Розділ 1 Економіка природокористування і еколого-економічні проблеми
ЧАСТИНА
1
МЕТОДОЛОГІЧНІ ПРОБЛЕМИ СУЧАСНОЇ ЕКОНОМІКИ
Розділ 1
Економіка природокористування і
еколого-економічні проблеми
УДК 330.34
Peter J. Stauvermann1
How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability”
for Policy-Making with the help of National/Regional Accounting
Matrices including Environmental Accounts
In this paper we have derived some minimal conditions for economic, social and environmental
sustainability. In general our assumption is that an economy can only be sustainable regarding all three
dimensions, if the unemployment rate is zero, if the quantity of emissions is decreasing from year to year
and if the production measured in physical units is not decreasing. Combining the different aspects of
sustainability, we are able to derive one minimal necessary condition of sustainability (MNCS), which is
nothing else than one inequality.
1. Introduction
In the report “Our Common Future” of the Brundtland commission (1987), sustainable
development was defined, as “… a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The problem with
this definition is, that it is impossible to operationalize the definition in a satisfactory manner.
Because of the missing operationalization of sustainability hundreds of different concepts of
sustainability has been developed in the last twenty years. In this time period many definitions
have been formulated and many attempts have been made to operationalise the concept in
varying forms: with collections of seperate indicators, weighted indices of indicators, dealing
explicity with or without economic valuation and monetarization methods and applied on
Peter Josef Stauvermann, PhD, Telos, University of Tilburg; Department of Economics, University of Twente,
Netherlands.
© Peter J. Stauvermann, 2007
1
I thank Bert Steenge, Paul Safonov, Tanya Filatova, Frans Hermans, Ruben Smeets and the partcipiants of the
16th Internationl Conference of the Russian Society of Ecological Economics 2007 in Sochi for helpful suggestions
and comments. All remaining errors are mine.
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Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
varying scales: from urban to regional levels up to national and international levels. The list of
attempts seems to be endless.2 However, all these definitions have the disadvantage, that they
are more or less based on subjective value judgements, which of course could be criticized.
Because of this unsatisfactory situation, we discuss another approach, which is partly
based on Spangenberg, Omann & Hinterberger (2002). The main idea is to develop a system
of minimal necessary conditions, which guarantee that we are not on an unsustainable growth
path and which are not based on value judgements. Of course, these conditions can not
guarantee that we are on a sustainable growth path. The reason is that we do not have enough
knowledge about the physical and biological capacity of our earth. E.g. no scientist knows the
sustainable quantity of CO2 emissions in general, however in principle we are able to
calculate the natural absorption capacity of the environment (e.g. absorption capacity of
forests and other plants with respect to green house gases). Here we want derive minimal
necessary conditions for sustainability, which are based on very well accepted sustainability
norms.
The paper is organized as follows, in part II we derive the minimal necessary conditions
for social, economic and ecological sustainability. In the third section we will introduce the
concepts of the NAMEA (National Accounting Matrix including environmental accounts) and
RAMEA (Regional Accounting Matrix including environmental accounts). In the forth section
we will ckeck in how far the Netherlands and the Dutch region Noord-Brabant have fulfilled
the sustainability conditions in the time period 2001-2003. In the last section we will conclude
our results.
II The Minimal Necessary Conditions for Sustainability
The starting point of economic sustainability was the notion of sustainable income
expressed by Hicks (1946):
“…income is the maximum amount an individual can consume during a period and remain
as well off at the end of the period as at the beginning.”
The sustainable income of Hicks (1946) is interpreted as the amount of income that can be
spent without depleting the wealth which generates the income. Hence, sustainability requires
non-decreasing levels of capital stock over time, or, at the level of the individual, nondecreasing per capita capital stock.
The indicators of sustainability could be based on either the value of total assets every
period, or by the change in wealth, depreciation of capital in the conventional national
accounts. Consequently, for a proper measure of sustainability, all assets should be included in
such an indicator. The main accepted economic indicator is the gross national product (GDP)
measured in monetary units. It can be argued that the growth rate of production or GDP should
be zero or bigger than zero to fulfill Hicks’ (1946) definition.3 Here we improve and extend
the approach of Spangenberg, Omann & Hinterberger (2002).
To take the social dimension into account, it is clear that the unemployment rate should be
as low as possible, or in other words the number of employees should increase from period to
2
See for a rough overview http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
Because of the fact that the propulation growth rate is nearly zero in the Netherlands, we do not differentiate
between GDP per capita and GDP. However, in general the per capita growth rate of the GDP should be zero or
bigger than zero. Additionally, it should be clear from a world-wide view that the population growth rate should be
zero to become sustainable.
3
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period as long as unemployment is a permanent problem. We assume that unemployment is
obviously the main social problem in the world. Social sustainability is never been reached if
unemployment exists.4
Regarding ecological sustainability, we have the problem with respect to question what
kind of emissions are important and environmental damages are relevant for ecological
sustainability. Here we restrict ourselves to the substances and ecological themes which were
proposed by the Dutch national environmental agency (RIVM) and approved by the Dutch
government. Of course the quantity of emissions should decrease from period to period In this
paper we assume a population growth rate of zero, because this assumption coincides with the
development of population in mostly all European countries.
Now we will use these assumptions to derive the minimal conditions for sustainability.
A. Minimal conditions to reach ecological sustainability:
Let us define the amount of emissions as E and the growth rate of this quantity as e. The
variable Y represents the output and y the growth rate of output. A necessary condition for
ecological sustainability is e  0 , because it is well known from the IPCC reports that
humans produce too much emissions. (It might make the statement stronger if you for example
cite IPCC report where they tell that human emissions affect global climate processes and
caused climate change). This condition is only met, if the growth rate of production y is
Y 
 . That means
E
Y 
y     y  e .
E
lower than the growth rate of eco-productivity 
(1)
The reasoning is that the inverse of eco-productivity is nothing else than eco-efficiency
(defined by emissions per unit of output), and it is obvious that the relative increase of ecoefficiency must exceed the relative increase of output, otherwise the total quantity of
emissions will increase. To make this point more clear we take the CO2 emissions from traffic
into consideration. If we look at each single car or truck it is easy to recognize that the CO2
emissions per km has dramatically decreased the last 20 years in Europe, however the relative
increase of driven km exceeded the relative increase of eco-efficiency of cars and trucks a lot
in the same period. As a result, the quantity of CO2 emissions from traffic has increased the
last 20 years in Europe and everywhere in the world.
B. The minimal condition to reach social sustainability:
The minimal condition for social sustainability means that the number of employed people
is increasing l  0 , where l represents the growth rate of full-time employed people and L the
total stock of full-time jobs. The reason for this condition is that mostly in all countries
unemployment is omnipresent. Of course, unemployment is not the only social problem, but
the most important one regarding inequality of income distribution. As long as the national
income is not distributed equally, it is clear that the access to universities, health care system
etc. is also not distributed equally.
4
It is clear that it is not sufficient for social sustainability to reach a unemployment rate of zero, also health,
eduducation and other variables must be taken into account to measure social sustainability. Here we only argue, that
it is a necessary condition for social sustainability that unemployment must be zero.
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Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
We define the labor productivity as
Y
, than we get the following necessary condition.
L
Y 
y     y  l ,
L
(2)
the growth rate of production exceeds the growth rate of labor-productivity, otherwise the
rate of unemployment will increase. Please note, that this condition requires that the number
of full-time jobs must increase, not the number of employees as a criterion for itself.
Obviously, a reduction of the obligatory number of official working hours will lead to an
increase of full-time jobs. Or in other words, a reduction of the obligatory number of official
working hours of a fulltime worker is a mean to decrease the growth rate of labor productivity
per employed person.
C. The minimal condition to reach economic sustainability:
Following Hicks (1946) a minimal condition for economic sustainability is given by
(Growth of output (y>=0) means the growth of supply. That is very often considered as a
panacea to achieve sustainability. Do you think that the decrease of demand (change of
consumption pattern) could also be considered as an option? Certainly complimentary to the
increase of eco-efficiency of production)
y  0.
(3)
If this condition will be violated, future generations will be harmed, because of the reduced
consumption possibilities. Or in other words, economic sustainability is only be reached as
long as all following generations would have at minimum the same consumption possibilities
as our generation. Now we are able to write down the following proposition.
Proposition I: A minimal necessary condition to reach social, economic and ecological
sustainability requires that the growth rate of labor productivity is lower than the growth rate
of output and this former growth rate must be lower than the growth rate of eco-productivity.
Proof:
Combining inequalities (1), (2) and (3) leads to
From this we get easily
y l  0  y  y e
(4)
l  y 0e.
(5)
q.e.d.
Proposition II: The minimal necessary condition to reach sustainability (MNCS) is
l  y  0  e . The growth rate of employment must exceed the growth rate of output, which
is equal or bigger than zero and the growth rate of emissions is negative.
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It should be noted, that the condition MNCS is necessary but not sufficient to reach
sustainability, because it is possible that the speed of the decrease of emissions is too slow to
avoid a breakdown of the whole ecological system. To make this more clear take a look at the
folling figure 1.
Emissions
A
S
B
Time
Figure 1 – Two development paths
In figure 1 we see two development paths A and B, the line marked with the S is the
sustainable level of emissions. If a region is on a path like the one marked with A, than the
society will be never sustainable, because the emissions are always higher than the sustainable
level, although the emissions will decrease from period to period and in so far the
environemtal sustainability criterion is fulfilled. The only sustainable path is the path which is
marked with the B.
A more general formulation of the MNCS where we take all different environmental
substances and natural resources into account and population growth would be
l  y  n  0  max e1 ,....em ,
(6)
where the subscripts 1 until m denote the different environmental substances or natural
resources. Additionally, we are able to take additional social indicators like income
distribution into account. E.g. the relation between the average and the median income. As
long as this indicator of inequality is bigger than one the distribution of income is in any case
not equal or in other words the poorest 50 percent of the inhabitants earn less than 50% of the
national income. To extend inequality (6) we take the aggregate production Y and the
aggregate production of 50% quantile
then given by
Y median . An indicator for the distribution of income is
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Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
d
Y
Y
median
,
If income inequality shall be reduced, the following inequality must hold:
(7)
y  y median ,
median
where y
is the growth rate of the 50% low-income employees.5 If we add this condition
to inequality (6), we get the new condition:


min l , y median  y  n  0  max e1 ,....em  .
(8)
It is clear, that we could add some additional conditions, but than the MNCS will become
more and more complex and it will become more complicate to fulfill the MNCS, because of
an increasing number of trade-offs between the different variables. However, it is easy to find
out with the help of the most simple MNCS if a region of country is not on a sustainable
growth path. It is much more difficult to say something about if a region is on a sustainable
growth path, because we may not ancicipate and take into account all environmental problems.
Certainly, the biggest challenge is to bring analytical formalizations to the operational level to
make them applicable to and useful in policy making. The section below illustrates how
MNCS can be estimated using NAMEA.
III The Usefulness of Regional and National Accounting Matrices including
Environmental Accounts
Here we want to give a short description of the NAMEA/RAMEA system as in use in the
Netherlands. We abstain from explaining the details and how the numbers of the NAMEA are
compiled. We only want to give a brief overview about the NAMEA, so that it should be
possible to understand, what kind of information the NAMEA can provide for policy-makers
and economists and how it can be used to estimate MNCS.
The NAMEA is a statistical information system to combine national accounts and
environmental accounts in a single matrix. It is a so-called satellite accounting matrix (SAM),
as it is described in the SNA 1993 (Chapter XXI). 6 The conception of the NAMEA system is
based on the work of Keuning (1992) de Haan & Keuning (1996) and de Boo, Bosch, Gorter
& Keuning (1991, 1993). The origin of their work is the input-output approach7 of Leontief
(1970).8
The NAMEA system is only a descriptive system in which the economy is divided into its
economic sectors and the contributions of these sectors to economic and environmental
indicators. It maintains a strict borderline between the economic and the environmental
5
This indicator of inequality is explained in detail in Stauvermann (1997), in principle it is a simplified Ginicoefficient. As long as the average income exceeds the median income, it is obvious that the aggregate national
income is ditributed in an inequal way.
6
The original idea behind the SAM's (Satellite Accounting Matrix) was to incorporate concerns of inequality and
poverty within the national accounts and input-output tables. An introduction to the SAM approach is given in
Keuning & de Ruijter (1988), Pyatt & Thorbecke (1976) and Pyatt & Round (1986).
7
Duchin & Steenge (1999) give a technical overview about input-output analysis with respect to environmental
problems. Additionally, Duchin (1998) has presented a structural approach of different I-O models. See also Duchin
& Lange (1994).
8
Leontief´s (1970) analysis of the physical economy "can be regarded as the first prototype NAMEA since both
systems are characterized by a hybrid structure including both physical as well monetary data" (de Haan (2001), p.5).
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aspects. It is represented in monetary units on the one hand and in physical units on the other
hand, that is the reason why it is called a hybrid accounting system.
To get a clear understanding of the interrelationships between the natural environment and
the economy, we must use a physical representation. (Otherwise, we are not able to understand
these relations.) If the NAMEA system would contain monetary values about environmental
problems, two problems would occur. Firstly, the environmental services, such as CO2
absorption, must be valued in monetary units. If we would like to monetarize environmental
damages, it is very delicate task to differentiate between prize changes, quantity changes and
the resulting effects on disposal income. Therefore, the resulting indicators are measured in
physical units. The interrelationship between the economy and the environment has two
perspectives, an economic one and an environmental one. The economic perspective contains
the physical requirements in the economic processes, like energy and material and spatial
requirements. The environmental perspective puts forward the consequences of these
requirements with respect to the availability of the natural environment, which produce
resources and absorbs wastes. Consequently, the optimal allocation of natural resources
requires the consideration of both perspectives.
The fundamental idea of the NAMEA is to extend the conventional national accounting
matrix with two additional accounts. One additional account is the account for environmental
problems like the greenhouse effect or the ozone layer depletion.9 The selected environmental
themes are partly global environmental problems and partly national and local environmental
problems. The selected themes are:10
1. Greenhouse effect
2. Ozone layer depletion
3. Acidification
4. Eutrophication
5. Waste
6. Waste water
7. Fossil fuels
The second additional account is for environmental substances, like carbon dioxide or
sulfur dioxide, where these substances are expressed in physical quantities, like kilogram, tons
et cetera. The selected environmental substances are: 11
1. CO2
N 2O
3. CH 4
4. CFC's and halons
5. NO x
2.
9
The numbers for the environmental themes are aggregated with the help of the IPCC conventions. This means
e.g. that one kg of
CO2
emissions equals one global warming potential, one kg of
global warming potentials, and one kg of
N 2O
emissions equals 270
CH4 equals 11 global warming potentials.
10
See for example the NAMEA table in Keuning, van Dalen & de Haan (1999, p.18-22).
11
See e.g. the NAMEA table in Keuning, van Dalen & de Haan (1999, p.18-22).
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Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
SO2
7. NH 3
6.
8. P
9. N
The selection of themes and substances follows those environmental themes which were
most important in the view of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the
Environment (1989, 1990, 1992, 1993)12 and with an approval of the Dutch parliament
(Tweede Kamer (1996)). The ministry had designed a single indicator each of the
environmental themes, by weighing together the emissions that contributed to each theme. 13
It can be said, that the NAMEA generates consistent summary indicators for those
environmental problems, which are considered to be most pressing at the political level in the
Netherlands. A stylized NAMEA/RAMEA has in general the following form:
Table 1 – Table of origins of Noord-Brabant and the Netherlands
year
labor input
labor input
of employed GHG theme GHG theme
of employed
Output NL Output NB
perso in full
NL in
NB in
persons NL
in EUR
in EUR
time
millions of millions of
in full time
equivalents
kg
kg
equivalents
ns NB
Agriculture
Industry
Services
Given this table for two periods of time we have all information which is needed to check
if a country or region has fulfilled the minimal condition for sustainability between the
periods. All these numbers of table 2 could be found in Stauvermann (2007). We get the
following results then.
Relative changes of output, employment and emissions in Noord-Brabant and the
Netherlands 2001-2003:
Applying inequality (6) we get the following results by using the data from table 2.
For the Netherlands we get
-1.3441>0.07  0>16.147
(7)
Obviously, the Netherlands were in the period 2001-2003 not on a sustainable growth path,
because of the decline of employed persons and the increase of N2O emissions. Only the
criterion for economic sustainability was fulfilled. That means that the national income has
increased, however also the emissions of N2O has increased at the same time. We know from
the considerations above that the economic growth must be equal or bigger than zero and that
12
The pilot NAMEA in 1993 benefited much from the work done on environmental indicators at the Ministry of
Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (Adriaanse (1993)).
13
The indicators refer to Adriaanse (1993). An extended discussion of the aggregation of different environmental
substances is given in the Annex B of de Haan, Keuning & Bosch (1994).
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the growth of emissions must be negative to become sustainable. This of course can only be
realized if the productivity of environmental inputs (emissions) is growing faster than the
economic output.
Table 2 – Growth Rates14
Economic activities
Output (based on volume change) NL
Output (based on volume change) NB
Labour input of employed persons NL (fte)
Labor input of employed persons NB (fte)
CO2 NL
CO2 NB
N2O NL
N2O NB
CH4 NL
CH4 NB
CFC halons NL
CFC halons NB
NOx NL
NOx NB
SO2 NL
SO2 NB
NH3 NL
NH3 NB
P NL
P NB
N NL
N NB
waste NL
waste NB
GHG theme NL
GHG theme NB
Acidification NL
Acidification NB
Eutropohication NL
Eutrophication NB
change %
0.07
-0.07
-1,3441
-1,3947
-4,27138
-1,51431
16,14713
12,24129
-12,7041
-4,1218
-17,0984
-18,391
-17,9221
-23,1789
-36,1664
-59,2095
-11,6793
-16,9747
5,261836
0,438652
-7,26911
-10,9469
-13,0653
-11,2354
-3,42827
-0,57484
-19,9871
-26,3497
-1,18628
-5,18657
Now we take a look at the Dutch region Noord-Brabant, where we get
-1.3947>-0.07  0>12.241
(8)
In some sense it can be argued that the situation in Noord-Brabant has develped more
worse, because all objectives were not reached (I think the idea to use a single line inequation
14
NB represents the Dutch province Noord-Brabant and NL the Netherlands.
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Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
such as MNCS is a bright one. It gives a quick snapshot for the policy maker who is interested
in easy-to-use and quick decision support measures and tools . I like it! At the same time by
comparing rates of change you can indeed consider social, econ and ecological aspects all
together!).
IV Conclusions and further Research
Until now we have only developed a system how to monitor the state of an society, where
we propose to take social, economic and ecological indicators in an equal way into account.
One good starting point regarding the measurement of ecological, social and economic
indicators is the so-called Dutch NAMEA (national Accounting matrix including
Environmental Accounts) approach, which will be available for all European countries in the
following years. What we did not do until now is to analyse each sector from the NAMEA15
regarding the MNCS. This will infrom us which econmic sectors are responsible for the
violation of the MNCS.
Additionally, this system could be also extended to social accounts, the so-called
SESAME16 (System for economic, environmental and social statistics). This approach has the
advantage that all countries make use of the accounting rules of the SNA 1993 and SEEA
2003 and in so far international and intertemporal comparisons would be possible.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to state that a country or region is on a sustainable growth
path, because at least we do not know the sufficient conditions for sustainability. Here we
have developed conditions which allow us to state, that a region or country is not on a
sustainable path, if the MNCS are violated . If the minimal necessary conditions are fulfilled,
we are not able to say that we are on a sustainable path. Consequently, we are only able to
differentiate between appearently unsustainable growth paths from growth paths which could
be sustainable. Of course, this analysis is only a small step to get a better insight what
sustainability means.
1. Adriaanse, A. 1993: Environmental Policy Performance Indicators, Netherlands Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning and the Environment.
2. Brundtland, G.H. et al. 1987: Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and
Development, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
3. De Boo, A., Bosch P., Gorter, C.N. & Keuning, S.J. 1991: An Environmental Module and the
Complete System of National Accounts, Occasional Papers of the CBS, No. NA-046, Voorburg.
4. De Boo, A., Bosch P., Gorter, C.N. & Keuning, S.J. 1993: An Environmental Module and the
Complete System of National Accounts, in: Franz, A. & Stahmer, C. (eds): Approaches to
Environmental Accounting, Heidelberg, Physica Verlag.
5. De Haan M., Keuning, S.J. & Bosch., P.R. 1994: Integrating indicators in a National Accounting
Matrix including Environmental Accounts (NAMEA); an application to the Netherlands. National
accounts and the environment; papers and proceedings from a conference, London, 16–18 March,
Statistics Canada, Ottawa.
6. De Haan, M. & Keuning, S.J. 1996: Taking the environment into account: the NAMEA approach,
Review of Income and Wealth 42, 131-148.
7. De Haan, M. 2001: A Structural Decomposition Analysis of Pollution in the Netherlands, Economic
Systems Research 13, 2001.
8. Duchin, F. & Lange, G.-L. 1995: The Future of the Environment: Ecological Economics and
Technological Change, Oxford University Press.
15
At the moment the Dutch NAMEA consists of 38 industrial sectors, emissions from consumption and emissions
from private traffic.
16
See e.g. Keuning & Timmerman (1995). or Keuning (1997).
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9. Duchin, F. & Steenge, A.E. 1999: Input-Output Analysis, Technology and the Environment, in:
J.C.J.M. van den Bergh (ed.): Handbook of Environmental and Resource Economics, Northampton,
MA, Edgar Elgar, 1037-1059.
10. Duchin, F. 1998: Structural Economics: Measuring Change in Technology, Lifestyles, and the
Environment, Island Press.
11. Hicks, J.R. 1946. Value and Capital, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
12. Keuning, S.J. & de Ruijter, W.A. 1988: Guidelines to the Construction of a National Accounting
Matrix, Review of Income and Wealth 34, 71-101.
13. Keuning, S.J. & Timmerman, J.G. 1995: An information system for economic, environmental and
social statistics: integrating environmental data into the SESAME. Conference papers from the
second meeting of the London group on natural resources and environmental accounting, US Bureau
of Census.
14. Keuning, S.J. 1992: National accounts and the environment. The case for a system’s approach,
occasional paper NA-053, Statistics Netherlands (CBS)
15. Keuning, S.J. 1997: SESAME: an Integrated Economic and Social Accounting System, International
Statistical Review 65
16. Keuning, S.J., Dalen, van J. & Haan, de M. 1999: The Netherlands’ NAMEA; Presentation, Usage
and Future Extensions, Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 10, 15-37
17. Leontief, W. 1970: Environmental Repercussions and the Economic Structure: An Input-Output
Analysis, Review of Economics and Statistics 52, 262-271
18. Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) 1992: ThemaIndicatoren voor het milieubeleid nr. 1992/9, (Theme related Indicators Supporting Environmental
Policy (in Dutch)), The Hague
19. Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) 1989: National
Milieubeleidsplan, (National environmental Policy Plan (in Dutch)), The Hague.
20. Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) 1990: National
Milieubeleidsplan-plus, (Extended National environmental Policy Plan (in Dutch)), The Hague.
21. Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) 1993: Tweede
National Milieubeleidsplan, (Second National environmental Policy Plan (in Dutch)), The Hague
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Received 11.09.2007
Петер Дж. Стауверманн
Застосування економічної, екологічної та соціальної «сталості» при прийнятті рішень
із використання матриць аналізу національної/регіональної господарської діяльності,
що включають рахунки екологічних ресурсів
В статті розглядається декілька важливих мінімальних умов економічної, соціальної та
екологічної сталості. На думку автора економіка може бути сталою, якщо врахувати усі три
сфери, якщо рівень безробіття дорівнює нулю, кількість викидів з роками зменшується, а
Механізм регулювання економіки, 2007, № 3
21
Peter J. Stauvermann. How to operationalize Economic, Ecological and Social “Sustainability” for PolicyMaking with the help of National/Regional Accounting Matrices including Environmental Accounts
кількість вироблених товарів не зменшується. Поєднуючи різні аспекти сталого розвитку,
можна визначити необхідну мінімальну умову сталого розвитку (НМУСР).
Автор аналізує мінімальний набір умов сталого економічного, соціального та екологічного
розвитку, а також пропонує матриці аналізу національної та регіональної господарської
діяльності, до яких включені екологічні рахунки (МАНГДЕР та МАРГДЕР (NAMEA/RAMEA)). В
якості прикладу автор пропонує розглянути практичне застосування даного підходу в
Нідерландах і аналізує виконання НМУСР у період із 2001 до 2003 року.
Автор визначає мінімальні умови, які дають змогу досягти екологічної, соціальної та
економічної сталості. Позначивши обсяг викидів через Е, а темпи зростання викидів через е,
необхідною умовою екологічної сталості маємо e  0 . Цієї умови можна досягти, якщо темп
росту виробництва нижчий за темп росту екопродуктивності
Y 
  .
E
Це означає, що
Y 
y     y  e ,
E
(1)
де Y – обсяг виробленої продукції, а у – темп зростання виробітку.
Мінімальною умовою сталого соціального розвитку є збільшення кількості зайнятих –
l  0 , де l – темп росту повністю зайнятого населення, а L – загальна кількість робочих місць.
Y
Продуктивність праці визначається як
, а необхідна обов’язкова умова визначається як:
L
Y 
y     y  l .
(2)
L
По Хіксу (1946) мінімальна умова економічної сталості виконується при y>=0 (зростання
виробітку продукції означає збільшення пропозиції). Відтак, автор припускає, що
y l  0  y  y e
(3)
і мінімальною необхідною умовою економічної сталості є
l  y0e
(4)
Отже, автор пропонує враховувати і соціальні, і економічні, і екологічні індикатори, при
розробці системи моніторингу стану суспільного розвитку. Досвід Нідерландів, а саме
практичне застосування МАНГДЕР та МАРГДЕР є тим прикладом, який згодом зможуть
наслідувати усі європейські країни. Аналіз кожної сфери за допомогою МАНГДЕР та МАРГДЕР
на предмет мінімальної необхідної умови сталого розвитку дасть змогу виявити, де дана умова
не виконується. Нажаль, неможливо остаточно визначити, чи йде країна шляхом сталого
розвитку, оскільки необхідно визначити ще велику кількість умов, які забезпечують сталий
розвиток країни. Навіть, якщо виконуються мінімальні умови, це ще не означає, що ми на шляху
сталого розвитку.
Підготувала:
І.Б. Дегтярьова
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Механізм регулювання економіки, 2007, № 3