggangani),
the tenfold knowledge 十智 (nanam) and the thirteen mystical powers 十力三念處.
The three paths were also used to erect different landmarks in the gradual paths of
enlightenment. Such a classification has its origin in the Gelugpa (格魯派：黃教), the
school of the Dalai Lamas. In fact, the Gelugpa is renowned, among others, for the
profound teachings the three paths elaborated in Lam-rim Chen-mo (菩提道次第廣論)
by Je Tsong-kha-pa (宗喀巴)12: “Practices free from desire are taught to those interested
in the lowly [the hearer - going for human rebirth]; practices of the grounds and
perfections to those interested in the vast [solitary realiser - going for liberation of the
See “Thondup, Ven. Tulku (1982). The Dzogchen Innermost Essence Preliminary Practice.
Dharamsala, India: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives” and “Berzin, A. (English translation)
(1978). Longchen Rabjampa. The Four-themed Precious Garland. Dharamsala, H.P., India: The
Library of Tibetan Works and Archives.” Chinese translation: 黃毅英(1987)。四法寶鬘。載《無上
密乘修持三要冊》。台北：密乘出版社(49-94)。
11
Govinda, Lama A. (1976). Psycho-cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist Stupa. Berkeley: Dharma
Publishing; 黃毅英(1989)。佛塔之起源、結構、表義與演變。《金剛乘季刊》41 期，12-24。
12
Tsong-kha-pa revealed that the three paths originated from Aryadeva’s Charyamelapakapradipa - Lamp
Compendium of Practice and Tripitakamala’s Nayatrayapradipa - Lamp for the Three Modes.
10
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self]; and practicies of desire to those specially interested in the profound [mahayana going for liberation of all sentient beings]”13.
The wide variety of traditions and paths in Buddhism reflects the numerous capacities
of its followers. In Nyingmapa, all these different paths are synthesised into a single
system showing the different stages of spiritual development, put under the name of Nine
Vehicles of Samatabhadra. In the following account of the Nine Vehicles 14, one can
realize how the great variety of buddhist teachings can be put into such a highly
structured hierarchy.
THE THREE CAUSAL VEHICLES (因乘)
1. Shravakayana or The Way of the Hearers (聲聞乘) The followers of the vehicle
realize the selflessness of personalities but uphold the self identity of phenomena. They
observe the eight vows (pratimoksha) 八關齋戒. They meditate upon the Four Noble
Truths (四聖諦) and perform other shamatha (calm abiding) 奢摩他止) and vipashyana
(contemplation)
(觀) practices. The fruit of arhat (羅漢) is finally attained.
2. Pratyekabuddhayana or The Way of the Solitary Realisers (緣覺乘) They understand
the lack of identity of both personality and phenomena but hold the smallest moment of
consciousness as ultimately real. They observe the vows and perform the practices as in
the above category. In addition, they meditate on the link of the twelve inter-dependent
origination (pratityasamutpada) 十二因緣 in successive and reverse orders. The fruit is
Pratyekabuddha (silent buddha - a self-enlightened buddha who would not preach the
doctrine) 緣覺佛.
In brief, the above two is regarded as “small vehicle” (Hinayana) 小乘, in which the
practitioners only aim at self-accomplishment whereas those in the following great
vehicles (Mahayana) 大乘 aims at the liberation of all sentient beings and sees all
sentient beings as inseparable with the “self”.
3. Bodhisattvayana (菩薩乘) They see that all phenomena are without any selfidentity and by the six perfections of giving, ethical discipline, tolerance, diligence,
meditative stability, and wisdom and by developing the four quantities for attracting
others (Tib.: bsdu.dngos.bzhi), the fully awakened state (Dharmakaya) 法身 and the two
perfect form-bodies (Sambhogakaya 報身 and Nirmanakaya 化身) were accomplished
through the thirty seven aspects of path (三十七道品).
The above three are categorized as Sutrayana (顯教) or exoteric Buddhism, in contrast
with the following Tantrayana or esoteric Buddhism(密宗).
13
14
Hopkins, J. (1977). Tantra in Tibet. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Extracted from “Thondup, Ven. Tulku (1982). The Dzogchen Innermost Essence Preliminary Practice.
Dharamsala, India: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives.”.
-6-
THE SIX RESULTANT VEHICLES (果乘)
4. Kriya or Action Tantra ( 作 密 ) By performance of ritual actions and deity
meditation, the result of Vajra-Holder of the Three Knowledge will be attained in seven
or sixteen lives. However, the visualization of oneself as deity is not involved.
Accomplishment is only granted by the deity in the lord and disciple relationship.
5. Charya or Upa Yoga Tantra (行密) By visualizing the deity situated in front of
oneself as partnership, the state of Vajradhara (金剛持) will be attained in seven lives.
Again, visualization of oneself as deity is not involved, accomplishment is granted by
the deity, which takes a role of ones partner.
6. Yoga Tantra (瑜伽密) By means of five perfect qualities of enlightenment, the
buddhahood in the realm of the Beautiful Array will be attained in three lifetimes. These
five qualities are perfections of lunar seat (realm), seed syllables (speech) 種子字,
attributes (mind), complete form (mandala) 壇城 and wisdom. Though one visualizes
oneself as deity, it is only done in the practice session and there are still supplication and
sending back of the deity.
7. Maha Yoga (嗎哈瑜伽) In the practice of the generation stage (生起次第), oneself
is visualized as the deity and the fully awakened state of being is attained without the
very lifetime.
8. Anu Yoga (阿奴瑜伽) In the completion stage (圓滿次第), the energy channel
(nadi) 脈, energy flow (prana) 氣, energy drops (bindu) 點 are practiced and purified.
The psychic centres (chakras) 輪 are also involved in the practice. The attainment of
complete enlightenment within the space is thus attained in one lifetime.
9. Ati Yoga (阿的瑜伽) The great completion (dzogchen) is practiced in which the
experience of everything is encompassed without acceptance or rejection. Dzogchen
practices are classified into the categories of the mind (sams.sde) 心 部 , expanse
(klong.sde) 界部 and concealed instruction (man.ngag.sde) 口訣部. First one’s mind
should be trained to attain the state of intrinsic awareness (rig.pa) 明體, following this
are the practices of “cutting to the essence” (khregs.chod) 且 卻 ( 立 斷 ) and
“instantaneous arrival” (thod.rgal) 妥噶 (頓超). Namkhai Norbu summarizes these path
by pointing out the essense of sutrayana (the first three yanas) is renunciation, that of
tantra (the fourth to the eighth yanas) is transformation whereas that of dzogchen is selfliberation15.
A distinction between the lower tantras (Kriya, Charya and Yoga) with the upper ones
(Maha, Anu, Ati) were drawn in Longchen Rabjampa’s The Four-themed Precious
Garland 四法寶鬘 of Longchen Rabjampa 龍青巴16, “In the three outer classes of tantra,
15
16
Norbu, Namkhai (1986). Crystal and the Way of Light. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
Publications.
Berzin, A. (English translation) (1978). Longchen Rabjampa. The Four-themed Precious Garland.
-7-
... you abandon and adopt in turn (what is appropriate) and thus eliminate taints by
(applying their) antidotes”. The commentary of H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche further
explained that since “you are unable as yet to transform delusions or defilements into
pristine awareness. Therefore you abandon the former and adopt the latter. You apply
direct opponents or antidotes to the moral and mental defilements ...”. Furthermore, “as
for the inner (tantras), through pristine awareness which is an undivided unity, those
things to be abandoned become the path through (the application of) means” and we
have the commentary as “... there is no need for the deliberate action of ‘abandoning’
delusions; they are automatically transcended with such awareness. This is the
distinctive feature of the three higher tantras”.
Thus, one can see that, in the buddhist path according to the Northern buddhist
tradition (that of the Nyingmapa in particular), exhibits a very structured training
schedule. The stages of practices that sprung out from the four dharmas of Gampopa
(1079-1161) 岡波巴四法 can best portray the graduated path of the nyingmapa. It
begins with the four thoughts which reverse the mind. “..., first we think about the
difficulty of gaining the precious, free and well-favoured human form, because this form
is the basis of the spiritual path of liberation. Then we reflect on impermanence and
death; everything that exists is subject to change and death. Then, even though one dies
one is not free, one goes on circling in samsara from birth to rebirth and that is why the
nature of samsara is suffering; we comtemplate on that. Then pattern of karma is
inescapable. These are called Lo Dok Nam Zhi: the four thoughts which reverse the
mind. Their purpose is to make the mind turn away from samsara and turn towards the
practice”17.
Next, the practitioner begins with the preliminary practices: take refuge 皈依 and
cultivating the enlightened mind (buddhicitta) 發 菩 提 心 , purification (repentance)
practices 懺悔, mandala offering for accumulation of merit 獻曼達 and guru yoga (being
oneness with the spiritual master) 上師瑜伽. Contemplation of a meditational deity 本
尊 (creative visualisation) is the centre of the generation stage which begins with
contemplating a deity in front of the practitioner and shift to contemplating self as nontwo with the deity, bringing to the realisation that everything, which appears to be
concrete, is transcended with pristine awareness. The practice of the generation stage
will end up with the completion stage which works with the contemplation and
transformation of energy channels, energy currents and creative energy (wisdom drop).
Great perfection is the peak of nine vehicles in which everything is encompassed without
acceptance or rejection18.
Dharamsala, H.P., India: The Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. (pp. 33-34). Chinese translation:
黃毅英(1987)。四法寶鬘。載《無上密乘修持三要冊》。台北：密乘出版社(49-94)。
17
Dudjum Rinpoche, H.H. (1989). The Dzogchen view of Ngöndro. In Sogyal Rinpoche. Dzogchen and
Padmasambhava. California: Rigpa Fellowship.
18
Chagdud Tulku, H.E. (1995) (compiled by J. Tromge). Ngondro Commentary. Junction City,
California: Padma Publishing.
-8-
Though much has been said about the similarity and differences between Chan and
Dzogchen (at least Chan and Trechod19), let’s turn for a while to the ways used by Chan
masters aiming at enlightening their disciples.
Chan’s Way
The legend of the origin of Chan Buddhism tells us that once when Lord Buddha was
about to deliver a sermon in Gridhrakuta Mountain (靈鷲山), he did not say anything.
Instead, he held a flower in his hand. Upon see this, the great disciple Kasyapa 迦葉
smiled; and Lord Buddha declared that Kasyapa had realized the meaning and will pass
on this “lineage beyond words”. The following stanza was uttered by the Buddha:
“The way resembles no ways whatsoever,
The no-way is in itself a way,
Now is the time to transmit the no-way,
When did various ways follows a way ?”
法本法無法
無法法亦法
今授無法時
法法何曾法
Thus, the Chan masters follows various peculiar ways, but none of them was better
known than the beating of De-Shan (德山棒) and the shouting of Lin-Ji (Rinzai) (臨濟喝
). In Cai’s analysis, she identified three categories of such “non-routine” modes of
teaching used by Chan masters: use of symbols, use of words, use of gestures (including
the raising of the eyebrow, erection of finger, snapping of the fingers, slapping the face,
waving of the hand, beating and shouting) and silence (pause, remain in solitude, rise
from the meditation seat, dismiss and return to the Master’s room) 20 . Nan further
classified the underlying purposes of such teaching techniques as (a) receiving the
disciple, (b) delineating the state of realization, (c) assessing the caliber, (d) drillings and
practices, (e) exchanging the states of realization, and (f) preparing for future
application21.
However, most of these transmissions are conveyed “from heart to heart”. Great Chan
masters know the purpose themselves. When such methods are used, they never
explicitly tell the principles behind them. Since all these are adjusted according to the
19
See (a) Norbu, Namkhai (1984). Dzog Chen and Zen. Oakland: Zhang Zhung Editions.
(b) Rong-Xi (1979). The evaluation of Nyingmapa in Tibet and Chan Buddhism in China (in Chinese).
In M.T. Zhang (ed.), The Studies of Relationships between Chinese and Tibetan Buddhism, 37-44.
Taipei: Mahayana Culture Publications.
(c) Wong, N.Y. (1989). Guru’s invited lecture on Dzogchen (based on the lecture of Guru Lau Sonam
Chokyi Gyaltsan on Dzogchen at Hong Kong City Hall on 16 September, 1989) (in Chinese),
Vajrayana Quarterly, 38, 32. 黃毅英(1989)。上師應邀開示大圓滿簡介盛況。《金剛乘季刊》38
期，32。Lau, Y.C. (劉銳之), Sonam Chokyi Gyaltsan (1914-1997), chief disciple and Chinese lineage
holder of H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche.
20
Cai, R. T. (1986). The Enlightening Methods of Chan Masters (in Chinese). Taipei: Wen Shu
Publications. 蔡榮婷(1986)。《禪師啟悟法》。台北。文殊出版社。
21
Nan, H. J. (南懷瑾) (1955). Measuring a Tiny Part of the Chan Ocean (in Chinese). (Third edition,
1978, Taipei: Lao Gu Publications). 南懷瑾(1955)。《禪海蠡測》。台北：老古出版社。
-9-
temperament of individual students and are implemented according to each situation, it
would be of little use repeating them in other similar situations. That is why the Chan
master Huang-Bo (黃檗) exclaimed that “there is no Chan master in the Tang empire (大
唐國裏無禪師)”22. We will explore the Chan's way in the following four aspects.
EXPERIENCE
The following story (Kung-An 公 案 , or Koan) was recorded in Kudzu Vine
Collections (葛滕集)23
“Once Shan-Gu (山谷) asked Abbot Hui-Tang (晦堂) ‘What is the profound
mystery of Chan ?’ Abbot Hui-Tang responded, ‘Haven’t you heard the words
in The Analects of Confucius, “I have concealed nothing from you ?” (吾無隱
乎爾) In Chan, nothing is hidden from you’. The man reflected that he still
did not understand. Thus, Abbot Hui-Tang took him into the woods. The
Master asked, ‘Do you smell the fragrance of the osmanthus ?’ When the man
responded, ‘Yes !’ the Master exclaimed, ‘There, I haven’t hidden anything
from you !’”
What Abbot Hui-Tang was referring to is the awareness in personal experience. In fact,
similar themes have been expressed in Chinese scriptures, the most famous of which is
the dialogue of Confucius with his student24. One day when Confucius said, “I want to
remain speechless”, his disciples Zhi-Gong ( 子 貢 ) asked, “If the Master remains
speechless, how can we disciples elaborate on your words ?” To which Confucius
replied, “Do the heavens speak ? (天何言哉) The changing of the seasons, the growth of
various beings, do the heavens speak (in order to express these phenomena) ?”
Thus, experiencing is far more important than the delivery of knowledge. Here is
another story.
“When the great zipherist Bai-Ya (百牙) learned to play zipher under the
Master Cheng-Nian (成連). There came a time when the Master told him that
he had taught him all he knew and that he was going to introduce his own
master to him. Thus, Master Cheng Nian led Bai-Ya to the seashore and asked
him to wait for him while he rowed away in a boat to meet his master. After
some days, the Master did not return so Bai-Ya passed the time by practicing
the compositions that his Master had taught him. After a while, he realized that
Huang-Bo (Tang dynasty) told the disciples: “Do you know, … that there is no Chan master in the Tang
empire ?” Then a monk asked, “There are so many abbots preaching, why do you utter such words ?”
The master said, “I didn't say that there is no Chan, I only said that there is no master.” Records of
Green Cliff, (碧巖集) 1125.
23
Kudzu vine is often used by Chan Buddhism to symbolize words, which, like Kudzu vine, mingle up
among themselves, and can never explain the idea behind clearly.
24
The Analects of Confucius 論語, 17:19.
22
- 10 -
his music had become inseparable from the voice of Nature. At that instant, he
realized that Nature was his master’s teacher”25.
古時伯牙跟成連先生學琴。到伯牙藝成時，成連先生對他說：「我的老
師方子春琴藝更高。他住在東海。我帶你去找他吧！」於是兩人來到東
海邊。成連先生就吩咐伯牙在崖上彈琴等他，然後獨自駕船出海去了。
伯牙等了許久不見先生回來，只好把所學琴曲一一練習。到了最後一曲
時，忽然發覺節奏與潮聲風聲應和著，就恍然大悟：音樂是用來讚美大
自然的；先生已將最高深的藝術傳了給他，所以藉故浮海登仙而去。因
此他就把那最後一曲，名為水仙，以記念先生。又當他起身回去時，發
覺身後草叢開著一朵小白花，於是又把那花名為水仙。
BEYOND WORDS
Chan Buddhism stresses the inadequacies of language since most experience is
inexpressible in words. It is often said that the theme of Chan Buddhism is the “Nonestablishment of words, pointing directly the mind and attaining Buddhahood upon
seeing the nature”. The Sixth Patriarch is known to be illiterate but he is by no means
ignorant. This could best be illustrated by the dialogues of The Sixth Patriarch Hui-Nang
with Nun Wu-Jin-Zhang (無盡藏) and the Monk Fa-Da (法達)26.
“Nun Wu-Jin-Zhang was very familiar with the Maha-parinirvanam Sutra (大
般 涅槃經 ), and as she recited the sutra to Master Hui-Nang, the master
quickly understood its meaning. When the nun asked the meaning of certain
words in the script, the Master replied, ‘I am illiterate but you can ask me the
meaning of any part of the sutra’. The nun said, ‘How can you know the
meaning when you don’t even know the words ?’. Hui-Nang said, ‘the
profound teachings of the Buddha have nothing to do with words’.”
The similar experience of Monk Fa-Da was also told in the Platform Sutra (壇經).
Another point to note is that ideas precede words and consciousness precedes ideas. The
following story in Record of Lineage Transmission in the Years of Jin-De (景德傳燈錄
卷十一) may illustrate this point.
“Once Xian-Yen Zhi-Xian (香嚴智閑) asked his disciples, ‘Imagine a person
climbed up a tree. To hold himself upright, he bites onto a branch. Suddenly,
someone asks, “what is the essence of Buddhist teachings ?” Now what can he
do ? If he does not respond, he is showing disrespect to the person asking the
question but if he opens his mouth, he will drop to the ground and kill himself.
Tell me, how can he get out of this embarrassment ?’ Elder Zhao (招上座)
answered, ‘I am not concerned about how he reacts when he climbed up the
Zhang X.B. (1979). Story of the water fairy (in Chinese), China Man Monthly, 1, 84-85. 張世彬
(1979)。水仙的故事。《中國人》1 期，84-85。
26
Chapter 7, The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. 《六祖法寶壇經‧機緣品第七》
25
- 11 -
tree, I am more concerned about the time before he climbed.’ At that the
Master laughed.”
一日謂眾曰。如人在千尺懸崖。口銜樹枝。腳無所蹋。手無所攀。忽有
人問如何是西來意。若開口答即喪身失命。若不答又違他所問。當恁麼
時作麼生。時有招上座出曰。上樹時即不問。未上樹時如何。師笑而已
。
In this story, Elder Zhao could be referring to the answer prior to specific situations, the
innate awareness beyond words. Chan master never missed the chance of grasping the
moment when a disciple is about to utter his verbal response to questions to enable the
disciple to experience the awareness before the materialization of ideas. This could be
the purpose of various “peculiar” methods employed by great Chan masters. The shout
of Lin-Ji Yi-Xuan 臨濟義玄 (? - 867) as recorded in The Assembling of Five Lamps (五
燈會元) (Sung Dynasty) is one such famous
method.
“The Master (Lin-Ji) 臨 濟 told the
monks, ‘Sometimes a shout is like a
Diamond King sword, sometimes a
shout is like a lion crouched on the
ground, sometimes a shout is like a
inspecting staff making shadows on
the meadow, and sometimes a shout is
not used as a shout, how can you
understand all that ?’ (Just as) the
monk wished to debate, the Master
shouted.”
In spite of this, could there be some
resemblance in the use of sound, gesture
and movements of the limbs in Tibetan
debates27 (Figure 3)? In Tibetan Buddhism,
spiritual master could sometimes make use
of shouts of “PHAT” [
] to help the
disciples cutting through attachments in
their meditations28.
Figure 3 Tibetan Debate
27
Tharchin, Geshe Lobsang (1979). The Logic and Debate Tradition of India, Tibet, and Mongolia. New
Jersey: Mahayana Sutra and Tantra Press.
28
Narag Dong Trug (大幻化網尊引法) transmitted by H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche. Chinese translation: Y.C.
Lau (1963). The Oral Instruction of the Great Magic Net Tantra. Hong Kong: Vajrayana Esoteric
Society (p. 329). 金剛乘學會。
- 12 -
THREAT OF DISCOMFORT
It was said in The Analect of Confucius that “Enlightenment comes when one is
stunned and understanding when one is aroused” (不憤不啟，不悱不發) (7:8). Zhu-Xi
朱熹 (1130-1200) also spoke of “if one does not doubt in the study, we should teach
him/her to doubt; and when s/he doubts, we should make him/her no doubt; this is the
way of growth”. Understanding, as opposed to rote learning, is often stressed in
education. It is pointed out by the educational psychologists that the process of problem
solving, which may leads to the transcendence of the mind, can start only when one
experiences a “threat of discomfort”29. Thus, one of the major tasks of Chan masters is
to arouse a state of perplexity (疑情) (usually by the use of dilemmas and conflicts) of
the disciples. One of the most frequently cited among all Chan stories is the following
which appears in The Gate of No-door (無門關)
“When Monk Koti (俱胝) first seated for meditation in a hermitage, a nun,
called Shiji ( 實 際 ), wearing a rain hat, came. She circled around the
hermitage three times then called out, ‘Take away my hat if you can speak’ (道
得即拈笠子)30. The monk could not respond. At first he decided to leave for
other places so that he can put the case to other learned scholars. But one day
Master Tian-Lung (天龍) came and Koti told him the story. While listening to
him, Master Tian-Lung held up a finger. Upon seeing this, Koti experienced
sudden realization. Thus, thereafter, Koti held up a finger to preach without
saying a word.
“One day, a visitor asked Koti’s pupil the way his master teaches. The boy held
up his finger. When he told his master what he had done to the visitor, Koti
took out a knife and chopped off his finger. The boy thus ran away screaming
but Koti called him back and when the boy turned his head, Koti held up his
finger. At that moment [when the boy tried to hold up his shortened finger],
he suddenly realized.”
While it is not easy to decipher of myth of how Monk Koti get enlightened when his
own master held up his finger, the purpose in giving this treatment to his pupil is clear.
For a time the boy may have imitated his master’s technique and might even be
successful. He simply thought that this action will lead to realization. Actually, every
scenario used by Chan masters was written to suit a specific time and situation and for a
special disciple. Not only that, they are quoted spontaneous, with no planning (that is
why Master Huang-Bo said that there is no masters but there is Chan). Here, the master
skillfully posed a dilemma before the boy and it is through his experience that the boy
finally comes to realization. Thus, the boy was led to repeat the scenario in a completely
fresh way.
29
Cronbach, I.F. (1955). The meaning of problems, in J.M. Seidman (ed), Readings in Educational
Psychology, 193-201. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
30
The question could have multiple meanings, for instance, “if you can speak out what I am thinking just
now”, or more profoundly, “if you can speak out the ‘way’”.
- 13 -
In fact, great faith, great doubt, and strong determination were identified as the “three
essentials of Chan Buddhism” (禪門三柱) by Kapleau31. He elaborated that in Chan,
“‘doubt’ implies not skepticism but a state of perplexity, of probing inquiry, of intense
self-questioning32.”
In the famous dialogue between Socrates and a slave boy in front of Meno, Plato
demonstrates that knowledge comes from insight which he calls “recollection”33. One
way employed by Chan masters is raising conflicting questions in order to create a state
of perplexity among the disciples 34 . The questions were asked, not just to get
conventional answers like those asked in a quiz, or just to find out the truth, but rather,
through a series of assertions and refutations, the disciples is led through an experience
of reflection. The debate in the Tibetan tradition where the conclusion is unimportant
has the same purpose. This is clear from the words of the Sixth Patriarch Hui-Neng in
Chapter 10 of his Platform Sutra where he taught his disciples how to transmit the
dharma35:
“If someone asks you of the meaning [of something], use ‘emptiness’ in
respond to questions on ‘reality’, use ‘reality’ in respond to questions on
‘emptiness’; use ‘saint’ in respond to questions on ‘mundane’, use ‘mundane’
in respond to ‘saint’. When two phenomena are contrasted together, the
middle way will emerge. So we have questions and answers. All other
questioning will follow this method and the truth will not be lost. Suppose
someone asks ‘What is darkness ?’ The answer could be, ‘Brightness is the
cause, darkness is the condition; where there is no brightness, there is
darkness’. We use brightness to illustrate darkness and use darkness to show
brightness. We our minds go to and fro between these two notions, the middle
way will emerge. Other questioning will follows this. When you transmit the
dharma in the future, you should adopt this kind of teaching so that the spirit
of our school will be maintained.”
若有人問汝義。問有將無對。問無將有對。問凡以聖對。問聖以凡對。
二道相因。生中道義。如一問一對。餘問一依此作。即不失理也。設有
人問何名為暗。答曰。明是因。暗是緣。明沒則暗。以明顯暗。以暗顯
31
Kapleau, P. (1980). The Three Pillars of Zen, Teachings, Practice, Enlightenment. New York: Archor
Books. See also Park, S.B. (1983). Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. New York: State
University of New York Press. 顧法嚴(譯)(1975)。《禪門三柱》。台北：慧炬出版社。
32
朱熹：「讀書無疑者須教有疑、有疑者卻要無疑。到這裏方是長進。」；「參禪須是起疑情，小
疑小悟，大疑大悟。」─ 禪關策進題解：袁州雪巖欽禪師普說(雲棲袾宏, pp. 436-438)。《佛光
大藏經：禪藏，禪關策進卷》(高雄：佛光出版社, 1994) (p. 437)，又見雪巖祖欽禪師(宋)語錄：
袁 州 仰山 禪寺 語錄 (昭 如、 希 陵編 ， pp. 11635-11733) 。 《禪 宗集 成》 ( 台北： 藝 文印 書館 ,
1968)17 冊 (p. 11661)。
33
Jowett, B. (1949) (English Translation). Plato: Meno, Indianapolis: Liberal Arts Press (pp. 37-45).
34
Nan, H. J. (南懷瑾) (1955). Measuring a Tiny Part of the Chan Ocean (in Chinese). (Third edition,
1978, Taipei: Lao Gu Publications). 南懷瑾(1955)。《禪海蠡測》。台北：老古出版社。
35
《六祖法寶壇經‧付囑品第十》
- 14 -
明。來去相因。成中道義。餘問悉皆如此。汝等於後傳法。依此轉相教
授。勿失宗旨。
REFLECTION AND MINDFULNESS
Cai identified the following uses of words by Chan masters: affirmative statements,
negating statements, questioning, interrogative statements, query on given responses,
conditioning statements and exclamations36. The categories of paradox, going beyond
the opposites, contradiction, affirmation, repetition and exclamation of the use of verbal
techniques were also identified by Suzuki 37 . In fact, different qualities of questions,
yielding different effect, have long drawn the attention of educational psychologists and
indeed, we don’t need a second person (the master) to raise all these questions. When
one is frequently confronted with various kinds of questions, one is very likely to raise
questions for oneself. This could be the basis of introspection and finally one becomes
reflective38.
Watching one’s mind to maintain a spirit of awareness is often stressed in Buddhist
practices, as illustrated in Chapter 2 (Watchfulness) of Dhammapada (法句經)39:
“Watchfulness is the path of immortality:
Unwatchfulness is the path of death.
Those who are watchful never die:
Those who do not watch are already dead”.
Gradually, metacognition could be enhanced.
Certainly, the development of
metacognition is also incorporated into various meditational practices in Buddhism.
A Pedagogical Analysis
While features of Buddhist education has been widely discussed 40, the purpose of this
study is to present a reconceptualization of education in a more deeper way under the
Buddhist perspective.
36
Cai, R. T. (1986). The Enlightening Methods of Chan Masters (in Chinese). Taipei: Wen Shu
Publications. 蔡榮婷(1986)。《禪師啟悟法》。台北。文殊出版社。
37
Suzuki, D.T. (1956). Zen Buddhism. New York: Doubleday Anchor. See also Lau, K.K. (1995). The
revelations from Chan Buddhism to teachers (in Chinese), in P.K. Siu & P.T.K. Tam (Ed.s) Quality in
Education: Insights from different perspectives. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Educational Research
Association. 劉國強(1995)。禪宗之教對教師之啟示。載蕭炳基、譚添鉅(編)。《教育質素：不
卓識之匯集》，246-258。香港：香港教育研究學會。
38
Saunder, N.M. (1966). Classroom Questions: What Kind ? New York: Harper and Row; see also
Wong, N.Y. (1994). Questioning and mathematics education (in Chinese), Mathmedia, 70, 66-80. 黃
毅英(1994)。問答與數學教學。《數學傳播》70 期﹐66-80。後載黃毅英(編)(1997)。《邁向大眾
數學的數學教育》(頁 123-152)。台北：九章出版社。
39
Mascaró, J. (1973) (English translation). Dhammapada. Middlesex: Penguin Books. See also: Chapter
15 of Sparham, G. (1983) (English translation). The Tibetan Dhammapada. New Delhi: Mahayana
Publications. (revised, 1986, London: Wisdom Publications).
- 15 -
AIM
The question, “Are all educated men happy ?” seems to be an old but forever new
myth for mankind to meditate upon. If indeed, education does not lead to a happier life
but brings unhappiness instead, then the education we place so high an expectation can
only bring about wrongness. Indeed, knowledge and affliction are classified in
Buddhism as the two major impediments to the acquisition of wisdom. Of course, it all
depends on how one defines education. From the Buddhist point of view the fully
“educated” man is the one who is totally enlightened. Therefore, in this perspective,
being enlightenment is the sole aim of “education”.
In his talk “Buddhism is Neither a Religion nor a Philosophy” 41 , Ou-Yang (18711943), the central figure of the Buddhist “renaissance” in China at the turn of the
century, distinguished Buddhism from other religions. He pointed out that the major aim
of a Buddhist follower is to attain Buddhahood. Lau also pointed out that “In other
religions, it is not possible for their followers to become the godhead. In Buddhism,
every sentient being possesses the Buddha nature and anyone who uttered ‘homage to the
Buddha’ will definitely attain Buddhahood”42.
CANDIDATURE
The next question would then be, “Who is capable of being educated ?” Buddhists
(mahayana, in particular) hold that every sentient beings possesses the Buddha nature.
This cannot be expressed more clearly than the following exposition of H.E. Tulku
Urgyen Rinpoche.
40
(a) Chan, B. (1981). The Personality Traits and Educational Principles of Buddha (in Chinese). Taipei:
Total Enlightenment Academy Scripture Printing Society. 陳柏達(1981)。《佛陀的人格教育》。台
北：圓覺學舍印經會。
(b) Ding, G. (1988). The Buddhist Education of China: A comparative study among Confucian,
Buddhist and Taoist Education (in Chinese). Chengdu: Sichuan Educational Press. 丁鋼(1988)。《中
國佛教教育》。成都：四川教育出版社。
(c) Lau, K.K. (劉國強) (1995). The revelations from Chan Buddhism to teachers (in Chinese), in P.K.
Siu & P.T.K. Tam (Ed.s) Quality in Education: Insights from different perspectives. Hong Kong: Hong
Kong Educational Research Association. 劉國強(1995)。禪宗之教對教師之啟示。載蕭炳基、譚添
鉅(編)。《教育質素：不卓識之匯集》，246-258。香港：香港教育研究學會。
(d) Wen-Zhu, Monk (1966). Buddhism and Education (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Hong Kong
Buddhist Youth Association. 釋文殊(1966)。《佛教與教育》。香港：香港佛教青年協會。
(e) Wang, S.Q. (1982). The Educational Thought of Buddha Sakyamuni (in Chinese). Kaoshiong: Fu
Wen Publications. 王松溪(1982)。《釋迦牟尼的教育思想》。高雄：復文圖書。
(f) Zheng, S.Y. (1994). Consciousness, Wisdom for Teaching: Applying Chan's way of teaching (in
Chinese). Taipei: Long Stream Publications. 鄭石岩(1994)。《覺‧教導的智慧》。台北：遠流出
版社。
41
Ou-Yang J.W. (reprint) (1972). Buddhism is Neither a Religion nor a Philosophy (in Chinese). Hong
Kong: Hong Kong Buddhist Scripture Circulation Center. 歐陽竟無(1972)(重印)。《佛法非宗教非
哲學》。香港：香港佛經流通處。
42
See Lau, Y.C. (1980). The comparison of Buddhism with other religions (in Chinese), Vajrayana
Quarterly, 2, 4-5 劉銳之(1980)。佛教與他教之比較。《金剛乘季刊》2 期，4-5; see also Chang,
C.C. Garma (reprint) (1966). What is Buddhism ? (in Chinese). 張澄基(1966)(重印)。《甚麼是佛
法？》。香港：香港佛經流通處。
- 16 -
“The ground is the Buddha nature, sugatagarbha (佛性), the dharmakaya (法身)
of all the Buddhas that is present in all sentient beings. It is compared to pure,
undefiled gold endowed with supreme qualities and free from any defects.
How is the Buddha nature present in everyone ? The example given is that of
oil in a mustard seed. When pressed, a mustard seed always yields old. In the
same way, in all sentient beings there is the essence of Buddhahood, the
Buddha nature. No one lacks it. All the budddhas and bodhisattvas have
Buddha nature, as well as all sentient beings down to the tiniest insect, without
any difference whatsoever in size or quality43”.
It was also stated in Maha-parinirvanam Sutra (大般涅槃經卷十) (Chapter 10) that
“All sentient beings will eventually become self-liberated and all three yanas have the
same Buddha nature ... just as the price of gold is immeasurable after it is cleared of the
dirt and refined. Therefore, all sentient beings have, without exception, the same Buddha
nature.”
Besides this, Chan Buddhists hold that the first words uttered by Lord Buddha when
he get enlightened were:
“Strange, every sentient beings possesses the merits of the Tathagata, but
because of inflictions and attachments, they cannot reach realization44”
Brahmajala Sutra (Part II) (佛說梵網經卷下) also says that “All sentient beings possess
the Buddha nature” (一切眾生皆有佛性) in relation to the instance with Lord Buddha
was enlightened. Furthermore, Park distinguishes between the “doctrinal faith” and the
“patriarchal faith” in relation to the beliefs “I can become Buddha” and “I am Buddha”
respectively. Park also mentioned that these two kinds of faith leads to the gradual and
sudden approaches respectively45.
MOTIVE
Why should I become a Buddha ? I don't wish to be worshipped as a statue in the
temple. Why should I be educated ? Why should I undergo rigorous training ? These
are the questions in the heart of those of our students who are “compelled” to attend
school by the decree of universal education.
Buddhism skillfully tackles the questions in the reverse manner by stating the fault of
not being “educated”. The teachings of Buddha begin by pointing out the faults of
43
See Urgyen Rinpoche, Tulku (1991) (English translation: Erik Pema Kunsang). The four dharmas of
Gampopa. In Repeating the Words of the Buddha, 13-32. Hong Kong: Rangjung Yeshe Publications.
(p. 16).
44
「奇哉，一切眾生，具有如來智慧德相。但以妄想執著，而不得證。」(大慧普覺禪師語錄)Other
traditions may have different versions, see, for example, Thomas, E.J. (1949). The Life of Buddha as
Legend and History. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
45
Park, S.B. (1983). Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. New York: State University of New
York Press.
- 17 -
samsara (non-realized existence) 輪迴 which is precisely the theme of the four noble
truths. When one knows that the nature of samsara is suffering, one is motivated to seek
the path to enlightenment, that is, discarding this shore and longing for another shore.
The four thoughts which reverse the mind in the Longchen Nyingtig (龍欽心髓)
tradition has precisely the same purpose:
“After having begun by giving homage to the lama, first we think about the
difficulty of gaining this precious, free and well-favoured human form,
because this form is the basis of the spiritual path of liberation. Then we
reflect on impermanence and death; everything that exists is subject to change
and death. Then, even though one dies one is not free, one goes on circling in
samsara from birth to rebirth and that is why the nature of samsara is suffering;
we contemplate on that. Then we reflect that whatever one does, whether
good or bad actions, the pattern of karma is inescapable. These are called Lo
Dok Nam Zhi: the four thoughts which reverse the mind. Their purpose is to
make the mind turn away from samsara and turn towards the practice46”.
DURATION
There has been heated debate in the educational circles on the issue of “nature and
nurture”. This issue could be caused by a limited view on life and lifespan. If we regard
the termination of this life as the end-point in education, then naturally, not much could
be changed (or “educated”) in such a short period, especially if time is measured in
relation to the three immeasurable aeons which from the moment of cultivation is the
time needed for fully “educated” or enlightenment.
This does not mean that one has to go through the whole process from the start in
every new lifespan. It is said in A Precious Treasury of Elegant Sayings (薩迦格言)47 of
Sakya Pandit (薩迦班智達) that:
“Acquire knowledge though you may die
next year.
You may not become wise in this life,
But if you take it with you in your future
birth,
It will become a precious thing.”
It is likely that the “precious thing” refers not only
to factual knowledge. The word “wise” indicates
46
Figure 4 Elegant sayings
Dzogchen view of Ngondro, in Sogyal Rinpoche (1990). Dzogchen and Padmasambhava. Berkeley,
California: Rigpa Fellowship in California (p. 81). See also Urgyen Rinpoche, Tulku (1991) (English
translation: Erik Pema Kunsang). The four dharmas of Gampopa. In Repeating the Words of the
Buddha, 13-32. Hong Kong: Rangjung Yeshe Publications.
47
Dharma Publishing (1977) (English translation). A Precious Treasury of Elegant Sayings (Legs-bshad
rin-po-ch’e gter of Sakya Pandit). Berkeley: author.
- 18 -
that it may also refer to the level of awareness. Thus, if one goes through all the spiritual
practices in this lifetime and still does not attain total enlightenment at the end of it,
one’s awareness will be upgraded and merits are accumulated for continuing “education”
in the next lifetime48.
CURRICULUM
There is no rigid curriculum for Buddhist “education” although there are general
guidelines such as the Three Courses of Study (三學：戒定慧)(vows, meditation and
wisdom), the Eight Right Paths (八正道) and the various levels of learning like the nine
vehicles of Samatabhadra. Followers of Buddhism will progress along various stages
(like the five paths) in the course of their education.
There are numerous ways to enlightenment in both the gradual and the sudden
approaches to Buddhism. Indeed, the Buddhist curriculum is an individualized one.
Each way is specifically devised for the caliber and temperament of the student. It is
often situational and can even be spontaneously “designed”.
Buddhist scriptures 49 explains that from the single syllable AH uttered by Lord
Buddha 84000 ways have been derived by sentient beings according to their own caliber
and temperament. In other words, a “curriculum”, if there is such a thing, is not
differentiated in the sense that profound meanings are hidden from those of a low caliber
but each person will derive from it according to his or her need just as there are different
antidotes for difference illnesses.
TEACHING
There is no set curriculum in Buddhist teaching and neither is there a “Buddhist way
of teaching”. Buddhist master would make use of any means that could enhance the
understanding of the disciples. Language and words are means to this end and they are
will aware of the limitations of both. The master will give every opportunity to allow his
disciple to grasp the nowness (當下) before awareness is transformed into ideas and then
later, into words. Before this process begins, it is essential to arouse a state of perplexity
and mindfulness in their disciples through engaging them in conflicting dialogues.
Details of the principles and methods of conflicting dialogue given by the Sixth Patriarch
Hui-Nang have already been discussed.
An indispensable part in Buddhist teaching are the meditational practices. These are
not the theme of the present paper but the six categories of common Buddhist practices
as set out in “Buddhist and Meditation”50 are listed here for reference. They are, (1)
See also Hung, Q. S. (1996). Whole Life Education. Taipei: Time Publications 洪啟嵩(1996)。《全生
教育》。台北：時報出版社。
49
See, e.g. Chapter 79 of Abhidharmamahavibhasa-sastra. (大毘婆沙論卷七十九) 佛以一音演說法，眾
生隨類各得解. One may also refer to Tarthang Tulku (1978). Healing through mantra, Gesar, 4
(winter), 2-6.
50
Chang, C.C. Garma (1966) (reprint). What is Buddhism ? (in Chinese). 張澄基(1966)(重印)。《甚麼
是佛法？》。香港：香港佛經流通處。
48
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concentration, (2) contemplation, (3) inhalation and exhalation, (4) chanting, (5) physical
exercises, and (6) mind meditation
Concluding Remarks
In the mid-eighties, the revelation of the “success” of the Confucian Cultural Heritage
education shook the world. The cover story, “The New Whiz Kids” which appeared in
Time51 may have been the first to bring this phenomenon to the notice of the public,
sociologists and educationalists. However, it may be noteworthy that, despite the
academic success of Asian students disclosed in the article, a distinction between the
Confucian and the Buddhist were drawn. The relatively less successful performance of
those coming from Laos and Cambodia was attributed to their gentler, Buddhist
approach to life.
Thereafter, the learners and learning environments in the Confucian Heritage Culture
were extensively studied and the factor contributing to such outstanding success seems to
be their orientation towards achievement the origin of which could be traced to the deemphasis of non-mundane pursuit so that they can concentrate their efforts on the more
immediate goals of this life 52 . In this way, the lives of individuals are “extended”
through descendants and heritage.
Thus, in the Confucian tradition, an individual is valued not as an individual but for
his or her role in a vast network of kinship. Thus, it is utterly important that s/he plays
precisely the role s/he is born into. One of the major functions of education is to train
youngsters to act and behave according to the particular role they will take up in society
in accordance with their family background and social economic status. In other words,
education serves to help the young generation to fit in the society.
This situation, however, has to be re-assessed when the examination system is taken
into account because examinations could have an effect on social mobility. An
individual, whatever his or her family background, can educate himself or herself, pass
different levels of examinations and theoretically climb up the social ladder. Thus, under
these new rules of the game, education, in conjunction with the examination system, has
a new function; it enables an individual to strive for the highest role attainable by that
individual. It is understandable, therefore that the Confucian Heritage Culture, albeit an
51
Brand, D. (1987). The new whiz kids: Why Asian Americans are doing well, and what it costs them
(cover story), Time (Asia edition), August, 42-50.
52
Watkins, D.A., & Biggs, J.B. (1996) (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: cultural, Psychological and
Contextual Influences. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre and Victoria, Australia:
The Australian Council for Educational Research. See also “Watkins, D.A., & Biggs, J.B. (Eds.)
(2001). Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong:
Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.” and “Wong, N.Y. (1998a). In
Search of the “CHC” Learner: Smarter, Works Harder or Something More? Plenary lecture. In H.S.
Park, Y.H. Choe, H. Shin, & S.H. Kim (Eds.), Proceedings of the ICMI—East Asia Regional
Conference on Mathematical Education, 1, 85–98”.
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adapted one, would be strongly motivated towards high academic achievement when the
achievement is measured against conventional tests and examinations.
With the widening of the apex of the educational pyramid and job opportunities in the
society, the goal and function of school education need to be re-assessed. Students
always find school education irrelevant if they look at it solely as a means to help them
climbing up of the social ladder. Under this new vision, the Buddhist philosophy of
nurturing the potential of every single individual may have strong point over the
Confucian one. It is hoped that this paper might provide food for thought towards this
end. There is no intention of suggesting that the Confucian way should be replaced by
the Buddhist way but it is believed that the Buddhist way of self-development of
awareness could shed light and enrich the Confucian philosophy, bringing it to even
greater heights of achievement.
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