JAZZ, THEN AND NOW
B Y
FRANK LEANZA
THE ROOTS OF JAZZ
Elvis Presley took the music world by storm in 1956 with
such hits as "Heartbreak Hotel," "Don't Be Cruel," "Hound Dog,"
and over a hundred more that sold over 350 million records in his
career worldwide, that earned him the title "King" of Rock andRoll. Tracing the origin of rock and roll however, we find its
roots imbedded in jazz.
Jazz grew out of the pain, suffering and degradation of
African slaves. In 1619, a Dutch sailing ship with a consignment
of fifty slaves left Africa for the colonies. After months of
tossing and p it ching on the ro lling se as, t we nty surv iving
black men finally arrived in Virginia in greatly deteriorated
condition. They had spent months behind the ship's oars rowing
until they thought their backs would break. They had shared
filthy, cramped quarters with rats, flies and fleas. They were
dehydrated, starved and exhausted. Some showed the scars of
whips or other instruments of torture on their backs.
Yet, through all the long voy age, they sang. They sang of
homes and families they would never see again. They sang, like
the ancient Israelites, of their capyivity. With sweat pouring
from greasy heads, with chains of captivity cutting into black
ankles, and with moans of pain and fatigue escaping from their
lips, they sang. The words, in their native language, were made
up as they sang them. The melodies were familiar tunes handed
down from many generations, and these tunes were their only link
now to the land of their birth.
In the colonies they were sold at auction by slave traders,
like so many heads of cattle. In town squares all over America,
farmers, businessmen and plantation owners bid as little as
fifteen dollars "per unit" for individual slaves. Families,
if still intact after the long sea voyage, were seldom auctioned
together.
So if it hadn't been for their music, most slaves would
never have had the will to survive. It elevated their mood and
it gave them something to cling to.
And when it came to their music, the slaves co uld be very
enterprising. Blacks had the natural ability to conjure up any
object capable of producing sound and beat on it with their own
primitive form of rhythm. When they got together to play their
makeshift drums, they created many different rhythms. Those who
didn't play anything would sing, clap their hands and stomp their
feet. The result was a beat so primitive, so emotional, it penetrated
the hearts of white and black audiences alike.
In 1626, eleven more slaves arrived in Massachusetts.
Gradually, more man-of-war slave ships landed in New England. By
1638, the slave trade in this country had begun officially. In
1641, the New England legislators finally passed the "body
of liberties" law, making it legal to sell slaves. So profitable
was the slave trade that by the early 1700s, some 75,000 slaves
had been auctioned to white settlers. By the 1800s, the total of
black people "owned" by whites had grown to more than one million.
Jazz authorities first believed that slaves came from all
parts of Africa, and only the weak and illiterates were shipped
to the New World and sold into slavery. When analyzing the differe nt
customs of th e slaves, it be ca me clear that m ost slaves came
from different sections or regions of the West Coast of Africa.
Slave traders searched for blacks in Senegal, Ashantis
of the Gold Coast, the Niger Delta, Dahomey, the Guinea Coast
and the Congo, and purchased from black African rulers the
strong able-bodied men and women.
Southern plantation owners used slaves to work in the
rice, tobacco, cotton, bean and sugar cane fields. Northern
farmers used slaves to work in the fruit orchards, to plant
and harvest vegetables, grain and hay, and to tend the livestock.
Female slaves were divided between the fields and the kitchen. The
slaves' workday began before sunrise and ended long after dark.
Yet, as they ate their meager rations of food, they would sit
around a fire and sing their native songs.
M a le sl av e s wh o c ou l d wo r k wi th le a th er , w oo d, gl a ss ,
copper and iron were privileged to work near the main house, and
allowed a certain amount of status. Female slaves who could work at
spinning, cooking, sewing, embroidering, quilting, cleaning and
serving, were privileged to work in the main house.
Some of the women attained status as nursemaids or "nannies"
to their mistresses' children. This allowed them privileges
other slaves didn't have, such as larger servings of food and
gifts of handed-down clothing. Some mistresses even taught their
favorite slaves to read.
But it was their music which brought them the most privileges
of all. Plantation balls were lavish affairs, with magnificent
decorations and elaborate assortments of meat and pastries.
Some of the male slaves acted as servers at these affairs, but
those who could sing and dance were allowed to perform for the
guests' entertainment. Outfitted in colorful costumes, and with
music improvised from crude, makeshift instruments, they delighted
audiences until the early hours
of the morning. Other plantation owners would often hire these
talented slaves to entertain at their own balls.
The white slave traders of Europe, namely, Spain, France,.
England, Denmark and Holland fought among themselves to gain
control of the slave market, The Africans were well aware they
would be transported to America as prisoners, and therefore, they
did not submit to these slave traders without a struggle. Philip
Drake, slave trader and captain of slave ships for over fifty
years reported, "The negroes fought like wild beasts.... slavery
is a dangerous business at sea as well as ashore."
Once on board ship, the slaves revolted in mutiny in order
to escape their captivity. But insufficent food, water and
disease left them in a weakened condition so that they were no
match for the strong able-bodied crewmen. Many slaves tried to
starve themselves to death, but were unsuccessful because the
crew members would force-feed them. A dead slave brought in no
money for the slave trader. On the other hand, when a slave
became too weak from lack of food, water and the outbreak of
epidemics, the slave master would order the crewmen to throw
him overboard into the sea. His weakened condition would attract
sharks, and if he didn't drown first, he would die an excruciatingly
horrible death by being eaten alive.
But despite all their hardships on their voyages to America,
the negroes were encouraged to sing and dance to relieve the pressures
on them and to eradicate the feeling of being despised and
rejected.
Slave ships could carry as many as 800 Africans at a time.
The strong able -bodied men would be put below deck and the
women and children would be kept on the upper deck. At night, the
men had to sleep on their sides because there wasn't enough room
for all of them to sleep on their backs.
In 1719, slaves were arriving on a regula r basis in New
Orleans and parts of Louisiana, from West Africa, Virginia and
South Carolina. Algiers Point, located on the West bank of
Mississippi River from New Orleans had a corral that housed the
slaves and from which point they were sold.
In the eyes of people from other countries, America was
the land of freedom, prosperity, hope and the opportunity to
advance to a better life. This was true for most people, but not
for the Africans. They came to America without hope and with no
future before them except servitude. While others were finding
freedom in this country, the Africans lost all their wild, native
spirit and zest for life.
The music of slaves included spirituals, worksongs, gospels,
the blues and children's songs. All were sung in a syncopate d
rhythm, a process that places the strong, accented pulse to the weak
beat. These songs later became known as ragtime.
In America, the blacks found consolation in Christianity,
identifying themselves with Christ who also had been tortured
and crucified. Sorrow songs were the crux of the negroes' religious
songs because it reminded them of their oppression.
Each regional tribe brought with them their individual
customs, religion, music, songs and instruments. What each
tribe had in common was rhythm. For example, the musicians
from the tribe of Dahomey, would be playing gongs, rattles and
other drum like instruments. From Nigeria, were the Yoruba
tribe whose Yoruban drums had an hour-glass shape.
Surviving slaves from all tribes expressed their feelings
in melodies, rhythms, songs and dances. In addition to the
various types and shapes of their drums, they played a
stringed instrument called the banjor, which was later to be
developed into our modern four-string banjo.
The unorthodox rhythms came about when several drummers
from different tribes would beat on their drums, each with his
own distinct pattern. When played simultaneously, this would
create a complex rhythm pattern with varying beats and accents.
In various sections of Africa, drumming was a means of
communication. No matter what the object that the African used, the
rhythmic pattern created was classified as drumming or a means
of communication. Rattles, gongs, hollow lumber and skins pu l le d
t i gh t ly a n d se cu r ed in p l ac e we r e b ea te n w it h w oo d en sticks.
Often two objects would be struck together. The drum, however, was
considered the main instrument, because it was the black man's
belief that the gods spoke through the drums. Each drummer played
his own rhythmic pattern as his individual sign. Often, two or more
drummers would play at the same time, creating a polyrhythmic
pattern, that is, two or more rhythms at the same time. More
technically, one drummer played a pattern in 2/4 meter, another
in 3/4 meter, another in 4/4 meter and yet another in 6/8 meter.
Played together, these patterns are considered rhythm complexities.
The reason for this is that the strong beats are accented at
irregular times. An illustration would be an orchestra playing
one song as a waltz, fox-trot and a march at the same time.
Slaves not only sang and beat the drums, they danced. Herbert
Asbury in his book The French Quarter, states: "The favorite
dances of the slaves were the Calinda, a variation of which was
also used in the Voodoo ceremonies, and the dance of the
Bamboula, both of which were primarily based on the primitive dances
of the African jungle.... The entire square was an almost mass
of black bodies stamping and swaying to the rhythmic beat of the
bones on the cask, the frenzied chanting
of the women, and the clanging of pieces of metal which dangled
from the ankles of men."
The Juba and Martinque dances are still being performed by
Haitians to rhythmic sounds from drums made in West Africa. The
large drum is carved from a long piece of wood, leaving it hollow
with a sheep or goatskin stretched across one end and open at the
other end. The drummer usually strikes it with two sticks, or with
his hands. The drum is laid down in a horizonal position, stretched
out on the ground and the drummer straddles it.
The West African Circle Dance was carried over with the
slaves into the deep south and was called the ring -shout. This
dance took place in the church. The dancers formed a circle in
the center of the floor, their arms stretched out touching the
shoulder of the dancer on each side and with shoulders hunched and
slightly bent forward, they would begin slowly s h u f f l i n g i n a
c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e d i r e c t i o n . T h e t e m p o a n d rhythm would be
produced by the rest of the congregation. The non-dancers, who would
be lined up with their backs to the wall, would clap their hands and
stomp their feet.
The preacher would shout out his call, and the response
by the congregation members and dancers would cause them to
become "possessed" by an emotional hysteria which would make
them drop to the floor. Some members of the congregation would
take care of the fallen dancers and assist them back to their
feet and into a chair.
French and Spanish slave owners encouraged the slaves to
continue their African culture in dancing, music, cooking and
any other crafts they possessed.
In due time, a slave had the option to buy his freedom
by paying his master the amount of money it cost to buy him and
his family, if he had one. However, in most cases, slaves preferred
to remain under the security of their masters.
When the blacks brought their music from Africa, with its
distinctive rhythms and songs, they introduced a whole new
method of musical expression. Rarely did they sing a song the
same way. Each time they sang, they would add a new twist or
embellishment and in so doing, they inadvertently introduced
improvisation.
In addition to its complex rhythms and improvisations, another
West African input to jazz was the call -and-answer pattern. In
it, two people created a dialogue, or two musicians with t heir
instruments spoke to each other musically. For example, one would
play a phrase of music, and the other would answer.
This call-and-answer sequence can be applied between a
vocalist and a musician. An excellent example of this pattern
can be heard
the recording of Bessie Smith's version of
"Lost Your Head Blues," As she completes each line of the lyrics,
cornet soloist Joe Smith (no relation) responds to the lyrics..
This is much like the worksong, wherein the leader would
call or sing out a verse, followed by the workers' answer to
the call.
Leader:
Workers:
Leader:
Way down south where I was born.
Roll the cotton down.
I worked in the cotton and the corn.
Workers:
Oh, roll the cotton down.
The work song was always associated with labor, with
workers planting rice, sugar, tobacco, cotton and corn in the
heat and humidity. They also built fences, cut down trees, fed the
livestock, picked worms off the plants and build dikes. They were
always on the lookout for field rats, snakes and mosquitoes, plus
watching out for the wrath of the overseer and his whip. Although
their bodies were aching with pain, the only thing that kept them
going was their music, whether it be a hymn, a spiritual, a gospel or
the call-and-answer routine of a group leader.
The call-and-answer sequence can be found in church music.
In it the preacher sings or calls out a psalm and the congregation
responds. Among jazz musicians this method is known as antiphony --a form of musical response in which one voice answers another. The
music is characterized by alternating two or more different parts.
Preacher:
One morning I was a walking down,
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
Preacher:
I saw berries a hanging down,
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
Preacher:
I picked de berries and I suck de juice,
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
Preacher:
Just as sweet as de honey in de comb,
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
Preacher:
Sometimes I'm up sometimes I'm down,
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
Preacher:
Sometimes I'm almost on de groun',
Congregation:
0 yes Lord!
"What is Jazz?." First, jazz can be defined as a combination
of three major factors, each coming from different directions,
and each depending on the other. First,is rhythm which is,
without a doubt, rooted in Africa. Recall that the basics of
A f ri c an m u si c wa s t h e rh y th mi c b ea t w he n s in gi n g w or ks o ng s,
gospels and spirituals. Rhythm was also essential to the black
Africans in their dances, determining whether the dance would be
slow or fast.
Second, from European culture comes the harmonic structures,
mostly from French and Spanish influences. The blacks were surprised
when they heard the songs they sang in unison now played with
harmonic accompaniment. So it wasn't long before spirituals,
gospels, hymns and worksongs were sung in harmony by the blacks themselves.
The third factor is a combination of melodies from American
folk music, the blues and various dance patterns which came
from spirituals and gospels. In playing a major role in every
aspect of jazz, the blues provided an endless variety of
improvisation. The dance patterns stemming from the blacks were
the congo dance, bamboula, juba, and tango.
When analyzing the jazz rhythms of American musicians, we find
a simple and traditional pattern written in 2/4 or 4/4 meter.
Basically, jazz adopted the rhythm of the march. Moreover, t h e
b r as s b an d s, s uc h a s t he Ne w Or l ea n s Br a ss B an d , t he Holmes
Band, or the Onward Brass Band would play the march ---often one
of John Philip Sousa's marches---in a rhythmic way that made it
swing. In effect, jazz musicians found more
flexibility for improvising the syncopated melodic line within
the march.
West African rhythms were foreign to the European culture.
Likewise, the harmony of the melody from European and American
sources was strange to the West Africans.
To arrive at the correct method of true jazz progressions
or harmonizations, "blue tonality" must be present---that is,
the,combining of the blue note, such as the flatting of the
third and the seventh note of the blues scale.
One major influence of jazz was the brass bands. One of
the earliest and most popular brass bands was the Holmes Band from
Luther, Louisiana. The eight members---two cornets, one clarinet,
one trombone, one french horn, one tuba, one snare drummer and one
bass drummer---played jazz at picnics, parades, dances, rallies,
carnivals, riverboat cruises and even funerals. Gradually, every town,
village and city had its own brass bands. All members wore uniforms.
Minstrels, spirituals, gospels, worksongs, ragtime and the
blues, in addition to the blending of the West African and
European culture elements, all contributed to the roots of jazz.
CHAPTER TWO
SPIRITUALS AND GOSPELS
During the period between 1740-1800, a series of religious
revival meetings known as the Great Awakening took place in the
American colonies. Gilbert Tennent, an evangelical preacher,
began this movement in New Jersey. It was soon followed by
other religious leaders, George Whitefield, Samuel Davies, J o n a t h a n
E d w a r d s , J a m e s D a v e n p o r t a n d o t h e r s c a r r i e d t h e revival
meetings throughout New England.
One main reason for the Great Awakening was to introduce
new doctrines that would unify the Congregationalist,
Presbyterian and Baptist churches into a single organized
denomination. From these revival meetings came the."white
spirituals," originating in the white churches in America.
"White spirituals" are categorized as a type of folksong, hymn
and religious song in a ballad-type setting and camp-meeting
sing-a-long. They share the same musical elements, symbols and
origin as the negro spiritual.
However, each religious denomination had its own concept
as to what the lyrical expression should convey. For instance,
the Baptists believed that lyrics should be personal, abundant
and free of doctrinal issues. Other groups considered only the
words from the psalms, or, stories from the Bible. After a
series of bitter disputes among the leaders and the imput from
the blacks and whites who attended the meetings, they finally
agreed that spirituals should create a feeling of brotherhood
and freedom of expression.
Folk hymns were usually sung to a religious text. An
example of this was a text written by Evangelist James Davenport
in 1742:
"Then should my soul with angels feast on joys that always
last. Blest be my God, the God of joy who gives me here a
taste."
Baptist minister John Leland wrote in 1799:
"Come and taste along with me
Consolation running free
From my Father's wealthy Throne
Sweeter than the honeycomb."
Additional folk hymns and folk songs can be found in
Jeremiah Ingalls' "The Christian Harmony" (Exeter, New Hampshire,
1805.) Related to the folk songs are the religious ballads
composed as "White spirituals."
The camp meetings were attended by thousands of poor
indigent people from all denominations who came to listen to
an open-air religious servive lasting at times for several days
and as long as a week. Among the attendees, both slaves and
free blacks mingled with whites. Each group however, conducted
their meeting separately.
Some preachers used the folk hymns and applied the call -andanswer pattern, while others would compose songs extemporaneously
according to the spirit of the meeting. Although it was white
men who pione er ed the G reat Aw akening, blac ks also pl ayed an
active part.
In his publication, "White and Negro Spirituals," George
Pullen Jackson, a professor at Vandebilt University, in Nashville,
Tennessee, states; "....The negro found himself
among real friends---among those who, by reason of their ethnic,
social and economic background, harbored a minimum of racial
prejudice; among those whose religious practices came nearest to
what he--- by nature a religious person ---could understand and
participate in. He found himself a churchless pioneer among
those white people who built meeting houses and invited him not
only to attend their services and sing their songs but also to
join with them in full membership; white people who were concern
not only with his soul's welfare but also even with his release from
slavery."
Gradually, the south was inundated with camp meetings.
Parishioners were leaving the New England colonies and moving to
Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and other southern states. The
reason for this exodus was because of the message being
preached. New Englander Jonathan Edwards, was preaching hell-fire,
threats, discouragement and terrifying the mass attendance by
telling them they were doomed and were going straight to hell. He
was so convincing that many people were fainting in terror and
the sermons were very depressing. On the other hand, sermons in
the south were about freedom, happiness, the possibility of eternal
life and contentment.
Black spirituals are one of the largest collections of American
folksong that have survived to our present day. Spirituals like,
"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," or "The Battle Hymn Of The Republic,"
are as loved today, as they were in the beginning.
For more than a hundred years, the black man's spirituals
played a major role in our musical culture. It was his spirituals
which made the world aware of the negro and his most cherished
and traditional music.
The general consensus among jazz historians is that spirituals
took form and then came to the attention of the American public in the
deep south not long after the Civil War. P l a n t a t i o n o w n e r s
f r e q u e n t l y h e a r d t h e i r s l a v e s s i n g i n g spirituals during
their daily activities. Often the slaves would make up their
own words and melodies that would reflect their troubles,
hardships and the constant hope of freedom. They represented the
sorrows of bondage.
A.E. Perkins, recorded in his "Negro Spirituals From The
Far South," that spirituals "were composed in the fields, in the
kitchen, at the loom, in the cabin at night, and were
inspired by some sad or awe-inspiring event. The death of a loved
one, even one of the master's family, the hardness of a master or
his cruelty, the selling of friends or relatives, and heart-rending
separations, a camp meeting, a great revival, the sadness and
loneliness of old age, unusual phenomena such as the bursting of a
comet,---any of these might be sources of inspiration."
Fanny Kemble, actress, musician and wife of a slave -owner,
while living on a plantation in Georgia, noted in her diary:
"The slaves were all singing in unison. They had no concept or
knowledge of harmony or part-singing. What was interesting," she
continued, "was that everyone was singing their own interpretation of
the melody, adding embellishments and applying their own rhythmic
feeling."
The negro spirituals can be categorized into three classes.
The first is the call-and-answer type that came from the African
tribal song. The melodies are usually spirited, with a rapid
tempo. "Joshua Fit The Battle Of Jericho," and "Shout For Joy,"
belong in this class.
A second type of spiritual is known as the "sorrow song."
The tempo is much slower and the lyrics have deep meanings.
Spirituals which fit this group are, "Nobody Knows de Trouble
I've Seen," and "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot."
The third type of spiritual is sung with syncopated
melodies and various rhythmic patterns. Belonging in this
group is, "All God's Chillun Got Wings," and "Little David
Play On Your Harp."
"Shouts" was another derivative of the West African song.
"Shouts" was closely associated with religious services. Often,
during a sermon there would be an outburst or "shouts" from
members in the audience. This would happen when the preacher
made a statement of religious importance and the automatic
response from the parishioners would be "Amen", "Praise the
Lord," or, "Praise God."
"Shouts" was also a product of a West African dance during
a religious service. A space in the center of the room was
cleared and men and women would gather together, forming a
ring. The music would start slowly at first, and the group
would move counter-clockwise to the tempo of the music. Gradually,
the tempo would increase and th e dancers would follow along.
After several hours of wild, frenzied dancing, many dancers
removed themselves from the ring because of exhaustion. The ring
would close up to fill the gap and the music would continue to
increase its tempo until finally many women would let out a
screan and fall to the floor with their bodies quivering,
bringing this wild dance to its end.
Spirituals emerged from the combination of European melody
and harmony and the rhythm of African music. It was this blend
that formed the roots of jazz.
By 1871, spirituals had gained popularity throughout the
country. Credit for this exposure must be given to the sincere
efforts of "The Jubilee Singers," from Fisk University in Nashville,
Tennessee.
Their story began five years earlier on January 9, 1866,
when the school opened its doors for the sole purpose of
educating freed slaves. Fisk was founded by the American Missionary
Association in several abandoned Union Army barracks and took the
name of the former Union Army General Clinton B. Fisk.
John Ogden, the school's first negro principal was proud
of the music department's vocal choir, but the voices were
lacking in professionalism. He made contact with a white music
teacher from New York, George L. White, who, at the time, was
employed with the Freedman's Aid Commission, a segment of the
American Missionary Association located in Nashville.
Ogden offered George White the position of school treasurer
and music instructor, which he accepted willingly. White, being an
excellent singer himself, had the natural ability to bring out
the best vocal quality in others. His requirements were for the
students to devote most of their time to practice. They sang
operatic arias, patriotic anthems and all of the white man's
music in duets and quartets. But the slave songs of the plantations
impressed him the most. The students however, didn't want to sing
those songs. The melodies reminded them of the past, a time they
would rather forget.
Those were the songs of their parents and grandparents,
songs that were sacred and private to them. George White,
understood their feelings. Knowing that just a few years earlier,
most of the students had been slaves or. children of slaves. But
he reasoned with them that it was this very music that they sang
with such feeling and expression that even the singers themselves
would often have tears rolling down their cheeks as they sang.
Eventually, the songs became part of their repertoire.
Early in 1871, it appeared that the school would be forced to
close due to -lack of enough-money to provide food for the 400
enrolled students. In addition, the wooden barracks were rotting
and needed repairs. When the American Missionary Association decided
to close the school it was a sad day for the students and
instructors. It was also a sad day for the black community because Fisk
University was the only hope for the education of blacks.
White, not one to give up easily, was convinced that he
could hand-pick a group of his best singers and go out to perform
at concerts to raise money to save the school. He submitted a
proposal to a member of the school board, requesting a small
loan for traveling expenses. The request was refused.
White wrote back to the board member that the school's salvation
depended on God's will. White stated- .............
"I'm depending
on God, not you." George White picked nine of his best vocal
students. He sold all his personal belongings and property, and
the new principal at Fisk, Adam Spence, gave him as much as he
could spare from the school's treasury. His reasoning was, if
White's concert tour idea was to succeed, he would need the money
to get started. If it didn't succeed the school would have to
close, but at least they would go down trying.
In October 1871, White and his prized troupe boarded a
train and headed for Cincinnati, Ohio. They performed some
local concerts which brought in a little money. As they continued
their travel, they faced racial prejudice and assults by the
Ku Klux Klan. They fought cold weather, and were deprived of
hotel and boarding-house accommodations. And since they did
not yet have a name to be identified with, the local newspapers
called
them
"nigger
minstrels,"
or,
"colored
students
from
Fisk
University."
White realized that if the group was to be taken seriously
they must have a name. After several hours of soulful prayer, and
in recognition of the Jewish jubilee year as found in the Old
Testament, George White told his group that they would be called
the Fisk Jubilee Singers.
Their early engagements had proved to be unsuccessful
because they'd sung nothing unusual. Their singing was not all
that different from other groups. It was at this time that White
hit upon the idea of including spirituals in the repertoire.
Still, no one got overly excited about this idea because other
groups were already singing spirituals.
White noticed however, that everyone sang the melody in
unison. Said White, "We'll present the spirituals in a brand
new fashion---something that has never been done before." Therefore
the Fisk Jubilee Singers became the fir st group to present
negro spirituals in four part harmony. White arranged the music
for soprano, alto, tenor and bass. Each member of
the group was assigned a part to learn. After several rehearsals,
the group was ready to perform in their new style.
They
were
the
first
to
introduce
white
as
well
as
black
spirituals in this four-part arrangement to white audiences. What
helped make the Jubilee Singers acceptable to these white
audiences was that they also included many of the day's popular
songs in their programs.
Their engagements were so successful that they were invited
to perform a concert at the White House in Washington, D.C.
They toured throughout the northern United States, singing at
the World Peace Jubilee in Boston in 1872. They were even invited
to sing for Queen Victoria of England, and they performed in
concerts throughout Great Britain and Europe. This was only nine
years after the Emancipation Proclamation!
Although their tour was successful, they had to endure
many ugly incidents. Hotel accommodations were denied them
because of the segregation laws. They were treated poorly when
traveling on the railroads, and were often ridiculed with shouts
and threats while performing at concerts.
George White was also mistreated by the whites who attended
the concerts. White was constantly referred to as the "Yankee niggerschool teacher." Blacks at that time were accustoned to abuse,
mistreatment and danger. But invariably, they relied on their
music for solace during these trying moments. The Fisk Jubilee
Singers knew their songs and they knew how to sing them. It was
often stated by Henry Ward Beecher, minister of the PLymouth Church
in Brooklyn, New York, that they could bring tears to the eyes of
the most hardened men.
For example, while they were traveling by train to perform
a concert in a major city, a railroad accident forced the singers
t o s p en d t he w ho l e d ay i n a w oo d ed ar ea be hi nd th e r ai l ro ad
station until the night train arrived. Because of the color of
their skin, they were not allowed to stay inside the station.
a group of southern white men began threatening and shouting
obscenities at them. A tense, strained, uneasy situation developed.
White told the singers to go stand on the railway platform
and sing their popular spirituals. Finally, one by one the
abusive crowd stopped their jeering to listen to the music. A s
the night train approached, the leader of the mob, now
subdued with tears streaming down his face, asked if they would
sing the same hymn again. They sang it gladly.
The Fisk Jubi le e Singer s bec am e role m odels f or other
black singing groups from within the Fisk University choir. Other
schools, such as the Hampton Institute in Virginia, began looking
to them for guidance and direction.
At the conclusion of their first national tour, the
proceeds from their three months' itinery brought in $20,000 --e n ou g ht t o b uy t h e 2 5 ac r es o f l an d w he r e Fi sk Un i ve rs i ty
stands today. After a week's rest, they were on the road again.
Their next tour brought international fame. They performed
concerts in England, Russia, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Switzerland
and Germany, and raised an additional $50,000.
On January 1, 1873, ground -breaking ceremonies for the m u c h
n e e d e d J u b i l e e H a l l t o o k p l a c e . N i n e m o n t h s l a t e r , o n Oct obe r
21, 1873 , the c ornersto ne wa s laid. Th is ev en t, which should
have been a happy, joyful one, was marred by the appearance of the
Ku Klux Klan, whose hooded members showed up on horseback and
threatened to destroy everything. After that, the black men, after
working hard all day on or at the construction of
their building, stood guard at night to protect it.
At the end of their last tour in Europe, some of the
singers were forced to leave the group due to illness. Director
White resigned due to failing health. Others in the group r emained
in Germany for advanced music studies. In 1880, the original
Fisk Jub ilee Si ngers--- Phoeb e Anderson , I.P . Dickerso n, Gr ee n
Evans, Benjamin M. Holmes, Jennie Jackson, Maggie Porter, Thomas
Rutling, Minnie Tate, Eliza Walker and Ella Sheppard---disbanded.
Outstanding among the singers was a young woman named Ella
Sheppard. She served as pianist and assistant music director.
Sheppard had grown up in extreme poverty. In order to survive,
she did domestic work in a white family and took in additional
washing and ironing for other people. She also played piano
at local functions for a little extra money.
When White resigned, he left Sheppard in full command to
manage the group's music. In 1882, she married George W. Moore
and move d to Wa shington , D.C . with her husb an d who wa s the
pastor of the Lincoln Memorial Church there. She later traveled
with him on his lecture tours in the south and assisted in organizing
jubilee choirs. In 1890,- she returned to Nashville with her
husband and was appointed supervisor of the Jubilee Club at
Fisk. On June 9, 1914, Ella Sheppard Moore died. In his
eulogy, Thomas W. Talley, stated in the Fisk University News:
"As a leader of music, Mrs. Moore had few equals. Well
do I remember, when, more than a score of years ago, she
trained a jubilee chorus in which I sang bass. We were
young, life was all a dream, but she had had us only a
few hours when we began to realize that 'the Lord had laid
His hands on' her....Our music, inspired through her,
made the hearts of others purer and better."
The Jubilee Singers raised more than $150,000 for the
construction of Jubilee Hall, a massive four -story Victorian
Gothic. It was their dream come true. In his dedication speech
in January, 1876, George L. White stated:
"To the Jubilee Singers, who went forth with weeping,
bearing the precious seed of touching songs wrung by ages
of oppression from the hearts of an imaginative race, and who
now return with joy, bringing their sheaves with them." With
all their hard efforts and cruel treatments, they
were determined to see a school built for the purpose of
education for the black people. Yet, not one of the singers
graduated from the school they built.
The popularity of the Fisk Jubilee Singers followed by
the Hampton Singers, inspired composers Frederick J. Work,
Clarence Cameron White, T.P. Fenner and R. Nathaniel Debt to
publish their songs as sheet music for distribution throughout
the United States and Europe.
By 1896, spirituals had evolved. They were performed
with A syncopated rhythm to ' conform to the ragtime music
style of the day. Black performers and composers such as
William Grant Still, James Weldon Johnson, Paul Robeson and
Roland Hayes, helped spread spirituals during their worldwide
tours. From this advanced development came the clog dance,
which soon became the favorite dance of the America negro.
It is usually written in 4/4 time or "common time." The clog
dance is closely related to the habanera, a cuban dance.
Some of the finest spirituals were composed and recorded
in the 20th century. Examples are: "Run Old Jeremiah," "Eli
You Can't Stand," "Dead and Gone," "I Love The Lord," and "Free
At Last." In 1962, the Fisk Jubilee Singers' biggest hit, "Roll
Jordon Roll," (recorded before they disbanded in 1880) was
reissued for national distribution.
Toward the end of the 19th century, spirituals began to
lose their grip on the music scene as gospel songs slowly began
to replace them. Spirituals, however, were not completely forgotten.
Instead, they became an added attraction rather than the main
event on most programs.
Gospel music is a religious type of folk music which finds
its home in black churches. The gospel song is a derivative
of the spiritual. Both share a close relationship with the blues.
Some experts say that the blues are jus t another form of
spiritual and gospel music. Others say spirituals and gospel
songs are religious forms of tb,e blues.
Although black gospel music was an offshoot of white
gospel tradition, its performance style took on a quality which
was characteristic of the negro culture. Black gospels were
also closely associated with the development of ragtime, blues
and jazz.
Around 1921, gospel songs were rapidly growing in
popularity. This growth can be attributed to the National
Baptist Convention's publication of a compilation of more than
150 popular gospel songs. The song books were distributed to
all black churches.
Music in black churches was as important as the message
delivered by the preacher. In fact, most preachers became blues
singers, combining the blues theme with their gospel music. A
good example of this is the recording of "The Prodigal Son," by
Preacher Robert Wilkins (Piedmont PLP 13162, 1964.)
The lyrics of the gospel song were usually a message of
"good news"---the promise of a better life afte r death and
joy and happiness in this life on earth. These songs are sung
with a lively, swing-like rhythm. They have a vitality comparable to
a spirited jazz song.
It wasn't long before several gospel-singing groups were
formed. Some traveled from one church to another, putting on
concert programs. Some of the popular gospel groups were the
"Dixie
Humming
Nightingales,"
Birds,"
the
the
"Staple
"Stars
Singers,"
Of
Hope,"
the
the
"Bells
"Sensational
Of
Joy,"
the
"Gospelaires," and the "Clara Ward Singers."
Clara Ward provided the inspiration for other choirs --which included the "Andrew Gospel Singers," and the "Drinkard
Singers," of New Jersey---by departing from the usual quartet
size to the larger choir size.
It was Mahalia Jackson, however, who became the most outstanding
performer and favored singer of the white population. At her annual
concerts in Carnegie Hall in New York, she sang
the lyrics with great feeling and expression, with more vitality,
swing, and jazz compared to gospel singers before her. She
was referred to as the "Queen of the Gospel Singers."
Through her concert tours and her 1945 recording "Move
On Up A Little Higher," (which sold a million records,)
Jackson made the white population sit up and pay attention to
the gospel song.
During her lifetime, she performed in concert halls and
stadiums throughout the United States and Europe. She was
invited to sing at the White House for President Eisenhower's
birthday in 1959. Her success was an inspiration for all blacks.
Mahalia Jackson died in 1972 at the age of 61.
Gospel songs, as with spirituals, were a driving and
dynamic force in the development of jazz. It was gospel music
that took on various rhythms. There were: hillbilly, cowboy,
mambo, boogie-woogie and waltz. But most important of al l,
gospel songs were sung with a rhythm prevalent in jazz.
The gospel sound continued to grow in popularity with
both white and black audiences. Many black artists in the 1950s,
began to record the gospels with a different rhythmic style,
and these records were classified as rhythm-and-blues. In 1955,
Ray Charles, born in Georgia and reared in religious gospel,
recorded "I've Got A Woman." It was an immediate hit on the R & B
charts.
Sam Cooke, another young black artist, the son of Reverend
Charles Cooke, was raised in the gospel tradition. In 1962,
Cooke recorded "Bring It On Home To Me," a duet with Lou Rawls,
who at the time was a member of the gospel group, the "Pilgrim
Travelers." It was an all time hit.
Aretha Franklin who was also reared in religious gospel,
recorded several gospel songs before entering the rhythm -andblues field. She recorded a hit with "I Never Loved A Man (The
Way I Love You.")
Raised in the Baptist Church James Brown sang in several
gospel groups and choirs in Augusta, Georgia. W ith his own
group, the "Swanees" he recorded, "Please, Please, Please" which
sold a million records.
Then in the early 1970s, two outstanding rock-gospel
stage shows, "Jesus Christ, Superstar," and "Godspell," were
produced. The success of these two shows made black gospel
music a prominent factor in the music business during the
decade of the seventies. Be it the worksong, spirituals or
gospels in any of its forms and techniques, black music has
indeed opened the door for the development of jazz and rock 'n'
roll.
CHAPTER THREE
WORKSONGS
Worksongs combined qualities from both Europe and West
Africa. The principle difference between the spiritual and the
worksong was the place where they were performed. Spirituals
were associated with church, but worksongs were always
associated with labor that dealt with their daily life.
The worksong was composed of short phrases, usually
between two to four bars, sung with a rhythmic beat. It consisted
of a solo and a chorus following it, in the call-and-response
pattern. This West African tradition (the worksong) has
survived to the present time, and is sung wherever blacks are
used for forced labor.
The main purpose of the worksong was to create and
maintain a rhythmic beat in order to keep the slaves organized
and working at a steady pace.
Another reason slaves sang the worksong was to relieve
the pain of their mistreatment or imprisonment. The worksong
also provided a way for the slaves to temporarily forget their
troubles. Worksongs were also sung to express their personal
feelings and to cheer and encourage one another.
Slaves were used for labor in the cotton fields, the rice
fields, on the dock loading and unloading cargo. Slaves were
also called on to dig in the mines or lay tracks for the railroad
companies. When hard labor was required, slaves frequently did
the work.
Organizing the singing required the direction of a good
worksong leader. If any slave had the ability to lead a group of
workers, he made sure his capability to do so was brought to
the attention of the plantation owner or company boss. And there
was always a need for a good worksong leader. Under the leader's
direction, everyone benefited. Although the leader was present
with the workers, he was spared their hard labor. To the
plantation owner or boss, it meant more production and fewer
problems among the workers. To the workers themselves, the
singing of the worksongs eased the pain of the labor and made the
work more bearable.
A good example of an efficient worksong leader can be
found in the chain gang. While bound together in chains, the
prisoners moved in unison with the rhythmic tempo of the leader.
The leader would sing or call the verses and at the end of his
phrases the workers would respond.
Way down south where I was born.
Roll the cotton down.
I worked in the cotton and the corn.
Oh, roll the cotton down.
When I was young and in my prime.
Roll the cotton down.
I'd thought I'd go and join the line.
Oh, roll the cotton down.
And for a sailor caught a shine.
Roll the cotton down.
I joined on the ship of the Black Ball Line.
Oh, roll the cotton down.
The leader set the pace for his group. His usual routine
would be to start the workers out slowly and then gradually
increase the tempo of his call. Often, the leader would slow
his pace to ease up on the workers and give them a chance to
rest. Not wanting to cause tension among the workers or slow
down production the leader was also careful not to overwork
or overtire his crew.
Folklorist Alan Lomax calls the worksong a morale-building
religious tune adapted to meet the workers' requirements. He also
indicates that the worksong exhibited more of the West African
qualities and very little of the European.
African Musicologist, Nicholas Ballants-Taylor, says in
the Slave Songs of the Georgis Sea Island,
"Music in Africa is not cultivated for its own sake.
It is always used in connection with dances or to accompany
workmen. The rhythmic interest of the songs impels them to
work and takes away the feeling of drugery....The work
song is mainly rhythmic---short phrases mostly of two or
three bars; Solo and chorus follow each other instantly;
The chorus is in many instances composed of two or three
ejaculatory words, answered by the workman."
The call-and-response pattern of the worksong could be
heard throughout America. Melville J. Herskovits in his book,
The Myth of the Negro Past, says,
"The tradition of cooperation in the field of economic endeavor
is outstanding in negro cultures everywhere.... T h i s
tradition, carried over into the New World, is
manifes t in the tree -felling parties of the Suriname
Bush Negroes, the combites of the Haitian peasant, and in
various forms of group labor in agriculture, fishing, h o u s e r a i s i n g , a n d t h e l i k e e n c o u n t e r e d i n J a m a i c a , Trinidad,
the French West Indies, and elsewhere. This African tradition
found a congenial counterpart in the plantation system; and
when freedom came, its original form of voluntary
cooperation was reestablished. It is said to have
reappeared in the Sea Islands (South Carolina and Georgia)
immediately after the Civil War, but its outstanding present form
is gang labor."
Another type of worksongwas the sea-shanty. Sea-shanty songs
were act ually n egro fol k mus ic . For in stanc e, "De Cam ptown
Races," "Gimme de Banjo," and "Rock About My Saro Jane," were
popular among the stevedores working on the docks along the
eastern coast of the United States. Although the white members
of the ships' crews were often heard singing sea-shanty songs,
the negroes were considered the best shantymen.
In his book, Shanty Men and Shanty Boys, W.M. Doerflinger,
writes,
"There were no finer shantymen than the Negroes. Laboring
as roustabouts on the Mississippi, working as stevedores
along the Eastern coast, or shipping out from the Gulf
ports as memb er s of a c rew, Ne groes se t an in delible
stamp upon such shanties as 'Roll the Cotton Down,' "A Long
Time Age,' and 'Shallo Brown.' It was the custom to set
sail with a starboard watch of Negroes and a port watch of
whites, but the worksong leader was usually a Negro."
When the slaves were being transported from West Africa
to the United States, the sailing ship was the means of
transportation. Chained together, the slaves sat in the hold
on both sides of the boat. Each was assigned an oar and together
rowed at the command of the worksong leader. This procedure came to
be known as the "rowing song."
The word "shantyman" comes from the French word "chanter,"
which means to sing. Lyrics of the shanty songs were usually
about experiences workers could relate to. These songs expressed
feelings of loneliness and unhappiness and reminisced about
home and romance. They were sung, not only during the day's
hard labor, but also in the evenings when the workday was over.
Some shanty songs sung by the unskilled laborers working
on the docks along the Mississippi River, included "Rock About
My Saro Jane." These songs were closely related to the blues
in form and style, and were the nucleus of jazz.
Sea-shantys, worksongs and chain -gang songs are still
being sung in the deep south. Wherever men are gro uped tohether
to perform their forced labor, they have preserved this West
African culture and therefore paved the way for the future of
jazz.
CHAPTER FOUR
MINSTRELSY, VAUDEVILLE & BURLESQUE
In the early 1800s, the white man noticed the popularity of
the negro's songs, dances and manner of speech. During his visit
to the United States in 1822, Charles Mathews, England's theatrical
entertainer, observed that the negro had a natural talent for
rhythm and an unequaled ability to improvise the spirituals,
plantation songs, worksongs and the chain-gang songs.
When Charles Mathews returned to England, he introduced
the black man's culture into his own skits and sketches, and
mimicked the negro's manner of speech.
In the United States, white theatrical entertainers began
to imitate the negro slaves in song. This imitation was the birth
of the minstrel show. As the minstrel show grew in
popularity, it became the favorite form of entertainment in
America from 1845 to 1900. However, it did linger on until
about the beginning of World War I in 1914. Minstrels were
professional white singers or musicians in blackface make-up.
They would sing, dance, play music and tell jokes.
About 1842, the prominant American showman Edwin P. Christy,
a performer and organizer, formed a trio with Thomas Vaughn and
George Harrington to sing blackface songs. Following their success,
the trio expanded to a six man troupe.
The
troupe
toured
throughout
New
York
State
and
on
into
Cincinnati, San Francisco, Chicago and Brooklyn. They became
so much in demand that Christy had to retire from performing
and assume a managerial position. He booked the troupe into
St. James Theatre in London, as Christy's Minstrels. They were
tremendously successful.
Christy's Minstrels became the generally accepted name
for all Negro Minstrels in Great Britain. Five volumes of t h e
troupe's popular songs were published in Christy's
Plantation Melodies. The New York State Supreme Court in 1857
acknowledged that Edwin P. CHristy was the originator of negro
minstrelsy.
The economical crisis throughout Europe, on September 24, 1869--"Black Friday"---caused by speculation in U.S. railroad s h a r e s ,
h a d n o i m p a c t o n t h e g r o w t h a n d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e minstrel
shows. Minstrelsy even survived during and after the Civil War.
However, with the outbreak of the Civil War, Christy, feared that
his enterprise would be ruined. As a result, Christy committed suicide
on May 21, 1862, at the age of 47, by jumping
out of the window of his New York home.
Although Christy popularized the minstrel show in 1842,
the American public first became aware of minstrelsy in 1828.
At that time, minstrel entertainers George Dixon and Thomas
"Daddy" Rice, gave their first blackface performance.
Rice called his popular song-and-dance act "Jim Crow."
As his act grew in popularity, he adopted the name Jim Crow
and was from then aon known and billed on the program with his
new professional name, Daddy "Jim Crow" Rice.
The name "Jim Crow" came about when Rice was performing
in a theatre with a summer road company in Louisville, Kentucky.
At the back of the theatre was a stable owned by a man named
Jim Crow. Crow had an elderly black man doing odd jobs around
the stable. The man also groomed and fed the horses. As was the
custom in those days, slaves took their owners' last names as
their own. The elderly black man became known as Jim Crow.
One night, Rice and several other performers were looking
out of the back window of the theatre and heard the black man
singing an odd tune, making up his own words. At the end of each
verse they noticed that he would jump up in the air and land on
the back of his heels and twist his body around in a c i r c l e ,
d o i n g a h u m o r o u s d a n c e . T h e b l a c k m a n c a l l e d h i s routine
"Jumping Jim Crow."
Rice was so fascinated with this dance that he watched the
old man after every show and learned the "Jumping Jim Crow"
dance routine himself. When he mastered the dance, Tom ilerformed it
for the Louisville audience. The crowd was so delighted that Rice
was called back for twenty curtain calls.
It soon swept the country and was featured as the highlight of
every minstrel show.
Other blackface performers learned how to do the "Jumping
Jim Crow" dance, incorporating it as the special act on their
program. The Virginia Minstrels presented the act in New York with
tremendous success. E.P. Christy's Minstrels also performed it
successfully. However, it was Bryant's Minstrels who really
capitalized on this new act. They took their show to New York, a n d
charged a twenty-five cent admission. The show ran for
sixteen consecutive years.
Tom "Jim Crow" Rice, became the first blackface entertainer
to reach stardom outside the United States. He took his "Jumping
Jim Crow" dance act to England and warmly accepted by British
audiences. Rice became known as the "Fathe r of American
Minstrelsy."
Black entertainer William Henry Lane was accepted by all
professionals in the entertainment world as being the best
minstrel dancer. At a dance contest in 1842, he outperformed
Jack Diamond, who at the time was the best white dancer. Lane,
who was known as 'Juba' was the only black entertainer to get
top billing with a white minstrel company.
The Virginia Minstrels was the first company to use the
musical instruments of the banjo, violin, tambourine and bone
castanets. These instruments were favorites among southern
plantation negroes.
When this group was formed, its members were, Daniel
Decatur Emmett (violin), Billy Whitlock (banjo), Frank Brower
(bones) and Dick Pelham (tambourines). One musician doubled
as a dancer. Their first performance was at the Bowery
Amphitheatre in New York on February 6, 1843. Following this
successful engagement, the group played major cities along the
Eastern Coast where they received rave reviews. On stage they
would sit in a semicircle where the musicians playing the tambourine
and the bone castanets sat on each end. They took turns acting
as master of ceremonies. The Virginia Minstrels were highly
successful in the United States and in the British Isles.
Although the majority of the performers were white men
in blackface make-up, some blacks were used in the show. Since
the minstrel show was a parody of negro life, it was inevitable
that a minstrel show would eventually be composed of a cast o f
all black men and women. In 1855, the first all -black
minstrel troupe was formed.
The "negro minstrel" show became very popular in the
United States. The minstrel show usually followed the same
format throughout. Each company consisted of a chorus that
sang spirituals and negro worksongs. The soloist always cr ooned
the popular song of the day, and the solo dancer usually did
the buck-and-wing.
In 1896, Mahara's Minstrels was the popular troupe.
Joining the band was W.C. Handy as the featured cornet soloist
and band leader. Handy would later be called the "Fathe r of
the Blues." The band was gifted with talented musicians who
could play a series of classical selections and then play a John
Philip Sousa march in swing tempo.
Many prominant musicians and entertainers were at one
time or another members of a minstrel show. Jack Laine, a jazz
musician, was the leader of a minstrel band. Pianist Clarence
Williams was once in a minstrel show.
Rainey's Rabbit Foot Minstrels featured blues singer Gertrude
"Ma" Rainey. McCabe and Young Minstrels had Jello Roll Morton.
James P. Johnson and Bunk Johnson played in a minstrel band. Hot
Lips Page, Lester Young and Jo Jones started with
the minstrel shows. Singers al Jolson and Eddie Cantor, comedian
Benny Fields and dancer Bill Robinson all got their start with the
minstrels.
James Bland, a black composer, who wrote such outstanding
songs as, "Oh! Dem Golden Slippers," "Carry Me Back To Old
Virginny," and "In The Evening By The Moonlight," became part of
the minstrel show repertoire. Other popular minstrel songs were,
"A Hot Time In The Old Town Tonight," and "Ta-ra-ra Boom de-ay."
The music of the early minstrel shows featured spirituals
and worksongs. Plantation songs from the south were sung at
various shows. Dan Emmett, the famous white composer, wrote
much of his music for the minstrel shows. Two of his show-stoppers
were, "Dixie" and "Old Man Tucker."
However, it was Stephen Foster, the American composer,
who contributed most of the music for the dancers and singers. In
1850, Foster agreed to allow E.P. Christy to perform all the
music he wrote. Christy, taking advantage of Foster's lack of
business sense, paid him only ten dollars for the exclusive
rights to the songs and even put his (Christy's) name on the
sheet music as the author and composer. The first song under
this arrangement was "The Old Folks At Home" (or, "Swanee River").
Foster, who was constantly under the influence of alcohol,
did not object to this scheme of qhristy's because he did not
want his name attached to music for the "lowly blacks." He was
only interested in having his music performed on the legitimate
stage, especially songs like "Jeanie With The Light Brown Hair,"
"Beautiful Dreamer," "Under The Willow She's Sleeping," and
"Poor Darling Maiden."
However, when Foster realized how popular his minstrel
songs were with the public and the impressive sales figures,
he insisted that his name be placed on the sheet music as its
composer and author. Foster composed twenty -eight songs for
minstrel shows. Among them were, "Oh! Suzanna," "Nelly Bly,"
"Camptown Races," "Massa's In de Cold Cold Ground," "Old Folks
At Home," "Old Black Joe," and "My Old Kentucky Home."
E.P. Christy paid Foster very little royalty money which
Foster used to keep himself constantly inebriated. On January
13, 1864, Foster died in New York's Bellevue Hospital, a mental
institution, with only three cents in his coat pocket.
The musicians in the minstrel show had little time for
relaxation. They usually had a full days' schedule, before each
show. During the day they would play in a parade. From there
they would travel to the town square and put on a short
concert. Then outside the theatre they would present another
short concert to attract an audience for the evening show.
Finally, inside the theatre they would perform in the show
itself.
The normal time for the show was about one hour and forty five minutes. It was divided into three sections. When the
curtain opened, the audience saw white performers in blackface,
dressed in brightly colored costumes sitting in a semicircle,
with the interlocutor, or master of ceremonies, seated in the
center. He would normally trade jokes with the two end men
whose names would always be Mr. Bones and Mr. Tambo. The names
were derived from the popular instruments of the slaves, the
banjo and the tambourine.
To open the first act, the band would play a loud, fast
number, such as, "A Hot Time In The Old Town Tonight," "The
Yellow Rose Of Texas" or "The Coon Song," (later to be called
"Turkey In The Straw"). It was not uncommon to hear all three
songs in medley form, with the chorus singing and dancing to
the exciting rhythms. At the end of the opening number, Mr. Bones
and Mr. Tambo, would tell their jokes.
A couple of special songs by the featured soloist, would
either be "Dixie" or "Old Folks At Home." This was usually followed
by a brief skit mocking the politicians on a current issue. The
first act would end with the group doing a walk-around, a cakewalk type of dance played in a spirited ragtime rhythm with
syncopated melodic patterns.
The second act usually opened with a series of solo ballads
sung by the featured artist and other members of the troupe.
Some comedians sang comical songs. There were also acrobats,
and a number of dances. The finale for act two was a "hoe-down"
type of dance, where each member of the troupe would give a
solo dance in center stage, while the rest of the troupe
encouraged the soloist by clapping to the rhythm of the music.
One or two dancers would do a jig accompanied by a banjo.
Act two would come to its end with the whole t roupe participating
in the finale as the curtain closed.
Act three usually opened with a skit of Uncle Tom's Cabin
or other stage presentations, including MacBeth. Jubilee Singers
were often used to sing several down-south plantation songs.
The third act would end with a lively walk-around in the form
of the cake-walk as the chorus departed from the stage and the
curtain closed.
Other shows that took advantage of minstrelsy were the "Dirtz
Dixie Minstrels," the "Dockstraders Minstrels," the "Georgia
Minstrels," "Haverley's European Minstrels," "Hicks and Sawyer
Minstrels," "Richard and Pringle Minstrels" and "Doc Malney
Minstrels.
By the early 1900s, the minstrel show was losing its
impact on the entertainment field. It had nothing new to offer
the public. As it came to its end, vaudeville became the new
entertainment attraction. The word "vaudeville" is a derivation
of the French term "Vau-de-Vire."
the Vau de Vire province
of Normandy, the residents would entertain each other with
songs and dances at the end of the work day.
Vaudeville was to provide comedy, dance and an ideal
vehicle to introduce new songs to the public. Many song writers
and music distributors would wine and dine the artists on a
vaudeville bill to entice them to sing their songs. If the
song was accepted and performed in the show, it usually became
a success for both the artist and composer.
Vaudeville theatres were opening up all over the country.
B.F. Keith and E.F. Albee, opened the Keith and Albee Theatre
in Boston and provided continuous shows from 11:00 AM to 11:00 PM
daily for ten cents admission (later increased to twenty -five
cents). Average wage earnings at the time were eighteen cents a n
h o ur . A mo n g th e w el l -k no w n va ud e vi l le s t ar s we r e t he F o ur
Cohans. George M. Cohan later became the composer of "You're A
Grand Old Flag," "Forty -Five Minutes From Broadway," and the
famed World War I song, "Over There."
George was only nine years old when he began performing with
his father George M. Sr., and his mother and sister Josephine. Young
George would always close the Four Cohans routine with the lines,
"My mother thanks you, my father thanks you, my sister thanks you
and I thank you."
Also on the vaudeville circuit were headliners such as:
Eddie Foy, Sophie Tucker, Weber and Fields, Lill ian Russell,
Buster Keaton and Ethel Barrymore. As vaudeville continued
to grow in popularity, other stars got their start in this field.
T h ey in cl u de d, G u s E dw ar d s, G eo r ge Je ss e l, V er n on an d I re ne
Castle, Will Rogers, Eva Tangauy, Eddie Cantor, Fanny Bric e, the
Four Marx Brothers, Mae West, George Burns and Gracie alien, Jimmy
Durante and Douglas Fairbanks.
The format for a vaudeville show consisted of eight to ten
acts. First, was the headliner, or star of the show. Then there
was a secondary headliner, and a variety of acts, including
magicians, animals, acrobats, jugglers, skaters, trick bicycle
riders, a short band concert, a song and dance team, comedians,
a blackface performer and a one-act play. By the mid-1920s,
vaudeville began to lose its appeal and finally came to a full
stop in 1932.
Following close behind vaudeville was burlesque. Burlesque
was an offshoot of minstrelsy. In its early stages it featured
comics, singers, chorus dancers and the featured female dancer,
whose costumes would expose her legs. As burlesque grew in popularity
with the male population, the female dancer would perform her act as
a strip-tease attraction. Its main purpose was to provide a happy mood
and excite the male audience to a sexual fantasy.
Burlesque music's function was to provide a background
arrangement for the singers. Music was also used as transitional
material while the stage hands were preparing the sets on stage
for the next act.
Music arrangements were written for the drummer to emphasize
the bumps and grinds of the show girls during their various
stages of undress in their dance routine.
Associated with burlesque in its hey-day were; Fanny Brice,
George White, Sophie Tucker, Al Jolson, W.C. Fields, Eddie Cantor,
Abbott and Costello, Leon Errol, Red Skelton, Jack Haley, Phil
Silvers, Gypsy Rose Lee, Ann Corio, Margie Hart, Georgia
Southern and many more.
CHAPTER FIVE
THE BLUES
The earliest form of the blues dates back to the early
1860s and was associated with the American blacks. The development
of the blues was influenced by black folk music such as
worksongs, spirituals, field hollers, ring-shouts and certain
popular ballads.
The mood of the blues usually portrays a condition of
depression or melancholy. The lyrics often depict sadness,
sorrow, loneliness, depression, sexuality and protest. Since
harmony was not a part of their culture, blacks either sang
solo or in unison, and often without any musical accompaniment.
Today we call that acapella singing.
In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation
Proclamation giving the slaves their freedom. Black children
could now go to school and get an education. Churches became
plentiful im black communities. Being free, Negroes were now
able to hear the music of the white man. They heard spirituals
- being sung by white choirs in harmonization, applying simple
chord progressions in four parts. Up to that time, the Negroes'
only style of singing was in unison, that is, everyone singing
the melody at the same time:
Harmony, as was mentioned earlier, is of European influence.
This form of harmonization was completely strange to the Negroes.
African-American music had no harmony whatsoever. The Negroes
however, with their keen ear for music were quick to adopt this
European style and apply it to their own music.
The call-and-response routine was incorporated into a
musical pattern. The first line of the lyric was repeated in the
second line, with the same melodic phrase. The third line was
sung with a different melodic phrase. Combining the three -line
melodic phrases, this musical form fell into a twelve-bar
pattern.
Although the Negroes had no accurate knowledge of music,
their three-line stanzas established the rhythm-and-chord
progression of the twelve bar blues. The chord progression
of the blues involves three simple basic chords. They are;
the tonic (I), the sub-dominant (IV) and the dominant (V).
The distribution of these chords for the blues, are four bars
of the tonic (I) chord, two bars of the sub-dominant (IV) chord,
two bars of the tonic (I) chord, two bars of the dominant
chord and two bars of the tonic (I) chord.
One outstanding melodic feature of the blues is that of
lowering the third and seventh degrees of the major scale.
(v)
The lowered third and seventh degree notes are called
"blue notes." These became essential in the development of
early jazz. When jazz musicians came into the picture, they
developed new forms and styles of jazz. Improvisation became
the jazz musicain's most important asset.
When the musician improvised around a given theme, additional
notes and embellishments were included, which in turn created
more harmonic progressions to the basic I - IV - V chords.
From the early blues progressions (example 1), a gradual
chord change was developing (example 2). Example 3 shows the
latest advanced blues progression.
EX. 1
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As time went on, black musicians settled in New Orleans
and demonstrated their jazz improvisations. They played in
dance halls, gambling places, saloons, "sporting houses" (brothels)
and at funerals.
A Negro funeral in New Orleans was an event that became
a major celebration. Jelly Roll Morton said, "There is nothing
in the United States like a New Orleans funeral."
At funeral processions musicians performed their best. The
funeral started with the wake in the home, where friends, relatives
and neighbors would pay their respects. The wake was usually an
all-night affair. Spiritual hymns were sung and food and drinks
were served.
Afterward, the funeral service was conducted in the home
with the Negro priest offering last rites and prayers. The
funeral procession would assemble outside and begin its slow
march through the narrow streets with the black musicians leading
the way to the cemetary. The band would always play slow
soulful music such as; "Nearer My God To Thee" and "Just A
Closer Walk With Thee."
Behind the band would be the wagon carrying the deceased.
The mourners would follow the wagon chanting and singing to the
music the band was playing.
When the service was concluded at the cemetary, the band
would be the first to leave the gravesite and assemble in marching
formation. Then the family members and relatives would fall in
line behind the band. The rest of the mourners and firends would
walk behind the family members.
Slowly, they would march away from the cemetary to the
cadence of a very slow snare drum beat. When the procession reached
a point about two or three blocks away from the cemetary, the
drummer would pick up the tempo and the band would go into a
swinging version of "When The Saints Go Marching In,"
"Bourbon Street Parade," "Didn't He Ramble" or the popular
"Ain't Gonna Study War No More."
As the procession reached the city, the people in the
streets or on the sidewalks would fall in line behind the mourners
and become a part of the expanding procession. They are
referred to as "second liners," Even though there was a great
crowd of people following the band, there weren't any problems
such as fighting or pushing or any reason to cause trouble. The
mourners were there to have a good time, singing and dancing in
the streets.
Occasionally, the band would ride on an open wagon draw n by
horses. Invariably, the trombone player would sit on the end of
the wagon or on the tailgate. The purpose for this was to
give him enough room to move his slide on the trombone. It was
from this position that the expression "Tailgate trombone"
originated.
Storyville, the red-light district in New Orleans-also
known as the "Establishment" or "The District" - provided the
best and the most available opportunities for jazz musicians.
Storyville was the only section in New Orleans where houses of
prostitution were allowed. Within this thirty-eight-block
district were saloons, dance halls, and "sporting houses."
Mahogany Hall with its Madam, Lulu White, was the most
popular "sporting house." Some of the most talented musicians
played there. The wages were small, but Lulu knew that the tips
from her customers, after requesting a song or two, would be
generous. Plus, she would allow the musicians during their breaks
to pick out a woman of their same color (if she wasn't working at
the time) to enjoy himself with.
New Orleans was considered an extremely immoral city where
everything and anything was okay. But being a southern state,
the city's government didn't condone the mixing of whites and
blacks. Mahogany Hall was a white house with white women and
catered only to white customers. However, Lulu, did have a
house next door to Mahogany Hall with black ladies who catered
to black customers.
Houses in the Storyville district were "protected" by politicians
who would see to it that no charges or problems would come up
that they, the city's fathers, couldn't solve. This, of course,
was their way of showing appreciation for the financial donations
given them on a regular basis by the city's
madams.
It was apparent that money could buy anything and rules
were made to be broken. For instance, if a black male customer
wanted the services of a white woman and he had the right amount
of cash, the service was provided. On other occasions, if a
white society woman was looking to ease her curiosity about the
sexual prowess of a black man and if she was willing to pay the
price, the madam would ask one of the black musicians to provide
his services for her. Naturally, the musician would get an extra
bomus from the madam, and often the white woman would give him a
generous tip as well.
Storyville's establishments employed about fifty musicians
nightly. Some places had a piano player with a girl singer and
other places hired bands. Among the piano players were Jelly
Roll Morton and Tony Jackson. Joe "King" Oliver, Kid Ory, Fredd ie
Keppard, and Buddy Bolden provided the bands for the dance halls
and saloons.
In 1917, during World War I, a naval base was set up in
New Orleans. The U.S. Government had issued previously a
mandate that all prostitution was to be banned within a five
mile radius of any naval base, so Storyville came under that ban.
On November 12, 1917, Storyville with all its enterprises
went out of business!
Around the same year, the blues became the popular music
form from coast to coast The first to set the blues do wn on
paper was William C. Handy, who was known as the "Father of the
Blues." Among his compositions were "St. Louis Blues," "Memphis
Blues,' "Yellow Dog Blues" and "Beale Street Blues."
By the 1920s the blues style was used extensively by jazz
musicians and blues singers. The most popular blues vocalists
were Mamie Smith, Clara Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey and Bessie
Smith. Mamie Smith's big recording in 1920 was "Crazy Blues,"
with Perry Bradford's Jazz Hounds backing her up. Clara Smith
got her recognition with her version of "Awful Moanin' Blues."
Gertrude "Ma" Rainey recorded a hit in 1925 with "Cell Bound
Blues." The record showcased the brilliant musicianship of
Georgia Jazz Band with Howard Scott (trumpet), Buster Bailey
(clarinet), Tom Dorsey (piano ) and Charlie Green (trombone.)
Bessie Smith labeled "The Empress of the Blues," was without a
doubt the classic blues singer. She had no equal in style,
quality, dynamic interpretation and projection. She was credited
with a n umber o f hits t hat i nc luded "M uddy Wa ters', " After
You're Gone," "young Woman's Blues" and "Honey Man Blues."
(Bessie, Mamie and Clara Smith are not related.)
Bessie Smith crowned "The Empress of the Blues" was without
a doubt one of the greatest blues and jazz singers. Bessie
credits her talent to her tutor Gertrude "Ma" Rainey. When
"Ma" Rainey heard her sing, she knew the girl had the quality
of a star. But the soon-to–become star needed assistance and
training.
"Ma" Rainey took Bessie along with the Rainey's Rabbit
Foot Minstrels, teaching her how to phrase and sing with
feelings and emotions. "Ma" Rainey was a good instructor and
Bessie a good student. Before long, Bessie was out on her own
singing with other touring groups, also on the black vaudeville
circuit and in saloons and local theaters.
Bessie had a hard life. She was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee
in 1894. Her father died soon after she was born and her mother
died two years later. Bessie and her sister grew up in poverty.
During her childhood and youth she sang in the streets of
Chattanooga to raise money to live on.
Growing up in the streets, she developed a craving for
liquor and sex. She was easily aggravated, bringing out her roughand tough
manner
with profanity
at any given time for any
reason. It was often said that she had an uncontrollable rage.
In 1923, Fran k Walker o f Col um bia Reco rds h ea rd about
Bessie and invited her to record "Down Hearted Blues" and
"Gulf Coast Blues." In less than six months, 780,000 records were
sold. Her popularity skyrocketed so high that she recorded twentynine sides for Columbia during the following year.
Bessie's record sales saved Columbia from bankruptcy.
Her fame spread so rapidly throughout the United States that
she received top billing in professional theaters and was
billed as "the greatest and highest salaried race star in the
world."
On stage, singing the blues as only Bessie could, she was
the star and the audience knew it. In song she was "The Empress
of the Blues." The decade of the 1920s were the best years of her
life. She was successful, and made a lot of money.
However, by the end of that decade, she lost it all. The
blues lost its appeal. Records were not selling, theaters were
not using stage shows and she had squandered her money and
didn't save any of it. She was poor again. She had to have rent
parties to exist. The purpose of rent parties was to raise
enough money to pay the rent. Any one who could afford to pay
twenty-five cents admission was invited to attend. She would
sing with a piano accompanist for several hours in different
homes. All her so called "friends" were not around any more.
The very last record Bessie recorded in 1919 was "Nobody
Knows You When You're Down And Out." It was her most famous
- blues song because she was singing about her life.
In the early 1930s, Bessie's spirits were lifted again. She
got an engagement at Connie's Inn in Harlem, New York and the
Wander Inn Cafe in Philadelphia, two prominant night clubs and
she was successful.
Things were looking good for her and she made plans to
record again. She was invited to go to Hollywood to make a
movie. Following the movie she was to appear on the Broadway
stage. But as fate would have it, none of these materialized.
On September 26, 1937, she was speeding on route 61, while
driving south from Memphis and crashed into a parked car. Her car
overturned and she was thrown from her car with one of her arms
barely hanging on her body. A passing motorist called the
hospital for an ambulance. Bleeding profusely, Bessie Smith
was transported to the Afro-American Hospital in Clarksville, but
was pronounced dead on arrival.
The epitaph on her gravestone read; "The greatest blues
singer in the World will never stop singing."
Interestingly, most American blues singers of the early
twenties were either from southern or midwestern states. When
they sang the blues, their lyrics depicted the events in their
lives as they related to those areas of the country. They sang
about their anxieties, hopes and frustrations, describing what
it was like to be in prison fo r gambling, prostitution and
other criminal activities. The blues also expressed feeling and
mood of oppression, depression and aggressive sexual behavior.
As the blues expanded in popularity, rural homespun
country singers began singing the blues in their particular
style. Their musical accompaniments were usually a banjo, a
guitar, an empty jug (blown into by mouth) as a bass instrument
and a washboard which was scrapped rhythmically with timbled
fingers.
In 1924, "Papa" Charlie Jackson recorded "Papa Lawdy Lawdy
Blues." It was, perhaps, this recording which first brought countrystyle music to the public's attention. Jackson was followed in
1926 by a young man from Texas called "Blind"
Lemon Jefferson. Jefferson rapidly became the "King" of country
blues. He recorded so many hits that Paramount Records designed a
special lemon-colored label for his recordings. Unfortunately, at
an early age and at the height of his success, he was poisoned by a
jealous woman.
It didn't take long for piano players to get in on the
gravy train of the blues. Around 1929-1930, piano blues with
pianists improvising around the melody became very popular.
Played in rowdy saloons, this blues style came to be known as
"barrelhouse" due to the fights which invariably broke out after
patrons had consumed too much alcohol.
The barrelhouse style requires the left hand to play a
heavy vamp or a walking bass figure also known as "stomping."
The music was always played in 4/4 meter, that is, four solid
beats to a bar. Pianist Will Ezell from Texas, in his recording
of "Barrel House Man" and "The Dirty Dozen" by Speckled Red
(Rufus Perryman,) are excellent examples of this style.
A further development in piano blues was the practice of
the walking bass. The principle of the walking bass is t o let
the left hand play the blues progressions in either broken
chords, (detached notes of the chord) or in octaves.
Closely associated with barrelhouse is that of boogie-woogie.
Boogie-woogie could often be heard in lumber camps and dance
halls. Although barrelhouse and boogie-woogie were heard in the same
barrooms, the styles were noticeably different.
The barrelhouse left hand style was always four heavy beats
to a bar. (example 1.)
EX. 1.
7
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Boogie-woogie however, was played mainly for dancing, and
the tempo was faster than barrelhouse. The left hand played
eight beats to a bar. In addition, the left hand could play
the bass notes in regular octaves (example 2,) or in broken
octaves (example 3.)
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Clarence "Pine Top" Smith, originated the phrase boogie woogie when he recorded his composition "Pine Top's Boogie Woogie" in 1927. Other fine examples of boogie -woogie were
Meade Lux Lewis' "Bass On Top" and "Honky Tonk Train Blues," as
well as Romeo Nelson's "Head Rag Hop," Arthur "Montana"
Taylor's "Indiana Avenue Stomp" and Charles Avery's "Dearborn
Street Breakdown."
From 1935 to the mid-1950s, boogie-woogie was popular in
the United States and Europe. Meade Lux Lewis, Albert Ammons,
Pete Johnson and Big Joe Turner spearheaded this new swing -type
music. In 1945, Big Maceo's (Major Merriweather) "Chicago Breakdown"
led the way for boogie-woogie to become the standard blues style.
The 1930s brought on an avalanche of blues singers and
piano players. Among them were, Leroy Carr and Scrapper Blackwell--an
unbeatable duet team. Roosevelt Sykes accompanied his own singing
on the piano. And there was Little Brother M o n t g o m e r y w h o w a s b e s t
k n o w n f o r h i s s t a m i n a t o t u r n o u t eighteen songs in a single
recording session. Sleepy John Estes from Brownsville, Tennessee
also made a large number of records.
- Meanwhile, in Chicago, guitarist Tampa Red (Hudson Whittaker)
with his Chicago Five Band recorded about two hundred titles.
Southside Chicag o had the opportunity to hear, in person, the
blues group consisting of Big Bill Broonzy(leader,)
Washboard Sam (Robert Brown,) Sonny Boy Williamson and William
"Jazz" Gillum.
Robert Johnson, who recorded over thirty titles while
still in his twenties around 1936-1937, was credited with having
the most influence on the advancement of the blues. He died
while in the prime of his life.
In the 1940s, the Andrew Sisters recorded "Rhumboogie,"
"Beat Me Dadd y Eight To The Ba r" and " Scrub M e Mama W ith A
Boogie Beat." In the same decade Tommy Dorsey recorded the ever
popular "Boogie-Woogie."
Major record companies were in total control of the recording
of the blues. However, after World War II, and towards the e n d of
t h e 1 94 0s , a w av e o f e nt r ep re ne u rs , m os t ly b la c k s , started
their own commercial recording companies featuring black artists.
These artists settled in major cities such as Memphis,
Houston, Los Angeles, Chicago, Detroit and New York. Prior to
World War II, the blues recordings had been marketed mainly
in the black neighborhoods, because they were considered "race"
records and were separated from recordings made by white artists.
But, when the new production companies opened in major cities,
they dispensed with all racial overtones and created the term
"Rhythm and Blues."
From these new recording and production companies came
popular New Orleans vocalists and pianists such as Fats Domino,
Little Richard, Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry. In due time,
Muddy Waters (McKinley Morganfield,) Otis Spann, Howling Wolf
(Chester Burnett,) John Lee Hooker, Jimmy Reed, Lightnin'
Hopkins, Bobby "Blue Bland and Little Junior Parker received
their due recognition from white and black audiences alike.
In addition to blues musicians, were the talented singers.
Leadbelly (huddle Ledbetter,) was one of the most popular blues
singers in New York during the 1940s. At his death in 1949, he
was mour ned b y both bla ck an d white mu sicia ns . Also p romin an t
during the 1940s and 1950s were vocalists Joe Turner, Jimmy
Rushing (who later joined the Count Basie band,) Big Bill Broonzy,
Buddy Guy and Junior Wells.
By the mid 1950s, rhythm and blues was more popular than
ever. Allan Freed, a white disc jockey from Cleveland, Ohio, who
later moved into New York's Radio Station W.I.N.S., played rhythm
and blues records regularly on his show.
In 1955, a small group called Bill Haley and his Comets,
made musical history with their recording of "Rock Around The
Clock," a tune featured in the movie "Blackboard Jungle." This
recording was such a tremendous success that Bill Haley was ever
afterwards referred to as the "Father of Rock 'n" Roll." The
phrase "Rock 'n' Roll had been coined by Allan Freed in 1951.
The blues are still with us today. Our modern composers are
constantly writing music in the twelve-bar blues form. And as long
as we have music, we'll undoubtedly have the blues.
CHAPTER SIX
RAGTIME
Ragtime is a term which originated from the black culture. During
the days of ministrelsy, the minstrels would sing spirituals and
worksongs unlike the for m the music was written in. They a d d e d
e m b e l l i s h m e n t s h e r e a n d t h e r e a r o u n d t h e m e l o d y i n a fanciful
and lively manner, and called it "ragging."
From this ragging style of performance, came syncopation
in its early stages. From syncopation came ragtime, which eventually
opened the way for jazz.
The ragtime era from 1896 to 1917, was a welcome relief
from the long depression that began in 1893 and continued for
four years. The mood of ragtime was cheerful and exhilarating.
The popularity of the music contributed to its longevity, and
it was popular because it was a happy, joyful music. It continued
on for the next twenty years.
Ragtime also had its origins in slavery. It was not until
Scott Joplin, introduced it in modern form in the 1890s,
however, that it became popular with American audiences. Almost
immediately, it was heard everywhere. Be it a band concert, a
picnic, an outing, a dance, a parade, a rally or a boat cruise,
brass bands were constantly playing ragtime music with its syncopated
rhythms.
"What is ragtime music?." very simply put, it is a syncopated
melody played against a strict rhythm accompaniment. With the
combining of these two rhythmic factors, a ragtime character is
created. Syncopation is defined as the placing of strong
accents where normally the weak or after-beats would be.
Ragtime's rapid success and popularity were helped by the
national distribution of printed sheet music, which was
primarily written for piano. Black piano players travelling
throughout the south and mid-west played ragtime in saloons,
dance halls and bordellos. Later, due to public interest, music
publishers printed special arrangements for both dance bands
and marching bands. In addition, piano rolls of ragtime music
were recorded for home player-pianos.
A ragtime composition takes on the same form as that of a
march. It usually starts out with a four bar introduction and
is followed with four themes. The trio, as in the march, is
introduced with either a two or four bar modulation leading into
the sub-dominant key. Like the march, ragtime is mainly
written in 2/4 or 4/4 time. 2/4 time has two beats to a bar and
4/4 time has four beats to the bar. Then around the early
part of the 1900s, waltz music in ragtime was written in 3/4 time.
Billy Kersands was the most popular minstrel star and the
highest paid black entertainer of the era, earning as much as
one hundred dollars a week---a lot of money in the 1870s and
1880s. Kersands was a comedian who enjoyed entertaining the
public. But his real forte was dancing. He was credited as
being the first dancer to introduce the "soft-shoe" dance, and the
"buck and wing." He was also instrumental in introducing the AfricanAmerican "clog-dance." Then came his development of the "cakewalk," followed by the "turkey-trot," the "bunny-hop," the "camelwalk" and the "kangaroo dip."
The cake-walk got its name at plantation parties where
slaves entertained. At the end of the evening, the best slave
dancer would be awarded a cake to take back to his quarters. His
high-stepping walk around the stage (which was a comical imitation
of a white southern woman) at the conclusion of the performance,
came to be known as the cake-walk.
Ragtime did not originate in New Orleans. It was first
heard in the mid-west, in places like Sedalia, Missouri, where
black composer-pianist Scott Joplin settled down after moving
from his home state of Texas. Kansas City and St. Louis music
lovers also heard ragtime before it got to New Orleans.
Blacks were not the only ones to write ragtime music,
however. On the contrary, there were white composers and
performers such as Joseph Lamb and William H. Krell as well
as talented black composers such as Scott Joplin and Jelly Roll
Morton who made their contribution to ragtime music.
Scott Joplin though, was considered to be the most advanced
and the best of the composers. He received his music training
from a German teacher, who gave him an extensive classical
background, and taught him how to use dynamics, phrasing, musical
forms and styles.
Other ragtime composers who wrote popular compositions
were James Scott, Louis Chauvin, Louis Moreau Gottschalk,
Eubie Blake, Tom Turpin, Artie Mathews, Dan Emmett, Lucky Roberts,
James P. Johnson, Stephen Foster, Mae Aufderheide and Irene M.
Giblin.
Some of the more popular ragtime songs were, "Twelfth
Street Rag." "Maple Leaf Rag," "That's A Plenty" and "Mississippi
Rag." Buddy Bolden, the "King" of the cornet players was
considered to have the best brass ragtime band.
The success of ragtime was beyond comprehension. Syncopation
and ragtime was heard by everyone, everywhere. John Philip Sousa,
the "March King," included many ragtime pieces in his repertoire on
his concert tours throughout Europe. Debussy wrote "Golliwogg's CakeWalk," Stravinsky composed the "Piano Rag" and "Ragtime, Jean
Wiener wrote the "Syncopated Sonata," and Milhaud composed "Rag
Caprices." Irving Berlin's "Alexander's Ragtime Band" is u s u a l l y
p l a y e d f o r t h e c a k e - w a l k . S y n c o p a t e d m u s i c w a s a l s o written by
Arthur Honegger and Alfredo Casella.
During the lean years of the ragtime era in New Orleans,
most of the black pianists and composers couldn't find legitimate
places to work, the reason being that the black musicians were
not educated or schooled in music. They couldn't read nusic as
it was written. The Creoles, or lighter-skinned Negroes
(Mulattoes) on the other hand were educated and capable of
reading music, which was a requirement for the better paying
jobs in the better places.
Therefore, the only available spots for blacks to play
their music were the bordellos. Scott Joplin, Jelly Roll Morton,
Eubie Blake and many more got their start playing in such houses.
A large portion of blacks and musicians were poor,
illiterate and many of them had some type of venereal disease.
The black musician loved his music so much, that he often played
in lesser known bordellos without pay.
Playing in brothels, the American musicians spoke of their
music as "whorehouse" music. But whatever they called it, it
was enjoyable to the madam of the house, the working ladies and
the visitors that made regular appearances at these houses.
Many times, the male visitor would request a certain song and
give the piano player a generous tip. When the working ladies
requested a song, they usually gave the pianist sex as their token
of appreciation.
Scott Joplin (1868-1917) was born in East Texas and grew up
in a musical family. Scott loved music, and began playing the
piano at an early age. His goal was to learn all he could about
music theory, arranging and classical piano-playing techniques.
Scott played the piano wherever and whenever he could. In
his teen years, Tom Turpin, a night club owner in St. Louis,
offered Scott a good salary to play in Tom's Rosebud Cafe,
an offer Joplin happily accepted for two reasons, first, to
gain additional experience in playing in a better club, where a
higher class of people would attend, and second, while in
-- St. Louis, he could get advanced music training in classical
music as well as the contemporary music style of the day.
Competition was fierce. St. Louis was inundated with black
musicians looking for work in saloons, night-clubs, dance halls,
theaters,-, and sporting houses. Joplin also played at Tom Turpin's
Silver Dollar Saloon. After a short stay in St. Louis, Scott
moved on to Sedalia, MIssouri, and found work in the Maple Leaf
Saloon. He wrote a ragtime composition, and named it "Maple Leaf
Rag." The song was a rapid success, selling close to a million
copies. This gave Joplin financial stability and allowed him to
quit playing the piano in saloons and concentrate on teaching and
composing.
In 1909, he moved to New York City. He is credited with
writing a number of "rag" pieces, among them, "The Entertainer,"
"Peacherine Rag," "Non Pareil," "Cascades," "Sunflower" and the
"Treemonisha" opera.
In 1911, Joplin desperately tried to get his opera
performed but he was unable to find a professional company to
produce it. His determination to see his opera on stage, wore
down his resistance and his health began to deteriorate. In
1905, he rented a theater in the Harlem section of New York
and produced the opera on his own without scenery, costumes or,
an orchestra. The attempt was a complete failure, which Caused
Joplin to have a physical and mental breakdown. He took
to drinking and participating in reckless sexual activities. In
1916, he was committed to a mental hospital and in 1917 he died
from a severe case of syphlis.
Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton (1885 -1941) was born in
New Orleans. Jelly Roll Morton not only was a great pianist,
but also an outstanding composer. Some of his compositions were
"King Porter Stomp'" "Wolverine Blues," "Milenburg Joys," "Wild
Man Blues" and "Georgia Swing, Chicago Breakdown."
Morton enjoyed the excitement of his lifestyle. He was
know to be a gambler and a pimp. Being a young handsome man,
and a talented musician, he had a number of women admirers
whom he would use both as friends and sexual partners for a
price. Morton liked to travel. In 1907, he left New Orleans
and travelled throughout most of the United States. He stayed
long enough in some states to play piano in saloons or anywhere
else to raise enough money to go on the road again.
In 1911, he was in New York where he wrote his "Jelly
Roll Blues." In 1912, he travelled to Tulsa, Oklahoma and in
that same year lived in St. Louis, Missouri. Morton was a
gifted arranger and orchestrator, and in 1915 his band
arrangement of "Jelly Roll Blues" was published in Chicago by
the Melrose Brothers Music Company.
Jelly Roll Morton was a stubborn, arrogant bragger and a
prejudiced individual. He made it very obvious that he
disliked Negroes and their type of music. Morton did not consider
himself to be a Negro. He was a descendent of Spanish and French
parents, and being born in New Orleans made him a
Creole. Morton made it known to all that he was a Creole and
was proud of it. His real name was Ferdinand Joseph LaMenthe.
John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) was born in Washington, D.C.
He was an American composer and band director who wrote some of
the world's best known marches including "The Stars And Stripes
Forever," "Sempre Fidelis," and the "Washington Post March." He
was given the undisputed title the 'March King."
On his world -wide concert tours, Sousa introduced many
band arragements of ragtime music to his audiences. The lead ing
ragtime composers, Jelly Roll Morton, Scott Joplin, Joseph F.
Lamb and others, used the march form for their ragtime composition,
and Sousa included their music in his programs.
Abe Holzmann, a German-born composer, wrote three ragtime cakewalks. "Bunch 0' Blackberries," "Smoky Mokes" and "Hunky Dory"
became popular hits. They were performed by John Philip Sousa's
Concert Band.
In the mid 1960s, ragtime was given a new life. Many American
composers, such as William Bolcom, William Albright and Joshua
Riflin, began writing new ragtime compositions. Eventually,
ragtime found its place in the concert halls and in film scores as
background music. In 1973, the motion picture "The Sting," which
used the music of Scott Joplin as background, received the academy
award as the best picture of the year.
Ragtime, with its clear fusion of European and African
musical features, will always remain a happy, cheerful,
exhilarating music that will remain alive in the hearts of
all who have come in contact with it.
CHAPTER SEVEN
THE JAll ERA
Ragtime was a written form of music, whereas, jazz depended on
improvisation. Jazz musicians used a lot of syncopation in their
playing, however, thereby keeping a spark of ragtime alive.
Jazz made its mark on the American public in the early 1900s.
The development of jazz as previously mentioned, stems from
African slaves who carried over their folk songs and spirituals to
the United States from their native country. As time passed,
European musical culture, with its melodies and new harmonic structures,
bonded with the African rhythms and melodies.
Jazz was not written or printed music as was its
predecessor, ragtime. The musical form of jazz is improvisational.
Improvisation is an extemporaneous performance by the musician of
a melody. Almost all southern plantations had a brass band
of their own, and since black musicians didn't know how to read
music, they could only play the notes which originated in their
minds. In other words, they improvised.
New Orleans was considered the home of jazz. The city played a
major role in the development of this music style. But New Orleans
was not the only place where jazz was played.Jazz was also
heard in St. Louis, Chicago, Memphis, Atlanta, Baltimore and New
York.
One reason New Orleans boasted of so many jazz musicians was
because of the many available places to perform this new brand
of music. There were numerous social clubs, political and
fraternal organizations plus dances, parties, new store or
company openings, picnics, funerals and music f or the "sporting
houses."
Another reason for the popularity of jazz in New Orleans,
was the influx of people of different cultural backgrounds.
There were African Negroes, American Negroes, Creoles, French,
Spanish, Italian, Irish, German, Portugese and Cubans, each
displaying his own musical interpretations.
New Orleans was also famous for its band competitions.
The main objective was to see which band could play the
loudest, the longest, and produce the most brilliant intonations.
Some musicians were trai ned to read music, but others had to
play by ear and rely on improvisation. Most musicians worked
full time as carpenters, bricklayers, barbers, tailors, cigar
makers, truck drivers and other kinds of work --- : anything to earn
a weekly paycheck. Music was a means of making extra money,
although they were willing to play for nothing as a labor of love.
Band competitions, including a "carving contest"---in
which one musician played against another on the same instrument.
The most outstanding carving contest were between "Buddy" Bolden,
considered to be the greatest cornet player at that time, and
his challengers. Cornet and trumpet players challenged Bolden
and always lost. During his lifetime, Bolden never lost a competition.
Charles "Buddy" Bolden (1868-1931) was born in the black
uptown section of New Orleans. During his childhood, he heard
many brass bands performing in parades and funeral processions.
He watched Negroes perform dances brought with them from West
Africa at a section in New Orleans called "Congo Square."
By the time he was eight years old, Bolden was playing
the cornet as well as most professional musicians. He surrounded
himself with all forms of music, and even sang in church.
He grew up in the rough uptown section of New Orleans,
and owned a barber shop there. When he wasn't cutting hair, he
played his cornet. His goal was to become the best cornet
player in New Orleans.
Around 1893, Bolden formed his own six-piece ragtime band.
The band was considered the best one of its kind. He was in so
much demand that he was labeled the "King" of all cornet and
trumpet players. His repertoire included polkas, ragtime songs,
quadrilles (A square dance), ballads and blues. What's more, his
musicians played all this music by "ear."
When Bolden played the slow blues, he brought tears to
the eyes of his audience especially on such tunes as "Careless
Love," or "A Closer Walk With Thee." For seven years, Bolden
and his band w er e unbeat able, i n spite of th e competit ion.
There were at least thirty bands in the early 1900s in New
Orleans. The most enjoyable event was the annual "Mardi Gras"
carnival. All the bands participated in this celebration. The
festival included marching bands, colorful mobile floats, people
dressed in all types of costumes, dancing, singi ng and drinking in
the streets.
It was the outdoor concerts and parades that Bolden liked
best. He enjoyed his reputation as being the loudest cornet
player around. He could be heard as far as three or four blocks
away.
He was a handsome. light-skinned black man, tall and
slender. His looks, charm and cornet playing could melt the
hearts of most women in the audience.
But during the "Mardi Gras" parade of 1907, the unthinkable
happened. Bolden's mind snapped. He couldn't remember what he
was playing, and began making all sorts of mistakes. His
condition got so bad, that the other musicians took him out of
the parade and brought him to the hospital. On June 5, 1907 he
was committed to the state hospital for the mentally insane.
There he remained for the next twenty -four years until his
death in 1931. He was a great musician, a talented contributor to
the advancement of early jazz, and a tragic loss to the music
world.
Freddie Keppard (1B89-1933), took great pride in his
Creole inheritance. The Creole Negro, had more education and
culture than the American Negro. As a matter of fact, the
Creoles looked down on the American Negro. They took pride in
the term "free negro," indicating that their ancestors were
of French and Spanish descent. As opposed to the black American
Negro, whose ancestors were from the West African slave class.
Keppard took up cornet playing at an early age and learned
to master his techniques while still young. He looked to Buddy
Bolden as his role model. And though Bolden was known for his
loud playing, it was Keppard who was labeled as the loudest
cornet player in his day.
Keppard's cornet playing ability kept him in constant
demand. All the early band leaders, such as Joe "King" Oliver,
Kid Ory, Bunk Johnson and George Baguet were reachin g out to
bring him into their bands. But Keppard joined the banjo playing
Bill Johnson's "Original Creole Band." When Buddy Bolden was committed
to the state hospital, Freddie replaced him.
In 1908, Freddie formed his own group and called it "The
Olympia Orchestra." His band was an immediate success. Demands
for his music came from all over the United States.
Keppard was the first band leader to take an organized
group of musicians on tour from New Orleans. His group played
vaudeville acts from Los Angeles to Chicago and finally to
New York, with many stops in betweem.
When Keppard was in New Orleans with the Olympia Orchestra,
t h er e w er e J oe " K in g " Ol i ve r wi t h h is M a gn ol ia Ba n d, a n d
Edward "Kid" Ory's Creole Jazz Band. Keppard, Oliver and Ory played
all the best sporting houses in the Storyville section.
Around 1912, Keppard took over the "Original Creole
Orchestra." It had a front line of trumpet, clarinet and
trombone, plus the usual rhythm section of piano, bass, drums
and guitar. He was extremely proud and protective of his
trumpet playing and his band, and repeatedly turned down offers
to record. He was afraid other trumpet players and band leaders
would copy his style.
Jelly Roll Morton stated that the Keppard band played
music that was "hot and dirty" and was the most powerful jazz
band in New Orleans. Word eventually got back to New Orleans
however that Chicago had more places to work, that working
conditions were better there and that the better bands were
paid more money.
About 1917, Chicago was flooded with the best of New
Orleans musicians. These included Freddie Keppard, Kid Ory,
Bill Johnson, Mutt Carey, George Baguet, Sydney Bechet, Lautence
Duhe and many more.
When Keppard turned down an offer to make a recording in
1917, he left the opportunity open for a white band. The
Original Dixieland Jazz Band, became the first band to make a
record. The personnel in that band included Nick LaRocca, (cornet
and leader), Larry Shields, (clarinet), Eddie Edwards, (trombone),
Harry Ragas, (piano), and Tony Sbarbaro, (drums).
Freddie Keppard, in spite of the fact that he took to
drinking as much as a half a gallon or more of moon-shine,
(otherwise known as "white Lightning,") per day and was slipping
in his ability was still considered to be a better cornet
player than Louis Armstrong or Joe "King" Oliver, as
Jelly Roll Morton was quick to point out.
In 1917, the year that officially began the Jazz Age, the
public heard jazz played in a variety of styles. There were
the Creole Negroes, the American Negroes and the white musicians
all playing jazz in their own interpretations. Jazz was heard on
the radio, on phonograph records and in motion pictures. T h e
s p r e a d o f j a z z w a s r a p i d . C h a r l e s " B u d d y " B o l d e n , i s credited
with being the founder of New Orleans jazz.
CHAPTER EIGHT
CHICAGO
Chicago eventually became the main residence of jazz musicians.
They came from New Orleans, Memphis, St. Louis and Oklahoma
City. Jazz was not new to Chicago. Before 1917, Jelly Roll
Morton, Tony Jackson, Freddie Keppard, Bill Johnson, Joe "King"
Oliver and Edward "Kid" Ory had all played in Chicago.
Since Chicago was acquainted with jazz, the main purpose
for the musicians to settle there was to help spread jazz throughout
the city. When "King" Oliver left New Orleans in 1918, he
headed straight for Chicago, leaving an eighteen-year old trumpet
player named Louis Armstrong to take over leadership of Oliver's
band.
When Oliver arrived in Chicago, he immediately found work
playing trumpet with the New Orleans Jazz Band and then with
the Original Creole Band. In 1920, "King" Oliver replaced Bill
Johnson as the leader of the Original Creole Band.
Oliver toured the West Coast with the band, and stayed
in California for about a year, working all the clubs in that
state. Finally, in 1922, he headed back to Chicago and played
at the Lincoln Gardens.
In 1923, Oliver called Louis Armstrong and persuaded him
to leave New Orleans and join his new Creole Jazz Band.
Armstrong gladly accepted the offer and in July 1923, Armstrong
was in Chicago.
Joe "King" Oliver's Creole Jazz Band included some fine
musicians. There was "King" Oliver and Louis Armstrong on trumpets,
Honore Dutrey on trombone, Johnny dodds on clarinet, Baby Dodds
on drums, Bill Johnson on banjo and Lil Hardin on piano.
The Creole Jazz Band had a permanent engagement at the
Lincoln Gardens, a spacious building providing a dance floor for
over six hundred people. Oliver was a self-taught musician who
played loud and fast as he was accustomed to when he was in New
Orleans, because that was the type of music the black community wanted
to hear. But in Chicago, the audiences were mostly white, and
Oliver, always aiming to please his audiences, refined his trumpet
playing with the other members of the band doing the same on their
instruments.
In 1923, the Creole Jazz Band began to make records.
With the records getting nationwide distribution, their recording
success was an incentive for other bands to follow.
The same year, an all-white band from Chicago, the New
Orleans Rhythm Kings, began recording. Jelly Roll Morton also
made his first record that year.
In 1924, Louis Armstrong left the Creole Jazz Band for
the Fletcher Henderson Band. Oliver continued making recordings
in 1926-1927, with his new group, the Savannah Syncopaters.
Unfortunately, Joe "King" Oliver's career came to an early end
when he lost all his teeth. Being unable to play, he had no
way to earn a living. Oliver was so embarrassed and ashamed of
his appearance that he went into seclusion and remained there
until his death in 1938.
Louis Armstrong (1900-1971), was born in New Orleans on July
4, 1900. Armstrong knew the meaning of poverty. His family was
probably of the poorest in the black population. As a young boy,
he worked for pennies a day, selling coal and working on the docks
loading and unloading boats.
One New Year's Eve in 1912, when Louis was only twelve
years old, he found a pistol loaded with blanks and fired a
couple of shots into the air to celebrate the coming of the
new year. He was arrested and sent to the Waifs' Home for black
people in New Orleans. Because he loved music so much, he was given
some musical training during the year he spent at the home.
After his release from the Waifs' Home, Armstrong became
acquainted with his cornet-playing idol, Joe "King" Oliver. The
"King" gave Armstrong his first cornet, and also gave him
private music lessons. In a short time, Armstrong was playing
with many of the New Orleans jazz musicians.
In 1919, he was with "Kid" Ory's band when Joe "King"
Oliver left that band to go to Chicago. Armstrong then moved on
to join the Fate Marable Band, when that band was hired to play
on a Mississippi riverboat, travelling from New Orleans to
St.Louis.
In 1922, Oliver asked Armstrong to come to Chicago and
play second cornet in his band. Armstrong was honored to be
in the same band with his idol. Armstrong stayed with the band
for two years, and left the group in 1924 under the constant
persuasion of Lillian Hardin who was playing piano with the band
and whom Louis later married.
Then Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson band in New
York and stayed on for one year. While there, he began working with
various groups in New York making recordings with such performers as
Perry Bradford's Jazz Phools, the Clarence Williams Group, Sydney
Bechet, and Bessie Smith who was considered the greatest of all blues
singers.
Later on in 1925, he moved back to Chicago and joined the
Erskine Tate Group. He stayed on with that group for a short
time and decided he wanted to have his own band. His first
band was called Louis Armstrong's Hot Five. Later, he added
two more musicians and the band became the Hot Seven.
The Hot Seven Band turned out one hit record after another.
I n 1 9 26 , t he re w a s t he " B ut te r a nd Eg g M an ," f o ll o we d b y
"Potato Head Blues" in 1927, and his recording of "Struttin'
With Some Barbeque" in 1928.
In 1929, Armstrong augmented his group and formed a "big"
band. With his big band he recorded "Body And Soul" in 1920,
"Stardust," in 1931, "Sweetheart's On Parade" in 1932, and "I
Gotta Right To Sing The Blues" in 1933.
There seemed to be no end to the growth of Louis's popularity.
From 1932 to 1935, he toured the United States and Europe. In
1936, he made his first film appearance in "Pennies From Heaven"
with Bing Crosby.
In 1947, Armstrong reverted back to a small band and settled
with a s extet o f all-st ars. Wi th this group , he conti nued to
record hits such as "Mack The Knife," "What A Wonderful World"
and "Hello Dolly." His all -star band was in such demand that
their itinerary included Australia, Europe, South American, the Far
East, Africa and the United States.
However, stress and strain took its toll on him, and in
late 1960s, he was not able to play the trumpet anymore. In
March 1971, Louis Armstrong had a heart attack and died.
With the closing of the New Orleans red-light district
"Storyville" by the United States Navy Department in November
1917, jazz musicians began heading north to Chicago. By the
time of the "roaring twenties," Chicago became the mecca for
jazz. The best of jazz music ians were there. There was Joe
"King" Oliver with his Creole Jazz Band, Louis Armstrong with his
Hot Five and Hot Seven, Jelly Roll Morton's Red Hot Peppers a n d
t h e N ew O r le an s R hy t hm K i ng s, a n a l l - wh i te j az z b a nd .
Pianist Tony Jackson, Bill Johnson, Freddie Keppard and Syndey
Bechet were there with their groups, as were the Original Dixieland
Jazz Band with Nick Larocca, leader and cornet, Eddie
gdwards, trombone; Larry Shields, clarinet; Tony Spargo, drums;
and Henry Ragas, piano; to mention a few.
The hot spot in Chicago's south side was known as the "Vice
District." This was another version of storyville in New Orleans.
The Vice District consisted of saloons, theaters",, concert halls,
gambling houses, pool rooms, and over five hundred bordellos
with three thousand prostitutes available for sexual services.
Chicago became the home for over 1.5 million blacks who
came from New Orleans, Mississippi, Texas, Alabama, Arkansas,
and other southern states. Eventually, black and white musicians
were playing together in the same band. They would pick up the
style and technique of each other's performances.
Chicago's south side ghetto was known for its black-and-tan
clubs. T he al l- black ba nd wo ul d play t o a m ix ed audie nce o f
blacks a nd wh it es. Blac k-and -t an clubs w ere t he few p laces
where blacks and whites could socialize together, talking, drinking,
dancing or just listening to the music. The whites enjoyed the
music because it was the first time they'd heard New Orleans
style jazz.
The black-and-tan clubs, or "Cabarets" as they were
often called, were successful at interracial socializing.
More and more entrepreneurs began opening cabarets on the south
side. Some of these newer clubs, such as the Dreamland Cafe,
the Plantation Cafe, the Sunset Cafe, and the Royal Garden Cafe,
became permanent homes for Chicago jazz.
The Dreamland Cafe featured the best bands available at
the time. These included the Original Jazz Band, the New Orleans
Jazz Band, Joe "King" Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band, and
Louis Armstrong and his wife, pianist, Lil Hardin, with the
Dreamland Syncopaters.
Later, however, the Royal Gardens changed its name to the
Lincoln Gardens because of a shooting that took the lives of two
policemen. The Lincoln Gardens was the largest dance hall on the
south side and it featured headliners like Joe "King" Oliver and
also Louis Armstrong.
The Plantation Cafe was a black-and-tan cabaret owned by white
men, but controlled by mobster Al Capone. Joe "King" Oliver and
his Dixie Syncopaters were booked there most of t he time. The
Dixie Syncopaters included, Barney Bigard, Albert Nichols, Paul
"Stump" Evans, Darrell Howard, Edward "Kid" Ory and Paul Barbarin.
Bert
section
Kelly's
of
Stables,
Towertown,
a
cabaret
alternately
located
featured
in
jazz
the
Bohemian
bands
led
by
"Yellow" Nunez and Freddie Keppard with their respective bands.
The Friars' Inn Cafe, featured the jazz band of the all
white New Orleans Rhythm Kings, consisting of Paul Mares, cornet
and leader; trombonist George Brunies, Leon Rappolo, clarinet;
pianist Elmer Schoebel; Louis Black on banjo; Frank Snyder,
drums; and Arnold Loyocano on bass.
Chicago's north side, known as the loop, was the section for
white entertainment. Tom Brown's Dixieland Band played at Lamb's
Cafe. But the most popular of the all white bands was the
Original Dixieland Jazz Band, which performed at Schiller's Cafe,
Casino Gardens and Delabbie's Cabaret.
Bix Beiderbeck, cornet player, and his Wolverines played
at the Rendezvous Cafe and Vanity Fair. At the Three Deuces
were guitarist Eddie Condon and banjoist Johnny St. Cry. Slowly,
white Chicago jazz musicians became popular figures around town.
Mezz Mezzrow, Muggsy Spanier, George Wettling, Bud Freeman,
Jimmy McPartland, Max Kaminsky, Benny Goodman, Gene Krupa, Joe
Marsala, Dave Tough, Frank Teschemacher and Hoagy Carmichael
were all products of the "windy city."
Chicago jazz was in its heyday in the "roaring twenties."
This was a time when all cafes, cabarets, saloons, dance halls,
bordellos and every place where music was a part of the
entertainment, hired dixieland bands or jazz bands. These bands
were small, consisting of only six to eight musicians.
However, during the mid-1920s, small bands were either
forced to augment their groups or join an existing big band.
White band leaders were hired to play in large ballrooms, with
dance floors accommodating from eight hundred to four thousand
dancers. The big bands played music for dancing in addition to
big band jazz, with special written arrangements.
Some of the more popular dance band leaders in the 1920s
were, Paul Whiteman, Isham Jones, Meyer Davies, Guy Lombardo,
Frank Wesphal, Art Hickman, Vincent Lopez, Jean Goldkette and
Jan Garber.
Towards the end of the Jazz Age in the late 1920s, jazz was
beginning to show a decline. There were several reasons for
this. The stock market crash of October 1929, caused many people
to lose their jobs, therefore, restricting or eliminating the
luxury of entertainment.
The racial segregation issue took many white audiences
away from the black-and-tan cabarets. Blacks and whites could
no longer mingle or socialize together.
Chicago police were constantly raiding many of the black and-tan clubs on the south side, for liquor violations, or for
catering to a rough crowd which caused many fights in the clubs,
or for allowing female minors to be used as drink servers and
prostitutes.
One by one the south side cafes went out of business. The
Entertainers' Cafe closed down due to political pressure. The
Plantati on Ca fe was for ced o ut of busi ness by the con stant
police raids. The Sunset Cafe closed its doors for catering to under-age
girls. The Dreamland Cafe succumbed to political influences. The Cafe de
Paris was bombed during the night. In February, 1928, twelve clubs,
including those in the loop section were padlocked because of liquor
violations.
Gradually, jazz musicians began taking their leave of Chicago.
Most of them headed to New York where a new form of music was
developing. When the Jazz Age ended in 1935, a new style of
music was coming into existence. It was the beginning of the
"Swing Era."
In March, 1928, Ben Pollack took his band out of Chicago and
went to New York. Within his group were musicians such as, Benny
Goodman, Bud Freeman and Jimmy McPartland. Also, leaving Chicago for
New York were, Gene Krupa, Eddie Condon, Joe Sullivan, Frank
Teschemacher, Joe "King' Oliver, Louis Armstrong, Meyer Davis,
Jan Garber and George Wettling.
By the end of the 1920s, jazz music and its musicians had
made notable contributions to the advancement and gro wth of
Chicago. The end of the Jazz Age, however, did not eliminate
jazz from Chicago. On the contrary, many of Chicago's finest
musicians remained there to continue playing the music they
loved the most....JAll.
CHAPTER NINE
KANSAS CITY
Kansas City was a vanguard of jazz and big bands during
the 1920s and 1930s, with hotels providing dining and dancing
to the more sophicated white audiences. At the Baltimore Hotel,
Jack Teagarden played his trombone. Ben Pollack's Orchestra
and Glen Gray and the Casa Loma Orchestra alternated between
the Bellerive Hotel. And the Coon-Sanders Band did a live radio
broadcast on station WDAF at the Muehlebach. With the influx of
hotels and ballrooms, jobs for big bands and small combo groups
were plentiful.
Kansas City's black community had many theaters where black
bands would perform to all-black audiences. These included the New
State Theater, the Eblon Theater, the Lincoln Theater and the
Panama Theater.
Entertainment for the theaters included the talents of
blues singers, "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, Jimmy Rushing and
Ida Cox, each with their own bands or small groups. Also appearing
at these theaters were Joe "King" Oliver,Fletcher Henderson, Duke
Ellington, Benny Moten and Andy Kirk.
Kansas City musicians both black and w hite, enjoyed the
heyday of the 1920s and 1930s. In addition to the hotels and
theaters, night clubs were abundant. In one district of the
city alone, there were over fifty night clubs. Throughout the
city, there were hundreds of night clubs providing music.
Benny Moten's six-piece band could be heard at the Panama
Club. Blues pianist Roy Searcy played alternately at the Rendezvous
Club, the El Capitan Club and Bernie's Cocktail Lounge. The
Novelty Club had a band that consisted of Count Basie, Walter
Page, Jo Jones, Hot Lips Page and Lester Young.
However, the Sunset Club, the Subway Club and the Reno
Club served a different purpose for jazz musicians. It was at
these clubs the musicians unwind after their regular working
hours by participating in all-night "jam" sessions. The clubs
would hire a good house band which usually consisted of a piano,
bass and drums, and the rest of the music would be provided by
the musicians who came in with their various instruments and
played for their own entertainment.
At jam sessions, black and white musicians played together.
There were no color barriers here. Musicians respected each
other's talents. At any given night, the best jazz musicians in
Kansas City joined together and "jammed." Some of the names were,
Lester Young, Ben Webster, Charlie Parker, Benny Goodman,
Coleman Hawkins, Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey, Count Basie and a
host of others. The club owners took delight in these jam
sessions, because it brought the people in to listen and buy
drinks.
As jazz grew in popularity in Kansas City, so did the size
of the bands. In the early 1920s, the bands usually consisted
of a cornet, clarinet, trombone and a rhythm section of piano.
drums, banjo and tuba.
Gradually, such small groups were augmented into big bands
consisting of a complete brass section, three trumpets and two
trombones, a reed section of either four or five saxes. The sax
players also doubled on clarinet. The rhythm section composed of a
piano, drums, banjo or guitar and string bass or tuba.
Special arrangements were written for these larger bands
providing individual parts for each member of the band. The
first to accomplish this was Don Redman, sax player and chief
arranger for the Fletcher Henderson Band.
From the success of this first big-band experiment, other
band leaders, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Benny
Moten, Andy Kirk, Count Basie, Walter Page and Harlan Leonard,
followed suit.
CHAPTER TEN
NEW YORK
By the beginning of the 1930s, jazz had found a new home.
Jazz musicians from all parts of the country began heading for
New York City. New York was now the focal point of music
entertainment. Tin-Pan Alley, located in the Brill Building
on Broadway became the home of music publishing companies. New
York was home to booking agencies, recording studios and radio
stations.
The Harlem section--a predominantly black area of the city was
the center of early New York jazz. Most of the jazz musicians who
left Chicago and Kansas City had settled there.
Harlem can be compared to Storyville in New Orleans and
the south side in Chicago. Night clubs, ballrooms, theaters,
and saloons flourished in Harlem, which covered an area from
125th to 145th streets, between Fifth and Eighth Avenues.
Within this area was the famous Cotton Club. The Cotton Club
had its grand opening in 1927 featuring as its headline attracti on,
Duke Ell ingto n and his Orche st ra. Ther e was a slight problem
however for this opening event. The Ellington band had a signed
agreement to perform at the Philadelphia Theater on the same
night. The owners of the Philadelphia Theater were quite firm in
having Duke Ellington fulfill his contract. But the New York
mob, who ran the Cotton Club, had other ideas. They sent a
couple of their most harden enforcers to "talk" to the theater
owners in Philadelphia. The outcome was that the Philadelphia
owners were given an "offer they couldn't refuse." Duke
Ellington opened the Cotton Club that night, and remained there
for the next five years. He was followed by Cab Calloway, and then
by Jimmy Lunceford.
Willie (the Lion) Smith played piano at the Capitol
Palace with the Lloyd Scott Syncopaters. The Lenox Club
featured jam sessions. And because it was open from 11:,00 PM to
7:00 AM, many jazz musicians, after finishing at their own clubs
at 2:00 AM, came to the Lenox Club to sit in on nightly jam
sessions.
The Rhythm Club was another favorite spot featuring jam
sessions. Playing there for their own entertainment were names
as, Chick Webb, Johnny Hodges, Sonny Greer, Benny Carter, Don
Redman, Fletcher Henderson, Jelly Roll Morton and others.
Connie's Inn, in Harlem was a different type of night club.
It was a very expensive club with spectacular revues. Music was
provided by Leroy Smith and later by Louis Armstrong.
Harlem was also known for its theaters. The Lincoln
Theater had a stage show which utilized the talents of Ethel
Waters, Louis Armstrong, Snake Hips Tucker and Butterbeans and
Susie.
The Apollo Theater was the most popular and the largest
in size, having a seating capacity of 17,000 seats. Chick Webb,
Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Don Redman, Fletcher Henderson,
Noble Sissle, Andy Kirk and many more performed there with their
bands.
The Savoy Ballroom was the hot spot for dancing. Music was
always provided by big bands led by such artists as Chick Webb,
Jimmy Lunceford, Zack Whyte, Fess Williams, Fletcher Henderson, Duke
Ellington, Cab Calloway, Louis Armstrong, Teddy Hill and Andy
Kirk.
Most of the night clubs were owned by white entrepreneurs.
And although entertainment was provided by black musician s,
most club catered to white audiences. Many clubs posted signs on
the outside door reading, "White Customers Only."
While small combos and big bands continued to flourish throughout
Harlem, jazz clubs were also opening in the white section of New
York. Fifty-Second Street was referred to as the "street of
jazz." There was Kelly's, the Three Deuces, the Spotlight, the Onxy
and the Famous Door. Each club had its own p o p u l a r g r o u p . R e d
N o r v o , R e d A l l e n , R o y E l r i d g e , C o l e m a n Hawkins, Billy
Eckstine and Teddy Hill were just a few of the , popular musicians
appearing at these clubs.
With the popularity of jazz and the beginning of the big
band era, more entertainment establishments were opening
throughout New York. Red Norvo played at the Hickory House,
Duke Ellington and his Washingtonians performed at the Kentucky
Club. Nick LaRocca and his Original Dixieland Jazz Band were
booked at the Paradise Ballroom. Earl Fuller's band, featuring a
young Ted Lewis on clarinet, was at Rector's. The Roseland
Ballroom had just about every available big band playing there,
including Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey, Glen Gray, Benny Goodman,
Gene Krupa, Harry James, Lionel Hampton, Teddy Wilson, Artie Shaw
and Glenn Miller.
Other popular clubs were Eddie Condon's on West Fifty-Fourth
Street, Jimmy Weston's on East Fifty-Fourth Street, Jimmy Ryan's on
West Fifth-Fourth Street, the Village Gate on Bleeker Street and
the Village Vanguard on Seventh Avenue.
Paul Whiteman, known as the "King of Jazz," frequently
played at the Palais Royal and the Paramount Theater. Many of
the Whiteman sidemen branched out to be leaders of their own
bands, namely, Jimmy Dorsey, Bunny Berigan, Jack Teagarden, Joe
Venuti, Johnny Mercer and Bix Beiderbecke.
With the gradual decline of jazz combos from the middle
1930s onward, big band swing arrangements became the popular
style of music.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
BIG BANDS
In 1915, Noble Sissle gathered together 12 musicians
to form an orchestra to play at the ballroom on the rooftop
of the Severin Hotel in Indianapolis, Indiana. The band was
a huge success, which enabled them to remain there for several
weeks. The event was history in the making, because it was the
first time an all black band played in any hotel in that city.
This engagement opened the door for Noble Sissle to get
bookings in Baltimore, Maryland. Sissle met Eubie Blake while
in Baltimore in 1916, and the two of them became a perfect musicwriting team, with Sissle writing the lyrics and Blake composing the
music.
World War I caused Sissle to leave his band and join the
U.S. Army Infantry band for overseas duty in France. When the
war
ended,
Sissle
returned
to
the
United
States
to
renew
his
association with Eubie Blake.
Some of their collaborations were; "I'm Just Wild About
Harry," "Love Will Find A Way," and the broadway musical show
"Shuffle Along," in 1921. During that year Sissle formed a six-piece
group that he called "Noble Sissle and his Sizzling Syncopators."
In 1934, with Sidney Bechet and Tommy Ladnier in the band
as featured soloists, he changed the name to Noble Sissle and
his International Orchestra." Lena Horne had joined the group as
its vocalist, and the orchestra had an extended engagement at
Billy Rose's Diamond Horseshoe in New York in 1952 which lasted
four years.
Noble Sissle, a truly devoted musician with a deep love
for his music, remained active until an illness forced him
to disband his orchestra. He died in 1975 at the age of 86.
Fate Marable and his 11-piece Metropolitan Jazz Band,
was mainly associated with the riverboats that made daily trips
on the Mississippi River between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Marable was so well liked by the owners of the Streckfuss Steamship
Lines that they gave him an indefinite engagement.
M a ra b le w a s a hi g hl y -s ch o ol ed m u si c ia n a nd m ai n ta i ne d
strict control of his band. He had a well organized, disciplined
group that rehearsed in a professional manner. This band was unique
in that it was one of the few all-black bands where the musicians
could read music.
They played the music the riverboat crowd wanted to hear.
There were waltzes, polkas, tangos, reels, fox-trots and hot
jazz. Ve ry of te n people woul d take a d aily cr uise jus t to
listen to the band.
The band personnel included, Louis Armstrong, (trumpet),
Sam Dutrey, (clarinet), Johnny St. Cry, (banjo), George "Pops"
Foster, (bass), Warren "Baby" Dobbs, (drums), Davey Jones,
(mellophone), Norman Mason, (saxophone), Boyd Atkins, (violin),
and Fate Marable, (piano).
Marable had the respect from the men in his band and the
public. There was the occasion when the leader of an all-white tenpiece band died, and the white musicians voted unanimously to
have Marable take over leadership. As a matter of fact, Marable
led a white band for seven years before he formed his first
black band. He was also instrumental in breaking the barrier that
separated the black and white musicians.
When Paul Whiteman received his discharge from the United
States Navy in 1919, he formed his first band in San Francisco.
The following year in 1920, he moved to New York, augmented his
group and toured the country from coast -to-coast. With all of
this exposure, it was inevitable that Paul Whiteman was to
become the most popular band leader in the United States.
In November, 1920, the Whiteman Orchestra made its first recording
of "Whispering" and "Japanese Sandman." The selections sold over a
million copies.
Jazz however, was the popular form of music at that time,
and the big society bands who worked the better hotels and
ballrooms, Guy Lombardo, Lawrence Welk, Vincent Lopez, Ted Lewis,
and Paul Whiteman---wanted to capitalize on the jazz scene. But
their problem was how to do it? How could they get 15 or more
musicians to play jazz in an organized manner?
It was Whiteman who came up with the solution. He had his
pianist-arranger Ferde Grofe, write special arrangements featuring
jazz rhythms and styles. In addition, Whiteman hired the best
jazz musicians to play in his band. His inducement to obtain
these musicians was an extravagant salary. Added to the band
were Red Nichols, (cornet), Eddie Lang, (guitar), Bix
Beiderbecke, (cornet), Tommy Dorsey, (trombone), Jimmy Dorsey,
(saxophone), Bunny Berigan, (trumpet), Art Miller, (bass), Jack
Teagarden, (trombone), and Charlie Teagarden, (trumpet).
When Paul Whiteman and his orchestra appeared nightly at
New York's Palais Royal playing the new jazz arrangements, the
public began to appreciate that not all jazz music was fast
and bright. The other side of the jazz picture was expressed
in the blues.
When Whiteman introduced a Ferde Grofe arrangement of
W.C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues", it created a sensation. Then
on February 12, 1924, Whiteman brought his orchestra into the
Aeolian Hall in New York to perform the most important concert
of his career. It was the premiere of "Rhapsody In Blue," with
ite composer George Gershwin at the piano. From this night on,
Whiteman was referred to as the "King of Jazz." There was no
doubt that he was responsible for the advancement of jazz from coastto-coast. As jazz continued to grow, big bands began
to sprout up.
Mildred Bailey, with her excellent phrasing ability and
fine singing voice became the first woman vocalist to be hired
by a popular dance band. As a child, her idols were the great
blues singers, Bessie Smith and Ethel Waters of the 1920s.
Mildred sang with the Eddie Lang Orchestra in 1929, then
with Jimmy Noone's Apex Club Orchestra. In 1931, she recorded
four sides with the Casa Loma Orchestra until Paul Whiteman
heard her sing and hired her as the first female vocalist with
his orchestra.
Red Norvo, the talented jazz zylophonist and Mildred were
married in 1933. During the 1940s she recorded with the best
jazz musicians of the time---Bunny Berigan Ziggy Elman, Teddy
Wilson, Artie Shaw, Johnny Hodges and many more.
For three consecutive years she was nom inated as the
leading female vocalist in 1944 to 1946, and received the
Esquire award for each year. She was the first white singer to
be accepted as a jazz singer. Some of her memorable hits were,
"You Call It Madness," "Blues In My Heart," "When It's Sleepy
Time Down South," "Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams," "Georgia On
My Mind," and the Hoagy Carmichael classic, "Rockin' Chair,"
which became her theme song.
Born in 1904, Mildred died of a fatal illness in 1951.
In 1918, Jan Garber, at the age of 21, started his first
band in New York. Finding work in Chicago and throughout the
mid-west, the band received quite a bit of exposure from the
air time they were getting from the Trianon Ballroom in Chicago.
Garber had a good commercial swing band and on occasion
could play a jazz arrangement quite well. But it was his approach
to the ballads and swing tunes for which he is best remembered.
Jan kept his group working steadily till the late 1950s, when
failing health forced him to quit. On October 5, 1977, Garber
died at the age of 82.
In London, Ontario, Canada, at the beginning of the 1920s,
Guy Lombardo organized his band and called it "Guy Lombardo
and his Royal Canadians." Lombardo's band was not a swing band
not did it play any jazz at all. The band was identif ied as
playing the "sweetest music this side of heaven."
However, in their busy schedule, the group was accepted
every place they played. New York's Roosevelt Hotel maintained
them as the resident band for 40 years, until the Rainbow Grill
of the hotel closed down.
Lombardo took exceptional pride in that he was most welcomed
and accepted by the black population whenever the band h a d a n
e n g a g e m e n t i n t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d . W h e n t h e R o y a l Canadians
were booked into the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem, the band broke the
all-time-high attendance record.
During one of the sets at the Savoy Ballroom, Lombardo
assumed that the black audience wanted to hear some loud and
fast rhythm tunes, so, he played "Tiger Rag" and "St. Louis
Blues." The audiences informed him, however, that they came
to hear his music. Thereafter, the rest of the night, the band
played, "Boo-Hoo," "Coquette," "Seems Like Old Times," "Give
Me A Little Kiss," "You're Driving Me Crazy," "Heartaches,"
and many more similar numbers.
Jazz does not always mean wild, fast, hard-driving
rhythmic arrangements. It also includes pretty slow ballads
and music that can be called the "sweetest music this side of
heaven." Lombardo provided that kind of music for over 50 years
until a relapse from an open heart surgery took his life on November
5, 1977.
Benny Moten, born in Kansas City, Missouri, formed his
first big band in 1922. By 1924, the Moten band was competing
against the best of the black bands at that time. The bands included,
Joe "King" Oliver, Mound City Blue Blowers with "Red" McKenzie as
leader, Fletcher Henderson and Clarence Williams with Louis
Armstrong and Sidney Bechet as leading soloist.
The band's recordings displayed powerful swinging and
relaxed renditions of "Toby," "Lafayette," "Blue Room," "Prince
Of Wales," "Oh, Eddie," "Small Black," and "The Jones Law Blues."
The Rhythm section, getting away from the usual two-beats to the
bar, as was popular with New Orleans jazz, used the four -beat
drive that set the pace for the big band swing era.
The Benny Motem orchestra was right on top with the best
of them until his untimely death in 1935, while undergoing a
tonsillectomy. Count Basie, utilizing the best sidemen in the
band and adding a few more of his own choice took over the
Benny Motem band.
Members of the Motem band at one time or another were
Count Basie, Jo Jones, Walter Page, Ed Lewis, Jimmy Rushing,
Ben Webs ter, Ed die Durh am, L er oy Berry , Ver no n Page a nd
Willie McWashington.
After gaining experience playing piano with several local
groups in Fort Smith, Arkansas, Alphonso (Al) Trent, organized a
small group and got his first job at the Basin Park Hotel,
in Eureka Springs, Arkansas.
In 1923, Trent augmented his group and the new big band
was given an extended engagement at Stem Beach, Muskogee, Oklahoma.
The additional members were, James Jeter, who was later to
become a co-member of a big band with Hayes Pillars and
Terrence Holder, who also formed a band called the "Black
Clouds Of Joy," which eventually was given to Andy Kirk who
renamed it the "Twelve Clouds Of Joy."
AI Trent played most ballrooms in the Dallas, Texas area
and then was given an 18-monrh contract to play at the famous
Adolphus Hotel in downtown Dallas. In 1925, the Trent band was
among the first to do a live radio broadcast over station WFAA
in Dallas. Gennett Records recorded four sides of the Trent Band,
"Loudere and Funnier," "Guilded Kisses," "After You're Gone,"
and "St. James Infirmary."
The musicians who passed through the Trent band were Sy
Oliver, Harry "Sweets" Edison, Peanuts Holland, Stuff Smith, Terrence
Holder, Hayes Pillars and James Jeter. Alphonso Trent died on
October 14, 1959.
Speed Webb one of the finest orchestras ever assembled
in 1923. Three years later in 1926, Gennett Records executives
called Webb to Richmond, Indiana to make some recordings. The
selections he recorded were, "Florida Stomp," "Shake It and
Break It," "You Better Keep Away From Me," and "It Must Be
Love." Unfortunately, due to poor engineering, the records
were never released.
Speed Webb and his Hoosier Melody Lads, were very popular
with music audiences. Their itinerary was constantly filled
with engagements such as those at Forest Amusement Park, Toledo,
Ohio, Pico Dreamland, Los Angeles and at Buffalo, New York.
While in Los Angeles, MGM Pictures signed Webb and his
group to do seven movies including "On With The Show,"
starring Ethel Waters. With the popularity of the band still
climbing, Webb recorded six more sides, which were released and
sold to record stores. The sides included, "Trees," "What Am I
To Do?," "Liza," "low Speed," "If It Ain't Love," and "Spider's
Web," which became the band's theme song.
The personnel on that record session was like a list of allstars. There were, Leonard Gay, Ben "Smoke" Richardson, and Chuck
Wallace on saxes; Roy Eldridge, Steve Dunn and Teunard Jones
on trumpets; Vic Dicinson and Gus Wilson on trombones; Teddy
Wilson, piano, William Warfield, guitar,Melvin Bowles, bass,
and Sam Scott, drums. Sy Oliver joined the trumpet section in
1929.
With the lure of more money, better benefits and steady
work, most of Webb's sidemen left the band. Finally, in 1938,
he gave up his music career, and became a funeral director in
his home town in South Bend, Indiana.
In Sprin gfiel d, Ohio, a round 1 923, a s even- pi ece band
called "Sunco Septet" was growing in demand in the Springfield
area. The band's popularity extended all the way out to Detroit,
Michigan, where they were engaged to play at the Arcadia Ballroom.
The band was organized by William McKinney drummer and
Todd Rhodes, pianist. The manager of the Arcadia Ballroom suggested
that they expand their group into a big band. They
were also advised to have one person act as leader and to
change the name of the group. The reason for the name change was
that a couple of other groups had similar names. There was
the "Synco Jazz Band" from New York and the "Synphonic syncopators"
from Springfield, Ohio.
The group chose its drummer William McKinney to be the
leader, since he was already managing the band's affairs. Their
next step was to add additional musicians to form their big band.
Don Redman, Milton Senior, George Price and Prince Robinson
were the reed section. John Nesbitt and Langston Curl played
trumpets and Claude Jones played trombone. McKinney gave up his
drum spot to Cuba Austin, with Dave Wilborn on banjo, and Todd
Rhodes, at the piano, making up the rhythm section.
The band's new name was McKinney's Cotton Pickers. Don
Redman and John Nesbitt, two extraordinary arrangers, began
writing special material for the group. The musicians executed
the arrangements with such perfection, that the band was often
called upon for special events.
In 1924, the band played a command performance in White
Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, for the Prince Of Wales, who
later became King Edward VIII of England. In 1926, Jean Goldkette, a
successful band leader and owner of the Greystone Ballroom in
Detroit, signed a long term contract with McKinney's Cotton Pickers
to play at his ballroom.
For the next two years, the band's popularity gr ew so
rapidly that in 1928 they signed with Victor Records. Their
first records included, "Four or Five Times," "Put It There,"
"Crying and Sighing," "Milenberg Joys," "Stop Kidding," 4Cherry,"
"Nobody's Sweetheart," "Some Sweet Day," and "Shim-me-sha-wabble."
With the band being in constant demand, McKinney decided
it would be best for Don Redman to take over leadership so he
could become the band's manager. The name McKinney's Cotton
Pickers was to remain the same.
By 1929, Redman added a third trumpet player for the
record dates and also called in outside soloists, namely, "Fats"
Waller, Coleman Hawkins and Benny Carter. There seemed to be n o
end for the successful Cotton Pickers. They travelled
nationally and made records on a regular basis. To fill in
their open dates they played the Greystone Ballroom. Much of
the band's success was attributed to Don Redman's leadership and
arrangements.
The saddest day for the Cotton Pickers came in 1931, when
Don Redman left the band to form a group of his own. Altho ugh
Redman was the leader, the band was really the property of
Jean Goldkette.
Benny Carter was called in to take over as leader, but it
soon became obvious that he was not a Don Redman. Carter stayed
less than one year. By 1934, McKinney's Cotton Pickers disbanded.
Other musicians who played with the Cotton Pickers were
Sid Catlett, Rex Stewart, Benny Carter, Will Hudson, Eddie
Barefield, Ralph Escudero, George Thomas, Andy Gibson, and Gus
McClung.
Horace Heidt started his band in 1923, and right from
the beginning got some extraordinary good bookings. In New
York's Palace Theater, the audience response was so great
that the band stayed on for sixteen consecutive weeks.
Followed by three months in Monte Carlo.
The band travelled to the West Coast and was b ooked into
the Golden Gate Theater in San Francisco. For the next six
years, they were the resident band at the Drake Hotel in Chicago.
One of the features in the Horace Heidt arrangements were the tripletonguing trumpets.
Horace had a band of exceptionally talented jazz soloists,
Jess Stacy, Shorty Sherock, Frankie Carlson amd Joe Rushton. In
1945, however, Horace disbanded his group for an early retirement.
"Duke" Ellington's name was Edward Kennedy Ellington. The
nickname "Duke" had been given to him by a young friend back
in 1907, and it stuck. Duke's love for music began with the
piano. By the time he was eighteen years old, he was working
(just for variety) in clubs all around Washington, D.C., where
he was born. He eventually spread out to nearby cit ies with
different groups.
In 1923, Duke Ellington, along with Sonny Greer, Otto
Hardwicke, Arthur Whetsol and Elmer Snowden, received a telegram
from Wilbur Sweatman, a bandleader in New York, inviting them to
join his band. The band played one job and was disbanded.
Meanwhile, Ellington met Fats Waller, and told Fats that he and
his small group were looking for work. Fats got them a job
playing at the Kentucky Club. By this time Ellington had become
the leader of this group. The Kentucky Club engagement lasted
more than four years.
During this engagement, Ellington began increasing the
size of his band. This was a must if he wanted to stay in
competition with other big bands. His additions included,
Charlie Irvis, (trombone), James "Bubber" Miley, (trumpet). In
1926, Joe (Tricky Sam) Nanton, replaced Charlie Irvis who went
to join the Charlie Johnson Band. Louis Metcalf, (trumpet), Rudy
Jackson, (tenor sax), Harry Carney, (baritone sax), and Bass
Edwards, (tuba).
With his new augmented band intact, he made several recordings
that were instant hits. Under the guidance of Irving Mills,
Ellington's manager, the band was booked at New York's famous
Cotton Club in 1927. The following year, Johnny Hodges joined
the Ellingon band and sat in the lead alto sax chair until his
death in 1970.
Duke Ellington was so pleased and proud of his band, that
he constantly wrote arrangements featuring individual musicians.
"I Let A Song Go Out Of My Heart," featured Johnny Hodges, "Trumpet In
Spades," for Rex Stewart, "Yearning For Love," for Lawrence Brown,
"Clarinet Lament," for Barney Bigard, and "Concerto For Cootie," for
Cootie Williams. Lyrics were later added to this "Concerto For
Cootie." Al Hibbler, the sensational blind vocalist recorded his
first big hit under the titl e, "Do Nothin' Till You Hear From Me."
In 1939, Billy Strayhorn, join the band as chief arranger.
Ellington and Strayhorn wrote "Take The A Train," which became
the band's theme song.
Ellington wrote many songs which were instantly acclaimed by
the public. These included, "Satin Doll," "In A Sentimental Mood,"
"Sophisticated Lady," "Solitude," "Caravan," "Mood Indigo,"
and "Creole Love Song."
He also took pride in his extended jazz compositions.
Some of them are, "Black, Brown, and Beige," "Deep South Suite,"
"Harlem," "Liberian Suite," and his most talked about composition,
"Diminuendo and Crescendo In Blue," showcased at the Newport
Festival in 1956, and featuring Paul Gonsalves playing twenty -seven
choruses on his tenor sax.
Some of the musicians who played with the Duke Ellington orchestra
were, Harry Carney, Johnny Hodges, Juan Tizol, Rex Stewart, Cootie
Williams, Cats Anderson, Ray Nance, Lawrence Brown, Paul
Gonsalves, Clark Terry, Sonny Greer, Joe (tricky Sam) Nanton, Ben
Webster, Coleman Hawkins, Otto Hardwicke, Arthur Whetsol, Wellman
Braud, Oscar Pettiford, Louis Bellson, Barney Bigard, "Bubber" Miley,
Jimmy Blanton, and Billy Strayhorn.
Zack Whyte and his Chocolate Beau Brummels was one of the
few outstanding bands to play at the Alhambra Ballroom in New
York for its grand opening. The other bands to participate in
that event were Luis Russell, Benny Carter, the Missourians and
Charlie Johnson.
Whyte's nine-piece band made several recordings that included,
"When You're Smiling," "Goodnight, Sweetheart," and several
blues tunes. Members of the Zack Whyte band were Sy Oliver, Vic
Dickinson and Quentin Jackson.
Charlie "Doc" Cook, was an outstanding organist and pianist.
He received his music education at the American Conservatory in
Chicago. His fi rst band was ca lled "Co okie an d his Gi nger
Snaps," but, he soon changed the name to "Charlie Cook and his
fourteen Doctors of Syncopation."
The Cook Band found much work in the Chicago area. His
band frequently played the "Dreamland Cafe" and a weekly engagement
at the "Pier." "White City," a Chicago night club, was also
stomping grounds for the band.
They recorded several sessions for Gennett and Columbia
Records. The sides included, "So This Is Venice," "Love Found You
For Me," "Scissor Grinder Joe," and "T he One I Love belongs To
Somebody Else."
Band members were, Freddie Keppard, Jimmy Noone, William
Dawson, Billy Butler, Johnny St.Cyr, Bill Newton, Andrew
Hilare, Elwood Graham, Sterling Todd, and Fred Garland.
Cook, a disciplined man with outstanding arranging
abilities died in 1958 at the age of 67.
William "Chick" Webb was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and
grew up in poverty. An accidental fall in his infancy left him
deformed and crippled. To exercise his body, young Webb took
up playing the drums. By the time he was in his early twenties,
he had gotten a job playing with the Edward Dowell Band in New
York's Harlem section.
In 1926, Webb decided that he wanted to lead his own band.
He recruited Johnny Hodges, Bobby Stark, Benny Carter, Jimmy
Harrison and John Trueheart, calling this group "Chick Webb
and his Chicks." Webb's band found plenty of work in the New
York City area, alternating between the Savoy Ballroom and
Roseland Ballroom. During the 1930s, the Savoy Ballroom would
feature a "Battle of the Bands," pitting one band against
another. With the response from the audience, the Chick Webb band
always won.
Although Webb's band was extremely popular with the New
York audiences, his band didn't receive national recognition
until he hired a girl vocalist named Ella Fitzgerald and recorded
her singing, "A-Tisket, A-Tasket." The success of that one song
gave the band national prominance.
Webb recorded other hits of the time, such as, "Don't Be That
Way," "Blue Lou," "If Dreams Come True," "Love and Kisses, "
"Tain't Wha-cha Do," "Stomping At The Savoy," "Nitwit Serenade,"
"Bugle Call Rag," and "Music Hall Rag."
I n J u ne , 1 93 9, W e bb we nt to t he Jo h ns H o pk in s M ed i ca l
Center for a routine checkup and also to get help for pneumonia.
On June 16, the band leader who always came out victorious in the
"Battle of the Bands," died of tunerculosis of the spine. It was
considered a major loss to jazz and the big band swing era.
Members of the Chick Webb orchestra were, Wayman Carver, Joe
Steele, Taft Jordon, Reunard Jones, Pete Clark, John Kirby, John
Trueheart, Elmer Williams, Ella Fitzgerald, Mario Bauza, Will
Hudson, Edgar Sampson, Johnny Hodges, Bobby Stark, Benny Carter,
Jimmy Harrison and Don Kirkpatrick.
Hal Kemp formed his band in 1926. Well rehearsed with new.
arrangements, Hal took the band on the road throughout
several States. Their big opportunity came with a booking at the
Strand Roof in New York City. From there, the band moved into
the Manger Hotel for an extended engagement. They soon got
extensive engagements at the Blackhawk Cafe in Chicago, and had
regular air-time over radio station WGN.
Twice it was nominated as the best sweet band by readers
of the Metronome Magazine. Brunswick Records took the band in
to record some sides. The results were, "Got A Da te With An
Angel," "Hands Across The Table," "You're The Tops," "Heart
Of Stone," "It's Easy To Remember."
The band was enjoying the fruits of success, until that
fateful night on December 19, 1940, when Hal was driving his
car and had a head-on collison with another car. He died two
days later. Hal Kemp will always be remembered as having one
of the best sweet bands of all time.
The Casa Loma Orchestra was the fore-runner of the pre-swing
era for the big bands. Originally formed in 1927 under the
name of the Orange Blossoms, it was a territory band known o n l y
i n t h e D e t r o i t a r e a . B u t i n 1 9 3 0 , G l e n G r a y , w h o w a s playing
baritone sax, was appointed as its leader and changed its name to
the Casa Loma Orchestra.
New and exciting swing arrangements were written by its
chief arranger, Gene Gifford, such as, "Casa Loma Stomp,"
"Killer Diller," "White Jazz," "Blue Jazz," and "Black Jazz."
Along with some pretty ballads. "Under A Blanket Of Blue,"
"For You," "It's The Talk Of The Town," "No Name Jive," and
"Smoke Rings," which became the band's theme song.
The Casa Loma Orchestra became popular among the college
audiences, and many band leaders, black and white, were impressed
with the band's style and vitality. The orchestra was booked
into Roseland Ballroom in New York City, and colleges throughout the
East Coast where the radio stations
broadcasted from coast to coast.
Many members of the Casa Loma Orchestra branched out to
become leaders of their own big bands, namely, Larry Clinton,
Sonny Dunham, Peewee Hunt, Kenny Sargent, Frankie Carle, Tutti
Camarata, Herb Ellis, Red Nichols and Bobby Hackett.
By the mid-1940s, Glen Gray had disbanded the orchestra.
However, it was Dave Cavanaugh of Capitol Records who convinced
Glen to assemble a hand-picked group of studio musicians to
record the music of the best of the big bands. The album was a
financial success, and Glen again received offers to go on the
road again. But his preference was to retire and , stay at home
in Plymouth, Massachusetts, where he died of cancer in August
1963.
Claude Hopkins an accomplished pianist joined Wilbur Sweatman's
orchestra and travelled with them to New York in 1924.
Josephine Baker was preparing a European tour and hired Hopkins
to be her music director. After a couple of years on tour in
Europe, Hopkins returned home in Washington, D.C. where he
organized a small band of his own and got an engagement playing
the Crystal Cavern, in Washington, D.C.
In 1930, Hopkins brought his own band into the Coconut
Grove in Harlem, and then into the fam ous Savoy Ballroom in New
York City. The band became so popular with the New York audiences
that the Roseland Ballroom owners hired the band to play there
several times a year for the next four years.
One of the reasons for the success of the band was due
to the great arrangements his tromonist Fred Norman contributed.
This was a short-lived fame for the band. With Claude constantly
making changes in his personnel and a series of bad bookings
on the road, Hopkins decided to disband. After World War II,
Claude worked with a small combo playing the Metropole Cafe
in
New
York
with
Henry
"Red"
Allen,
Sol
Yaged
and
Wild
Bill
Davidson's jazz giants.
Jimmy Lunceford was born in Fulton, Missouri, but while
he was s till yo ung, his pare nt s moved to De nv er, Colo rado,
where he learned to play the trombone, clarinet, flute, guitar,
and saxophone. By the time he was in his early twenties, he
joined the only black band in Denver, which was led by George
Morrison. Also playing in the George Morrison band was Andy
Kirk, who was destined to be a great band leader in the future.
Occasionally, George Morrison would get two jobs on the
same day. When this happened, he would assemble another band
and have either Kirk or Lunceford act as leader for the assembled
band. Lunceford, however, was not content with playing in a
band that didn't work steadily So, he left the Morrison band
and headed for New York where he found work in the Wilbur
Sweatman and the Elmer Snowden bands.
By the late 1920s, Lunceford decided that he wanted his own
band. He organized musicians for his first ten-piece group. And
in 1930, he made his first recording on Victor Records
under the name of "Jimmy Lunceford and his Chickasaw syncopators."
The songs were, "In Dat Mawnin'," and "Sweet Rhythm."
The success of this first recording enabled Lunceford to
increase the size of his band. In 1933, Lunceford hired Sy
Oliver, an exceptionally talented arranger and trumpeter.
Oliver wasn't new to the band business. He worked previously
with the Zack Whyte and Speed Webb Bands.
Lunceford asked Oliver to write some arrangements for the
band. And for the next six years, the Lunceford library contained
some of the biggest hits ever recorded using Oliver's
arrangements. There were, "Swanee River," "Ain't She Sweet,"
"Organ Grinder's Swing," "For Dancers Only," "Margie," "Dream Of
You," and "My Blue Heaven."
Lunceford had other outstanding arrangers who made valuable
contributions to the band's success. Edwin Wilcox, pianist,
wrote "Impromtu," "Rhythm Is Our Business," "Flaming Reeds and
Screaming Brass," Eddie Durham, arranged, "Oh, Boy," "Birds Of
Paradise," and "Rhapsody Junior," with Eddie Wilcox, Willie
Smith scored, "Runnin' Wild," "Posin," "Put On Your Old Gray
Bonnet," and Billy Moore's blues arrangement on, "What's Your
Story, Morning Glory?."
Lunceford and his excellent band enjoyed the limelight
and popularity for the next few years. Then gradually, the
band began losing ground. First, there was the departure of
his key personnel. Sy Oliver, Gerald Wilson, Spooky Young,
Trummy Young and Willie Smith left the band for greener pastures.
Lunceford lost his desire to recoup the loss of those top players.
Second, rehearsals were sloppy and performances lost their
driving force. Finally, there was the emergence of other great bands
such as Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Benny Goodman, and Glenn
Miller.
In 1946, poor health began to take its toll on Jimmy Lunceford,
leaving Joe Thomas and Eddie Wilcox to front the band and play
out its remaining engagements. In 1947, Lunceford
died. Fortunately, his music has been preserved on records
and is available for all to hear.
Cab Call oway st arted hi s mus ic al caree r as a song and
dance act in Chicago, where he moved to from his home town of
Rochester, New York. In 1928, a band called Marion Hardy and
His Alabamians came to Chicago looking for work. Calloway
worked with the band and before long took over leadership of what
was to be his first band. In 1929, Calloway took the group to New
York.
Not being overly happy with the band's style and
performance, he left the group and assumed leadership with a more
professional band called the Missourians. It was a twelve -piece
band and had excellent musicians, such as R.Q. Dickerson, Lamar
Wright, Reuben Reeves, trumpets; Depriest Wheeler and Harry
White on trombones, making up the brass section. The reed
section included William Blue, Andrew Brown, and Walter "Foots"
Thomas. Earres Prince, piano; Charlie Stamps, banjo; Jimmy Smith,
tuba; and Leroy Maxey, drums.
The band had a steady, driving rhythm section that actually
made the band swing. The brass and reed sections executed
their passages with precision -like serformances. In 1930,
Brunswick Records recorded several selections with Cab Calloway
and His Missourians. Some of the most popular recordin gs were
"Minnie The Moocher," "Mood Indigo," "I Got Rhythm," "St. James
Infirmary," "Basis Street Blues," "Star Dust," "Kickin' The
Gong Around," "Corinne Corinna," and "Minnie The Moocher's
Wedding Day," "Some Of These Days," "Margie," and "Bugle Call Rag."
With the growth of the band's popularity, Calloway dropped
the name Missourians, and the band was rechristened Cab
Calloway and His Orchestra. The Band played frequent engagements
at the Cotton Club, the Savoy Ballroom, the Apollo Theater in
Harlem and the Roseland Ballroom on Fifty -Second Street in New
York City.
Cab Calloway however, was not very popular with the members
o f h i s b a n d . T h e y r e s e n t e d t h e f a c t t h a t a n o n- m u s i c i a n w a s
leading a band of top -level musicians. Calloway couldn't read
music, couldn't play any instrument and didn't know how to
properly rehearse the band. Calloway, they were quick to point
out was only a singer, a good one on some tunes and not so g o o d
on other songs. One of the main reasons he was able to
maintain a roster of the finest musicians was that he paid them
better than other leaders paid their sidemen. Also, he was capable
of keeping the band working steadily.
Under his direction, Calloway managed to get his band to
appear in three motion pictures. The Big Broadcast of 1933,
Stormy Weather (with Lena Horne) and Sensations of !945.
Other musicians who played with Cab Calloway included Dizzy
GillesPie, Illinois Jacquet, "Che" Berry, Jonah Jones, Cozy
Cole, Eddie Barefield, Jerry Blake, Hilton Jefferson, Danny
Barker, Milton Hinton, Oliver Cobb, Tyree Glenn, Shad Collins,
Keg Johnson, Benny Payne and vocalists June Richmond and Rosetta
Tharpe.
Pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines was born in Duquesne, Pennsylvania,
but move d to Ch icago at an e ar ly age. While i n Chicag o, Ea rl
played with groups such as Carrol Dickerson, Sammy Stewart,
Jimmy Noone and Louis Armstrong.
Around 1928, Hines noticed that ballroom doors all over
the country were opening up to the big bands. He heard the
Fletcher Henderson band, liked what he heard and decided he
wanted a band of his own.
He organized his first ten-piece band that year and was
fortunate enough to find some talented soloists including
Shirley Clay, (cornet,) William Franklin, (trombone,) Lester
Boone, Toby Turner and Cecil Irwin, (saxophones.)
Victor Records executives heard the new Earl Hines orchestra
and invited them to their studio. That first recording session
released, "Sweet Ella May," "Everybody Loves My Baby," "Good
Little, Bad Little You," "Have You Ever Felt That Way?," "Beau Koo,
Jack," "Sister Kate," "She's Funny That Way," "Mississippi, Here I
Am," "Ch icago R hythm," "It's A Preciou s Lit tl e Thing Called
Love," "I'm Looking For That Certain Man To Love," "Glad Rag Doll,"
"Grand Piano Blues," and "Blue Nights."
With the success of these recordings, Hines and his orchestra
were booked into the Grand Terrace Ballroom, a property of the
Al Capone organization, for the next twenty years.
In 1932, Earl added two more men to the band. Swing music
was in. Hot music was in. Big band jazz was in and Earl and
his band was playing them all to the public's delight. His
band kept the Grand Terrace Ballroom filled nightly, and of
course it kept the owners very happy.
In 1939, Hines took on Billy Eckstine as trumpeter and
vocalist. Eckstine's talents coupled with the success of the
recordings, helped to push the band toward national popularity.
The owners of the Grand Terrace Ballroom allowed the band to
travel and make appearances in other parts of the nation.
By 1940, Hines had expanded his band to eighteen musicians.
That was about as big as any "big band" could get. Then, in
1942, the "Swing Era" began to decline slightly as a new musical
form moved in. The new music was first called "Rebop," then
"Bebop," and finally, "Bop."
Earl Hines tried to change over to the new style but without
success. The results was that most of his key sidemen who were
getting into this new bop music, began to leave the Hines band
and move into the new fad. Among those making the exodus were
Billy Eckstine, who formed his own big band, and played the new
bop arrangements. Joining Billy were, Dizzy Gillespie, Budd
Johnson, Charlie Parker, Wardell Gray, Sarah Vaughn, Oscar
Pettiford, Freddy Webster, Shadow Wilson and Gerry Valentine.
Not being able to keep his remaining band together, Earl Hines
disbanded his group in 1948.
Sarah Vaughn born in Newark, New Jersey in 1924, started
her piano and organ lessons at the age of seven. During her
early school years she played in all of the school plays and
ceremonies. When she was eighteen, Sarah walked away with first
prize of ten dollars at an amateur contest at the Apollo Theater
in the Harlem section of New York.
Her vocal rendition of "Body and Soul," impressed the manager
of the theater and he gave her a one week engagement
at the Apollo. Billy Eckstine, vocalist with the Earl "Fatha"
Hines's band heard Sarah sing and got her the job as girl
vocalist and pianist with the Hines band.
Jazz critic, Leonard Feather was introduced to Sarah through
Dizzy Gillespie and arranged a recordi ng session with Guild
Records. Sarah recorded four sides and was paid twenty dollars a
side. With the success of this record date, she went on to Musicraft
Records, a larger label with wider distribution.
Sarah was gifted with "absolute pitch," meaning she could
hear a note or a chord mentally before playing it on the piano.
She used this talent to develop a rich, controllable tone with a
beautiful vibrato. As an outstanding jazz singer, she was classified
in the same category with Dinah Washington and Ella Fitzgerald.
Some of her biggest hits were, "Don't Blame Me," "Tenderly,"
"Broken Hearted Melody," "T Cover The Waterfront," "It's Magic" and
many more. She died in 1990, at the age of 66.
Other musicians with the Earl Hines band were, Jimmy Mundy,
Hayes Alvis, Quinn Wilson, Robert Crowder, Franz Jackson, George
Dixon, Lawrence Dixon, Henri Woode, Bingie Madison, Buster Harding,
Alex Hill and Benny Green.
Andy Kirk, while still a youngster moved to Denver, Colorado
with his family, where he obtained his music lessons on the
tuba and baritone saxophone. In the early 1920s, Andy got his
first band playing experience with the popular Denver band of
George Morrison.
There were occasions when George Morrison would have two
engagements for the same day, so he would assemble another
band and have Andy Kirk or Jimmy Lunceford, act as leader of the
second band.
In 1926, the Morrison band returned to Denver after a
successful road trip. Kirk then left the band and joined the
Terrence Holder Black Clouds of Joy where h e played tuba and
bass saxophone. In 1928, Holder had a domestic problem which
forced him to return to his Dallas, Texas home, leaving Andy
Kirk as the band's leader.
Kirk, knowing the importance of an arranger, hired Mary
Lou Williams to take over the piano seat and write some charts
for the band. In 1929, he renamed his band, "Andy Kirk and His
Twelve Clouds Of Joy."
While playing at the Crystal City Ballroom, in Tulsa,
Oklahoma, Kirk was approached by the owners of the Playmore
Ballroom in Kansas City, who signed him to play there for the
summer of 1929.
In the fall of the same year, Kirk recorded his first
session on the Brunswick label. The sides included, "Mesa Stomp,"
"Corky Stomp," "Blues Clarinet Stomp," "Casey Jones Special,"
and "Froggie Bottom."
For the next five years, Andy Kirk and His Twelve Clouds
Of Joy were busy playing engagements throughout the country.
They played the Roseland and Savoy Ballrooms in New York, ballrooms
in Pennsylvania, the Pearl Theater in Philadelphia, the El
Torean Ballroom and Fairyland Park in Kansas City, several shows
in Little Rock, Arkansas, then to Memphis, Tennessee to play at Fair
Park. Back in Kansas City, the band
was booked at Vanity Fair, one of the most exclusive night
clubs in the city.
In 1935, Kirk was summoned to the New York recording
studios of Decca, a new company owned by Jack Kapp. One of the
tunes recorded at that session was a new ballad titled "Until
The Real Thing Comes Along," with a beautiful vocal by Pha Terrell.
The record was such a tremendous hit, that the band's popularity
skyrocketed. Every ballroom, nightclub, theater and riverboat was
begging to book Andy Kirk and His Twenve Clouds Of Joy into their
room. In a very short time, the record sold over a million copies.
The financial success of that one recording kept the band
together for the next twelve years. During that time, they
recorded other hits. "Little Joe From Chicago," and "Walkin' and
Swingin' ." By 1 947, Kir k rea li zed the big b an d swing era w as
fading, and he decided to call it quits while he was still on top.
The author's friendship with Andy Kirk goes back to the
late 1960s. He was a quiet, mild mannered gentleman who never
had a harsh word to say about anyone. His contribution to the
advancement of jazz, leading into the swing era, will live with
us forever. Andy Kirk died on December 11, 1992 at the age of 94.
Shep Fields got his start in 1929, in New York City where he
organized his first band. It was the most unusual band of its
kind. A thirteen piece group consisting of woodwinds, saxes and a
rhythm section, but no brass.
Shep Fields and His Rippling Rhythm got its name from the
sound of air being blown through a straw into a glass of water.
By the end of 1936, his recording of "Plenty Of Money and You,"
was a big hit.
After World War II, Fields reorganized his band into a more
conventional type with brass. It was generally regarded, however,
as a "Mickey-Mouse" band, a label that remained until Fields
retired from the music business.
The Jeter-Pillars band was the only co-leadership band
that stayed together from start to finish. Other bands tried
with two leaders, but all of them failed in their endeavors.
There were the Dorsey Brothers, the McFarlane Twins, Coon-Sanders,
Hudson-Delange and the Nighthawks.
James Jeter and Hayes Pillars had been friends since early
boyhood days. It all started in 1931, when James, Hayes and his
b r ot h er C h ar le s w er e p la y in g in th e r ee d s ec ti o n o f Al p ho ns o
Trent's Band. When Trent's band felt the pangs of the depression,
they disbanded. However, Jeter and Pillars got a band of their
own together and were booked for six weeks at the Club Plantation
in St. Louis. The new band members included Harry "Sweets" Edison,
(trumpet) Walter Page, (bass), Jo Jones (drums).
They remained at the Club Plantation for the next ten years. As
the crowd grew larger the club expanded the showroom and the
band grew from its original six-piece group to a fourteen piece
orchestra.
During World War II, the Jeter-Pillars Band toured the
South Pacific, entertaining troops
and playing arrangements
written by Sy Oliver. On their return to the United States
in 1946, they were confronted with the inevitable rapid decline in
the popularity of big bands. They decided to disband in 1947.
After a short vacation, they both went to work for the AnheuserBusch Brewery in St. Louis.
CHAPTER TWELVE
PRE-SWING ERA
Don Redman, a highly talented musical genius with a
thorough knowledge of harmony, theory, composition and arranging,
made a strong impact on the big band scene. When Redman joined
the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in 1924, his arrangements were
a boom to the popularity of the Henderson band. Redman utilized the
talents in the band, including those of Louis Armstro ng on tr umpet ,
Coleman Hawki ns on teno r sax op hone and Kaiser Mars hall on
drums. Most of his arrangements featured these soloists.
In 1927, Redman left the Henderson band to take over M c K i n n e y ' s
C o t t o n P i c k e r s O r c h e s t r a . T h e b a n d s o o n b e c a m e popular among
the big lands of that time. With his guidance a n d d i r e c t i o n ,
t h e b a n d r e c o r d e d h i t a f t e r h i t , i n c l u d i n g "There's A Rainbow
'Round My Shoulder," "Save It, Pretty Mama,"
"I Heard," "Sweet Leilani," "Gee Baby, Ain't I Good To You,"
and his popular theme song "Chant Of The Weed."
In 1932, after leaving the McKinney Orchestra, Redman
formed his first big band and played at Connie's Inn, in New
York City. The band was an immediate success and in 1933, the
Don Redman Orchestra was the first black group to do a coast to-coast radio broadcast on the N.B.C. network.
However, in 1940, Don disbanded his orchestra to do freelance
arranging. He arranged for the Dorsey Brothers, Paul Whiteman,
Vincent Lopez, Bobby Byrne and many more.
In 1951, Redman was the chief arranger and musical director
for vocalist Pearl Bailey. He was also an outstanding musician. In
addition to his saxophone, he played the trumpet, trombone,
violin, piano, drums and bass. On November 30, 1963, Don Redman
died.
Sammy Kaye started his first band in 1933 and came up with
the slogan, "Swing and Sway with Sammy Kaye." The band was an
overnight success, with its first major booking being at the
Commodore Hotel in New York. From there, they played theaters
and ballrooms such as Roseland in New York, and the Meadowbrook
in New Jersey.
An outstanding feature which contributed to its success, was
an audience participation of "So You Want To Lead A Band?."
Contestants, picked from the audience would try their skill at
leading the band. The winner would be determined by the
audience's applause.
Sammy recorded three hit records that gave the band a
measure of finacial success, they were, "Daddy," "Harbor Lights,"
and the Don Cornell vocal on "It Isn't Fair." Sammy was very
busy and active during the swing era, however, his contribution
2
towards the history of jazz was negligible. Sammy Kaye died in
1987 at the age of 74.
Charlie Barnet began his saxophone playing at the age of
twelve. In 1933, Charlie formed his first professional band,
and was proud of the fact that he was one of the first white
leaders to have black musicians in his band. There were Roy
Eldridge, Charlie Shavers, Benny Carter and Frankie Newton,
with Lena Horne as vocalist.
Barnet patterned his band after the style of Duke Ellington,
using many of the Duke's arrangements. In 1939, "Cherokee" was
recorded and from then on the Charlie Barnet orchestra became
famous. The band was booked into many ballrooms and theaters and
played in some hotels. However, they were not welcomed into some
hotels because of the black musicians.
Charlie always had his eyes open for good talent, and
when he found them, they became members of the band. There were
Billy May, (trumpet and arranger), Neal Hefti, (trumpet and arranger),
Ralph Burns, (piano and arranger), Skippy Martin, (saxophone and
arranger), Buddy DeFranco, (saxophone), Dodo Marmarosa, (piano),
Barney
' Kessler,
(guitar), Oscar Pettiford, (bass), and trumpeters
Doc Severinsen, Jimmy Nothingham, Clark Terry, Peanuts Holland and
Al Killian. Trummy Young, (trombone), Fran Warren, Kay Starr, Mary
Ann McCall, Frances Wayne and Lena Horne were girl vocalists. Bob
Carroll and Charlie Barnet did
the male vocals.
- The Charlie Barnet Orchestra had their share of recorded
hits, "Skyliner," "Pompton Turnpike," "West End Blues," "Redskin
Rumba," "Southern Fried," and "Wings Over Manh attan." However,
by the late 1940s, with the decline of the big bands and the
fading swing era, Charlie disbanded his orchestra and directed his
attention to the music publishing business.
Harlen Leonard played sax and was good enough at it that
by the time he was twenty years old, he was a featured soloist
with the Bennie Moten band in 1924.
In 1941, Leonard and trombonist Thamon Hayes, after leaving the
Bennie Moten group decided to front their own band. Although it was
a joint leadership, the band was named "The Thamon Hayes Orchestra." The
band was short-lived. Not finding any engagements, the group was
dissolved.
Leonard, determined to have his own band in 1937, formed
a group and called it, "Harlen Leonard and His Rockets." It was a
good swinging band with outstanding sidemen in its sections.
There were, Charlie (The Bird) Parker, Henry Bridges, Fred
Beckett, William H. Smith, James Ross, and Ernest Williams.
Writing the arrangements for the band were Jesse Stone,
Eddie Hurham, Buster Smith and Tadd Dam eron. In 1940, the Rockets
took off for Chicago from their Kansas City hometown to record
for the Bluebird label. Their first session included, "Rockin' With
The Rockets," Hairy Joe Jump," "Contact," "My Gal Sal," and
"Skee."
The band was booked regularly at the Savoy and the Aragon
Ballrooms in Chicago, and at New York's famous Golden Gate
nightclub. The band's popularity grew and Bluebird Records was
ready for another session. The sides recorded were, "Rock and
Ride," "Keep Rockin'," "Snaky Feeling," "Ride My Blues Away,"
"Parade of The Stompers," and "Mistreated."
World War II took away most of the Rockets Key personnel,
leaving Leonard no choice but to disband completely in 1945.
Harlen Leonard was primarily a territory band and not fully
appreciated by the public outside of his area. However, it must
be noted that he and his Rockets made a major contribution to big
band jazz in the swing era.
Other Rockets were, Jesse Price, Richard J. Smith, Rozell
Claxton, Darwin Jones, Jimmy Keith, Edward Johnson, Richmond Henderson,
William S. Smith, Effergee Ware, and Winston Williams.
Tiny Bradshaw had one of the finest territory bands that came
out of Harlem. The band's library was made up of fast swinging
jazz arrangements. All of Bradshaw's vocals were backed with a
hard-driving rhythmic background.
Bradshaw organized his band in 1934, and was a New York
favorite for the next fifteen years. The first eight sides recorded
on Decca Records were vocals by Bradshaw. The next recording
session featured the band's ability to play rhythm and blues,
boogie-woogie, and up-tempo swing tunes.
The session included, "Shout, Sister, Shout," "Darktown's
Strutters' Ball," "01' Man River," "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy,"
"The Sheik Of Araby," "Bradshaw Bounce," "Off and On," "Mailman's
Sack Boogie," "Well, Oh Well," and "Straighten Up and Fly Right."
Bradshaw continued making records until his death in 1958.
The band's personnel were, Shad Collins, Happy Caldwell,
George Matthews, Russell Procope, "Big Nick" Nichols, Talib
Daawud, Count Hastings, Bill Johnson, George Dorsey, Bobby
Plater, Sonny Stitt, Gigi Gryce, Joe Allston and Jack Raggs.
Kay Kyser got together a group of fine musicians and formed
a band in 1934. With the help of Hal Kemp, Kay was booked into
the Blackhawk Restaurant in Chicago, where he would broadcast
nightly on Station WGN.
It was at this time the name "Kay Kyser's College of
Musical Knowledge" was born. Kyser enjoyed his good share of
popularity, and was financially solvent when the band recorded,
"Three Little Fishes," "Who Wouldn't Love You," and the most
popular record of all time, "Praise The Lord and Pass The Ammunition."
In 1942, Kay Kyser and Georgia Carroll, vocalist with the
band got married in Las Vegas and both quit the band business
and settled down to a happy life in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
When Louis Armstrong left Joe "King" Oliver's band in 1924
to join the Fletcher Henderson orchestra in New York, something
new was about to develop. With Armstrong's technical ability in
improvisations, his inventive ideas of phrasing and articulation, his
knowledge of knowing how to change a melodic pattern and knowing
where to add embellishments, Louis was a formitable addition to the
Henderson brass section.
Don Redman, the chief arranger for the Henderson orchestra
used Louis' talents in all the arrangements he scored. With Armstrong
taking the lead in the trumpet section, he provided a driving
force for the brass and reed sections.
The members of the band noticed the difference in their
performance. They got the feeling that the band played the
arrangements with a swinging effect. Thus, the word "swing"
was born.
Swing became a new style of jazz music. Don Redman taught
Fletcher Henderson who was an accomplished arranger himself, how
to rehearse the band and mak e the arrangements swing. A Don
Redman formula for a swinging big band arrangement was to harmonize
a solo line for the brass and reed sections for the f i r s t
c h or u s. T h e se co n d c ho ru s w ou ld fe a tu re a so lo i st fr om e i t h e r
s e c t i o n . T h e b a n d w o u l d p l a y a b a c k g r o u n d p h r a s e t o support
the soloist. This middle section or the second chorus c o u l d b e
extended to accommodate as many soloists as the arranger
d e s i r e d . T h e l a s t c h o r u s w o u l d h a v e t h e s e c t i o n s alternate
playing an embellished solo, with the full band playi ng together for
the finale.
Henderson was not an innovator of music. Being among the
first to build a big band during the jazz era, he was content to
play music the public was acquainted with. He believed in following the
trend. Much of his early big band arrangements f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y
t h e N e w O r l e a n s s t y l e o f m u s i c . D u r i n g t h e 1925-1928 years, he
made some recordings using the name "Fletcher Henderson and His Dixie
Stompers."
Fletcher, a talented musician and arranger, was not an
organizer, or a good leader. His musician had little respect
for him as a big-band leader. He would never discipline his men,
and he knew very little about how to manage the business end
of the band. On the bandstand, the musicians would wear whatever
they felt like wearing, and did not dress as an organized unit.
During the playing of an arrangement, some of the men, if they
didn't feel like playing, they wouldn't. They would smoke or
look at other music in the book. There have been occasions
when some of them came on the job drunk and literally fell off the
bandstand.
"Smack" Henderson, as he was nicknamed, very often would be
so intrigued by a soloist's improvisations that he would
actually stop playing the piano to listen to the music. The lack
of discipline and the apathetical attitude of his men can best
be exemplified when the band had a recording session date at
Columbia Records scheduled for 10:30 AM, yet, it was not until
well into the afternoon before the last man arrived at the
studio.
In the early 1930s, Henderson was in an auto accident,
which forced him out of the band business for several years.
Needing money to pay his medical bills, he sold several of his
arrangements to Benny Goodman, who was forming his band in 1934.
In 1935, Henderson organized a new band and got an
engageme nt at t he Rosel and B al lroom in New Yo rk. This band
stayed together playing engagements wherever it could find work,
until 1939, when his health began to fail, forcing him to give up
the band again.
By the winter of 1942, he formed another band and appeared
at the Grand Terrace Ballroom in Chicago on New Year's Eve.
The band played many engagements within the Chicago area. Then
in 1950, Henderson had a stroke which left him paralyzed and
confined to his bed until his death in 1952.
Among the musicians who played in the Fletcher Henderson
Orchestra at one time or another were, Don Redman, Benny Carter,
Coleman Hawkins, Ben Webster, Chu Berry, Buster Bailey, Tommy
Ladnier, Rex Stewart, Henry "Red" Allen, Roy Eldridge, Joe
Smith, Jimmy Harrison, Charlie Green, Benny Morton, Claude Jones,
Dixie Wells, Kaiser Marshall, Sid Catlett, Edgar Sampson, J.C.
Higginbottom, John Kirby, Louis Armstrong, Bobby Stark, and Henderson's
younger brother, Horace.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
THE SWING ERA
,
Benny Goodman was well established and known for his
musical ability before he came to New York in 1928 to work in
the Ben Pollack Band. Benny's musical education began in 1919
at the Kehelah Jacob Synagogue. The following year he joined
the Boy's Club at Jane Addams Hull House. He received private
instruction on classical clarinet techniques from Franz Schoepp.
During his Austin High School days in 1922, Benny played
with Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland, Frank Teschemacher and Dave
Tough. Still in his early teens, Benny played with as
many groups as he could get in to. One of his biggest excitement
came when he played on an excursion boat with Bix Beiderbecke
who was in the same band. Beiderbecke taught Goodman much about
playing, phrasing, intonation and breathing.
Goodman stayed with Ben Pollack's Band in New York for one
year. From 1929 to 1934, he was a studio musician, working with
Red Nichols, Paul Whiteman, Ted Lewis and Johnny Green.
In 1934, Goodman formed his first twelve-piece band with
three saxes, five brass and four rhythm. He then bought 36
arrangements from Fletcher Henderson. Rehearsals were the next
order of business for the Benny Goodman Orchestra. In 1935,
Victor Records recorded a Fletcher Henderson arrangement of "King
Porter Stomp." The record was an immediate hit.
When the band played one full set of Henderson's arrangements
at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles, the audience went wild
with exc iteme nt . They c ouldn 't get eno ugh o f that new musi c
called "swing." And so it was, on the night of August 21, 1935, that
the Swing Era was born.
The teenagers danced the lindy, jitterbug and bobby-soxers
were doing the big apple and the shag. In 1935, Goodman became
the "King of Swing." Goodman, it might be added, was among the
first to break the color barrier. Up to this point, black and
white musicians were not allowed to work together in the same
band. However, when it came to music, Goodman stated, "I don't
look at the color of a man's skin, I listen to what he can do
with his instrument." Therefore, Teddy Wilson, a bl ack pianist
was added to the Benny Goodman Orchestra.
The Goodman trio consisted of Goodman, (clarinet), Teddy
Wilson, (piano), and Gene Krupa, (drums). Shortly after that,
Goodman added another black musician to the trio--Lionel Hampton,
(vibes), making it a quartette. The quartette was augmented to a
sextet when he added Charlie Christian, (guitar), and another
black musician Cootie Williams, (trumpet).
From 1936 to 1939, the band was at its peak. The musicians
in the band were Vito Musso, Hymie Schertzer, Arthur Rollini,
and George Koenig, (saxophones), Harry James, Ziggy Elman and
Chris Griffin, (trumpets), Red Ballard and Murray McEachern,
(trombones), Harry Goodman, (Benny's brother on bass), Allan
Reuss, (guitar), Jess Stacy, (piano), and Gene Krupa, (drums).
Fletcher Henderson, Edgar Sampson and Jimmy Mundy were the arrangers.
January 16, 1938, New York's Carnegie Hall was the location for
one of the great swing band concerts with the Benny Goodman Orchestra.
This was the first time any big band ever played there.
The program opened with Edgar Sampson's composition and
arrangement of "Don't Be That Way," followed with "Sometimes
I'm Happy," and Count Basie's "One O'Clock Jump." The first set
ended with a standing ovation from the audience.
The second set was labeled "twenty years of jazz." It began
with a dixieland tune, "Sensation Rag," and included "I'm Coming
Virginia," "When My Baby Smiles At Me," "Shine," "Blue Reverie,"
and Harry James' explosive rendition of "Life Goes To A Party."
The third set was a jam session on the tune, "Honeysuckle Rose"
which went on for twenty minutes. It featured Count Basle, (piano),
Buck Clayton, (trumpet), Lester Young, (tenor sax), Walter Page,
(bass), and Freddy Green, (guitar).
Following the jam session, the Goodman trio played a couple
of tunes, "Tiger Rag," and "body and Soul." With the full band
back on stage, they played more show-stopping tunes. There was
Martha Tilton singing "Loch Lomond," and the classic "And The
Angels Sing," which featured a great trumpet solo by Ziggy Elman.
The real show stopper and the finale of the evening was "Sing,
Sing, Sing," with a fantastic trumpet solo by Harry James, and
the unmatched greatness of Gene Krupa's drumming. There was an
ovation that was never before heard in Carnegie Hall.
CARNEGIE HALL PROGRAM
SEASON 937-t938
FIRE NOTICE—Look around now And choose the nearest exit to
your seat. In case d fire walk (not run) to that Exit. Do not try
to beat your neighbor to the street.
JOHN J. McEutcorr, Firc Comro:urionrr
CARNEGIE HALL
Sunday Evening, January 16th. at 8:30
S .
HUROK
presents
(by arrangvnicnt tvith Music Corporation n( America)
BENNY GOODMAN
and his
SWING ORCHESTRA
-Don't Bc That Way..., Edgar Satopsoo
"Sometimes I'm Happy- (From "Hit the Deck...) .. Irving Carrar
Vinrrot l'aumani
"One O'clock Jump•ill1;rot (Coffin) /lash
TWENTY YEARS Or JAll
"Scnsation Rag- .(
P R O G R A M
p l an
C O N T I N U E D
1917 by the
O N
S E C O N D
Jazz Banda
E. B. Edward,.
P A G E
F O L L O W I N G
•
•
PROGRAM CONTINUED
m Cnlin, Virginia- (.1:. played
When My lUby
926 Ii
Kix" Iteiderbecket
Cooke-Heywood -
2( Mc- (as played C. 1927 by fed Lewis;
Manro-Srerling-Irrer.r
-Shine- (as played
1929 by Louis Ann:strong) hfinA-Brown-Dahnr.t-
"BILIC Reverie"
.. Duke Ellington
-Life Goes to a Party"
,.. Harry lames-Benny Gnadrnan
1AM SESSION
Colkylive inprovision by a grotspIdmiloists to he announcell.
Thr length of the session is indrlerminatc. and may include
tal c ii r
InneN.
IV.
-Tiger Rag.'
"Itmly and Soo!"
NA-k J i Rnera
John Green
The Goodman Trio
•
T e d d y W i lson , P i an o
Gene Krupa. Drums
Benny Grw.1111.1n, Clarinet
PROGRAM CONTINUED ON SECOND PAGE FOLLOWING
V.
"Avalon" .
falinn-lfirieent Rose
"The Man I Love" (from "Strike Up the Band").
George and Ira Gershwin
'1 Gut Rhythm' (from "Girl Cf zy" )............George and Ira Gershiein
The Goodman Quartet
Wilson, Krupa. Goodman and Lionel Hampton. Vihraplrane

•
•
— Intermission
Vt.
"Blue Skies"
Erring Berlin
"Loch Lomond"
.Traditionai Scotch
•
VII.
"Blue Room" (from "The Girl Friend")
.
"Swingtimc in the Rockies"...
.
"Fki Mir Rist du Sehoen"
.
Richard Rodgers
and Lorena Hart
leaner Mundy
laeobs-Sretnnia-Calnt•Chaplin
VTIL
"Who" (from "Sunny") ......
......
Jerome Kern-Otto Hartwell
.
"Dinah"
"Stompin' at the Savoy" .
"I'm
Ding bong Daddy"..
..
.
.
Goodman Trio and Quartet
PROGRAM CONTINUE!) ON PAGE
II
Harry ..41(v'
Edgar Sam pins.
Phil Baxter
A few weeks after the concert, a dispute arose between
Goodman and Krupa. Krupa decided to quit and form his own band.
Then early in 1939, Harry James sat down with Goodman and told
him he also would like to front his own band. Goodman helped
James with financial assistance and his blessings.
By 1942, World War II took away many of Benny's key sidemen.
Goodman however, kept up as best as he could with replacements,
until 1946, when he finally gave up, knowing that the swing era had
ended and the bop revolution had taken over.
William "Count" Basie, was born in Red Bank, New Jersey.
At an early age he took up playing the piano. By the time he was
sixteen years old, Basie was travelling with th e Gonzel White
Minstrel Show. In the late 1920s, the minstrel group disbanded
after playing their last engagementin Kansas City.
Basie, being broke and over a thousand miles away from
home, got a job playing piano at the Eblon Theater accompanying a
silent film. It didn't take long for word to get out about
Basie's piano playing. Walter Page, the leader of the Blue Devils
Orchestra asked the Count to join the band.
When Walter Page and His Blue Devils broke up in 1929,
Basie was immediately hired to play in the Bennie Moten Orchestra,
which was considered to be the best band in Kansas City. That
group consisted of outstanding musicians such as, Harlen Leonard,
Woodie Walder and Jack Washington on saxes, Hot "Lips" Page, Ed
Lewis and Booker Washington played trumpets, on trombone were
Thamon Hayes and Eddie Durham, the rhythm section included, Basie,
(piano), Leroy Berry, (guitar), Willie McWashington,
(drums), and Walter Page, (bass), Jimmy Rushing was the vocalist.
Baste stayed with the band until 1935, when Bennie Moten
died while having his tonsils removed. Basie organized a small
combo and got an engagement playing at the Reno Club in Kansas
City. The Club's owners were so impressed with the Count's
group, that they gave Basie permission to augment it into a
big band.
Basie added Walter Page, Jack Washington, Jo Jones, Buster
Smith and Lester Young. That original small combo grew into a ninepiece band, with three saxes, three brass and three rhythm. I n
a d d i t i o n t o i t s r e g u l a r e n g a g e m e n t t h e b a n d b r o a d c a s te d
nightly on Radio Station WQXBY from the Reno Club.
One night, John Hammond a popular music critic and the son
of the family that owned the Hammond Organ Company, heard Count
Basie's new band on his car radio. Hammond was impressed with the
Basie band. He called Benny Goodman, who at the time was establishing
himself as a big band leader and asked Goodman to meet with him
so that together they could talk to Basie, ask him to expand
his band and come to New York for an east coast debut.
The Count was excited about the offer and immediately made the
addition to his new full size big band. The added personnel
included, Oran "Hot Lips" Page, Joe Keyes and Buck Clayton, (trumpets),
George Hunt, Dan Minor and Eddie Durham, (trombones), Buster Smith,
Lester Young, Jack Washington and Hershel Evans, (s axes), w hile
the rhyt hm se ct ion was compr is ed of Jo Jone s, (drums), Walter
Page, (bass), Freddy Green, (guitar), and Basie on piano.
This band opened its first engagement at the Roseland Ballroom
in New York City in 1936. The audience did not accept the Basie
band warmly. Some conjecture by music critics were that the
public was not familiar with this new big band sound
and the audience did not approve of the musical treatments of
their favorite songs, "Shoe Shine Boy ," "Lady Be Good,"
"Honeysuckle Rose," or "Tea For Two." Another speculation was
that perhaps they took offense that an all black band was playing
in their white territory. However, this theory was quickly dispelled,
when Benny Goodman with his all white b and playing at the
Roosevelt Hotel in a white neighborhood, got the same chilly
reception.
Basie determined to make it in the "Big Apple," got a
booking at the Famous Door on Fifty-Second Street, already
known as the "Street of Jazz." It was a different br eed of
audience that frequented the Fifty-Second Street hot spots.
They understood and enjoyed the Basie band's rendition of "Pennies
From Heaven," "One O'Clock Jump," or "Moten Swing."
Basie became an immediate success, and was certainly at
the roots of the Swing Era, along with Benny Goodman. In 1937,
Basie recorded the "One O'Clock Jump," which became his first
big hit. Contributing to that successful recording were the outstanding
solos of Buck Clayton, (trumpet), and Hershel Evans, (tenor sax).
During this period of success, Billie Holiday join the
Count's band, but stayed a very short time, because of a conflict
with manager John Hammond. Jimmy Rushing was the star vocalist
for the band and made many successful recordings including,
"Every Tub," "Send For You Yesterday," "Reinhardt, Reinhardt,"
and "I'm Gonna Move To The Outskirts Of Town."
Rushing stayed with the Basie Band for fifteen years,
during the 1930-1940 period. Joe Williams followed into the
vocal spot and recorded such hits as, "Every Day," "All Right,
You Win."
Personnel of the Count Basie Band were, Lester Young,
Buck Clayton, Harry "Sweets" Edison, Thad Jones, Benny Morton,
J.C. Higginbottom, Vic Dickinson, Buddy Tate, Henry Coker,
Johnny Hodges, Peewee Russell, Roy Eldridge, Bud Shank, Jo Jones,
Freddy Green, Walter Page, Trummy Young, Frank Foster, Frank
Wess, Joe Newman, Hershel Evans, Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis, Dixie
Wells and vocalists Jimmy Rushing, Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald
and Joe Williams.
Jan Savitt formed his first band in 1935 in Philadelphia.
The band gained popularity while on the road, as the audiences
accepted his style of music which featured slow ballads, swing
and jazz.
Jan Savitt and His Top Hatters, as the band was called, recorded
several top hits that kept the group in the limelight, hits such
as, "720 In The Book," "Horizon," "Blues In The Groove," "That's
A Plenty," "Kansas City Moods," and his most popular hit "Quaker
City Jazz." The Top Hatters stayed together until 1948, when Jan
Savitt died of a cerebral Hemorrhage.
Erskine Hawkins got his first big break in 1935 when
booking agent Joe Glaser got him an engagement to play at the
Grand Terrace Ballroom in Chicago. The audience received the
band with enthusiam. Following the Chicago engagement, the band
moved into the Harlem Opera House in New York City.
In 1937, Joe Glaser turned over the band's booking
engagements to Moe Gale, who managed to keep the band working
for at least fifty weeks a year. He also arranged a recording
contract with Victor Records.
In 1939, Erskine Hawkins and his orchestra experienced
their first big record hit. The song was, "Tuxedo Junction."
It didn't take long for the other tunes recorded by the band
to become acceptable to the public. Songs like, "King Porter
Stomp," "Rockin' Rollers' Jubilee," "Hot Platter," "Swingin'
On Lenox Avenue," and "Miss Hallelujah Brown," were high on
the charts.
Hawkins, billing himself as the twentieth-century Gabriel,
became a permanent fixture at the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem.
The public couldn't seem to get enough of this band and their
style of music.
Future record dates resulted in more hits, "Sweet Georgia
Brown," "Gin Mill Special," "Midnight Stroll," "After Hours,"
"Nona" and "Hey Doc."
The Erskine Hawkins band was so attached to the environment
of the Savoy Ballroom after playing there for over ten years
that when the Savoy Ballroom closed its doors in 1950, the Erskine
Hawkins Orchestra disbanded. They did manage to hang on for five
years after the swing era came to a close in 1945.
Members of the Hawkins band included, Heywood Henry, Sam
Lowe, William Johnson, Jimmy Mitchell, Bob Range, Bobby Johnson,
Avery Parrish, Julian Dash, Paul and Dud Bascomb, Michael Wood and
Leroy Kirkland.
Bob Crosby took over leadership of the remnants of Ben
Pollack's band after Ben decided to quit and help develop his
wife's singing career. Bob, in 1935 while in New York, added
the necessary musicians to complete the band and was ready to
accept any success that would be forthcoming.
After playing several engagements in New York, the band
was called in to do some recordings on the Decca Label. Crosby's
success wasn't far off. From the record date came the "Muskrat
Ramble," and "Dixieland Shuffle." The band took on the New Orleans
dixieland style of playing with great success.
Other record sessions included, "South Rampart Street
Parade," and "Big Noise From Winnetka." The band had regular
bookings in Chicago's Congress Hotel, Ritz-Carlton Hotel in
Boston, Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles, Blackhawk Restaurant
In CHicago, Hotel Pennsylvania in New York, and many other
entertainment clubs.
Within Crosby's big band was a dixieland group that he
called his Bob Cats, they were, Yank Lawson, (trumpet), Nappy
Lamare, (guitar), Bob Haggart, (bass), Ray Bauduc, (drums),
Warren Smith, (trombone), Irving Fazola, (clarinet), Eddie
Miller, (tenor sax), and Gil Rodin, (alto sax).
The original big band was forced to break -up when Crosby
and several of the members had to report for military service in
1942. After his discharge from the military in 1946, Crosby
made several unsuccessful attempts to reunite a big band.
Finally, realizing that the big band era was waning, he went
into radio and television as announcer and master of ceremonies.
Bob Crosby was a fortunate man, being in the right p lace,
at the right time, and for a person who was not a musician had
openly admitted, "I'm the only guy in the business, who made
it without any talent." We might add that having Bing Crosby as a
brother, didn't hurt.
Jimmy Dorsey, along with his younger b rother Tommy, organized
a small group called Dorsey's Novelty Six, and another group,
Dorsey's Wild Canaries. Both groups were quickly dissolved.
Jimmy, going out on his own, played with the Scranton Sirens. I n
1924, Jimmy joined an east coast dance band called the
California Ramblers.
From 1925 to 1934, Jimmy was a freelance musician in New York
playing with various bands from time to time. He worked with
Paul Whiteman, Vincent Lopez, Jean Goldkette, Bix Beiderbecke and
Red Nichols.
In 1934, Jimmy and Tommy decided to form their own band,
and named it the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra. That however, was a
short-lived venture. With Tommy's explosive temper and a personality
clash between the brothers, Tommy packed up his trombone and quit
the band.
Jimmy took up sole leadership and the band was rechristened
the Jimmy Dorsey Orchestra. Jimmy set out to build the finest
dance and swing band that he could. He obtained arrangers
Larry Clinton, Joe Lippman, Bobby Van Eps, Toots Camarata and
Fud Livingston to write the charts. The outstanding trombonist
Bobby Byrne filled the chair that Tommy vacated.
The band made some excellent recordings on Decca Records
featuring Bobby Byrne's solo on "In A Sentimental Mood," "Deep
Purple," and "Body and Soul." Jimmy's contribution to the swing
era days were, "Stompin' At The Savoy," "Don't Be That Way,"
and "Major and Minor Stomp."
Next, Jimmy set out to find singers to do the vocals. In
1938, he used June Richmond, a black girl singer who was formally
with Cab Calloway. She stayed for a short period, and quit to
join Andy Kirk's band. Following June was Ella Mae Morse, who
stayed on for about one month. Then came the discovery of two of
the greatest boy-girl singing duos, Bob Eberly and Helen O'Connell.
Hit after hit came out of the record sessions with Jimmy's
band and Bob and Helen's vocals. There were, "Green Eyes," "Amapola,"
"Yours," and "Tangerine."
The War years between 1942-1945 took its toll on the band with
many of them leaving for the service. Jimmy however, managed to
hang on with whatever replacements he could find. Then in 1957,
Jimmy recorded "So Rare." The record became an immediate success,
and while it was one of the most played record on the radio and
still climbing up on the charts, Jimmy died of cancer on June 12,
1957. He was fifty-three years old.
Tommy Dorsey and his brother Jimmy were co-leaders of
Dorsey's Novelty Six and Dorsey's Wild Canaries. Tommy left
the group to join the Scranton Sirens from Pennsylvania. Tommy
also had occasions to work with the Paul Whiteman and Jean
Goldkette Orchestras.
In 1934, Tommy and Jimmy fronted the Dorsey Brothers
Orchestra. It was a very good band, but it could not exist
under the tension of the two brothers who continually made open
displays of disagreements as to what to play, how fast or how
slow it should be played and who would be featured on the solo
spots.
In 1935, Tommy solved the problem by quitting the band
His goal was to organize the best all around dance band of his
own, a band that would play good danceable mu sic plus a band
that would swing like the best of them. To do this, he needed
the best musicians and arrangers available.
This Tommy did. He had Bunny Berigan, Peewee Erwin and
Ziggy Elman in trumpets. Bud Freeman, Johnny Mince, Don Lodice
and Buddy DeFranco in the reed section. Dave Tough and later
Buddy Rich on drums. To make these musicians play solidly together,
there were Deane Kincade and Sy Oliver as arrangers.
The band made recordings which became instant hits, "Boogie
Woogie," "Song Of India," "Marie," "Who," and "East Of The Sun."
Tommy's band was on a roll. It made successful appearances everywhere
it played. But the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra did not reach its full
prominance until Sy Oliver, who came in from the Jimmy Linceford
band, took over the chief arranger's spot.
Sy's first objective was to change Tommy's constant two
b e at rh yt h m ap pr o ac h , to th e 4/ 4 s w in g r hy th m. Th i s rh y th mi c
change gave the band a more direct driving force. Sy utilized the
outstanding talents of the band's members. He wrote , "Well, Git
It," featuring the trumpets of Ziggy Elman and Chuck Peterson.
"Quiet Please," with Buddy Rich on drums. For Frank Sinatra and the
Pied Pipers, there were, "This Love Of Mine," and "I'll Never Smile
Again."
The band was featured on such charts as "Opus No.1,"
"Swanee River," "Blue Skies," "Blue Blazes" and "On The Sunny
Side Of The Street."
By 1946, Tommy Dorsey was forced to disband his orchestra.
The big band sw ing era had c om e to its end. H owever, after a
hiatus of a couple of years, Tommy reorganized another band that
included musicians of the highest quality. The personnel were,
Louis Bellson, (drums), Walt Lewinsky, (clarinet), Boomie Richman,
(sax), Ray Wetzel, Doc Severinsen and Lee Castle (trumpets),
Gene Kutch, (piano). The Tommy Dorsey Orchestra stayed together
until his death in 1956.
Artie Shaw, after many attempts and failures to organize a
band that could satisfy the public, finally got one together that
he liked in 1937. Arrangements were written by trombonist Harry
Rodgers, pianist Joe Lippman and under the recommendation of Joe
Lippman, Jerry Gray was called in.
The band was called, "Artie Shaw and His New Music," and got
its first booking at the Roseland -State Ballroom in Boston.
While there, they recorded some sides for the Brunswick label.
But Shaw was not totally satisfied with the tunes that were cut,
and asked Jerry Gray to do an arrangement on Cole Porter's "Begin
The Beguine."
With the success of Artie Shaw's first big hit, "Begin The
Beguine," the band became the public's favorite. Nightclubs,
ballrooms, hotels and theaters were all bidding for the Shaw
band to play their rooms. More record hits followed, "Frenesi,"
"What Is This Thing Called Love?," "A Room With A View," "Indian
Love Call" and "Star Dust."
In addition to his big band success, Shaw always had a
passion for dixieland. From within his band he formed the
"Gramercy Five," which included, Billy Butterfield, (trumpet),
Johnny Guarnieri, (harpschord), Artie, (clarinet), plus a
rhythm section. They recorded "Summit Ridge Drive," "Special
Delivery Stomp," "Keeping Myself For You," and "Cross Your Heart."
Shaw and his band were called to hollywood to film a biography
of his life in a film called "Second Chorus." Artie performed his
great clarinet solo on "Concerto For Clarinet."
In 1942, Shaw left his band and enlisted in the United
States Navy. After his basic training, he was given the assignment to
form a band. He managed to obtain trumpet player Conrad Gozzo,
Frank Beach, Johnny Best and Max Kaminsky, with Sam Donahue on
sax, Dave Tough on drums and Claude Thornhill as pianist and
arranger. The band travelled throughout the South Pacific
Area entertaining and building up the morale of the troops. He
received his discharge in 1944.
By
the
fall
of
1944,
Shaw
organized
another
big
band,
and
continued to record hit records like, "S'Wonderful," "My Heart
Belongs To Daddy," "Get Out Of Town," and "The Man I Love."
In 1955, he retired from music to become a writer and
film producer. Although Benny Goodman was known as the "King Of
Swing," Artie Shaw's band members named him the "King of
The Clarinet."
Woody Herman gained much of his musical experience by
playing in local bands in the Milwaukee area. From 1934 to 1936,
he was playing in the popular Isham Jones band. When J ones decided
to disband his group, Herman used the leading sidemen to form his
own big band.
From 1936 to 1944, Woody had one of the best hard -driving
rhythmic swing bands around. He played all the music establishments
and made a number of records for the Decca label. Major hits that
came from the Herman band were, "Woodchoppers' Ball," "Woodshedding With
Woody," "Apple Honey," "Caldonia," 'Northwest P a s s a g e , " " D o
N o t h i n g T i l l Y o u H e a r F r o m M e , " " B i j o u , " a n d "Gooney Gander."
The highlight of Herman's career was his solo performance of
Igor Stravinsky's Ebony Concerto, on March 25, 1946, in Carnegie
Hall, New York. In December of 1946, he disbanded and took a
leave for health reasons, plus a long overdue vacation.
But in 1947, restless from being away from his band, he organized
another group calling it the Second Herd. It was this a g g r e g a t i o n
t h a t r e c o r d e d o n e o f t h e b e s t i n s t r u m e n t a l s featuring the
whole sax section. "Four Brothers," featuring Stan Getz, Zoot
Sims, Herbie Steward and Jimmy Guiffre, kept the second Woody
Herman herd active for several years.
Woody remained in the big band business long after many others
had disbanded. Herman proved over and over that his brand of music
was a further development of jazz leading into and beyond the swing
era. Woody Herman, clarinetist, alto sax, and
jazz oriented band leader expired in 1987 at the age of seventy-four.
Teddy Hill's Orchestra was basically a territory band. A
territory band usually limits its engagements within a certain
area. The Teddy Hill Band, coming out of Harlem in the 1930s,
played the Savoy Ballroom, the Apollo Theater in New York City,
the Pearl and Lombard theaters in Philadelphia, the Howard
Theater in Washington D.C. and returned to New York, rounding out
the circuit within the territory.
Teddy Hill managed to gather some of the finest musicians
for his band, who were destined to reach stardom in their own
right, Roy Eldridge, Dizzy Gillespie, Chu Berry, Kenny Clarke,
Dickie Wells and Dick Fulbright.
The Teddy Hill Orchestra got national exposure during
their regular radio broadcasts and recordings. Some of the
arrangements which gave the band its pleasing style were, "I
Can't Give You Anything But Love," "King Porter Stomp," "A
Study In Brown, " Florida Stomp," "Wabash Stomp," "Here Come s
Cookie," "Twilight In Turkey," "Where Is The Sun?," "The Love
Bug," and "Would You Like To Buy A Dream?."
Other outstanding musicians coming through the Teddy Hill
Orchestra were, Joe Guy, Shad Collins, Bill Beason, Joe Britton,
Louis Hunt, Bernard Flood, Gus McClung, Howard Johnson, John
Smith, Sam Allen and Harold Blanchard, (Whom the author had the
privilege of working with on a number of occasions.)
Glenn Miller, at the age of seventeen in 1921, was playing
trombone in the Boyd Senter Orchestra, a loc al popular band in
Fort Morgan, Colorado. Three years later, he was with the Ben
Pollack band in California.
In 1928, Miller left Pollack's band in New York to become a
freelance musician and arranger. He worked with the Dorsey
Brothers Orchestra, Red Nichols and Smith Ballew.
After working with the Ray Noble band for about two years,
from 1935 to 1937, Miller established a name for himself as
trombonist and arranger. Being aware that the swing era was in
progress, he decided to form his own band. Miller's early bands
and recordings on Decca Records were flops. The public did not
accept his brand of music, and record sales were disappointing.
But in the Spring of 1938, Glenn discovered a brand new
sound for his saxophone section-that of having a clarinet lead
over the other saxes and a tenor sax playing the same as the
clarinet one octave lower. With plenty of rehearsals and local
engageme nts, th e band w as be gi nning to play t ogether as a
single unit. Then finally, the big break came for the new Glenn
Miller Orchestra.
In May, 1939, the band was booked to play Frank Dailey's
Meadowbrook Ballroom in New Jersey. After that came an engagement
at the G len I sl and Casi no in N ew Roche ll, N ew York. T he ba nd
played to capacity audiences, plus, there was a nightly radio broadcast
with coast to coast coverage.
Victor Records immediately brought the band to the recording
studio which produced Miller's first big hits. "Moonlight
Serenade," written and arranged by Miller, also used as the band's
theme song, became one of the biggest. "Sunrise Serenade," a
Frankie Carle composition, and "Little Brown Jug."
There was little doubt in anyone's mind that the Glenn
Miller Orchestra was gaining more popularity than other bands.
Glenn continued playing in ballrooms which featured ni ghtly
radio broadcasts. In addition to hearing the pretty sounds of the
sax section, the band's arrangements were also written to
showcase the band's swing abilities. Charts like, "King Porter
Stomp," "Bugle Call Rag," "Tiger Rag," and "Wrappin'It Up,"
were good examples.
Then in 1940, the biggest hit ever to be recorded was,
"In The Mood." That one record was such a success, that every
ballroom, hotel, nightclub and theater wanted the Glenn Miller
Orchestra. Victor Records executives, anxious to capitalize on
the band's growth, had the band in the studio as often as they
could.
Out came other hits, "Tuxedo JUnction," "Pennsylvania Six
Five Thousand," "Chattanooga Choo Choo," "String Of Pearls,"
"Adios," and "Who's Sorry Now." Miller had a staff of excellent
arrangers who knew exactly what he wanted. They were, Jerry Gray,
Billy May, Mel Powell, Norman Leyden and Bill Finnegan.
Occasionally Miller would write an arrangement himself..
In 1942, Miller decided to disband his orchestra and enlist
in the Army Air Force. He was given the rank of Captain and the
go-ahead to form his own Air Force Band. Miller, Ray McKinley
and Jerry Gray were in the band. They wrote some new marching
arrangements to "St. Louis Blues," "Blues In The Night,"
"Stormy Weather" and "American Patrol."
When the Commandant of the Air Force Cadets heard these new
arrangements, he notified Captain Glenn Miller that he did
not appreciate the new rendition of old favorite tunes. His
argument to Miller was, "we played those Sousa marches pretty
straight in the last war and we did all right." Miller's response
was, "tell me, Major, are you still flying the same planes you
flew in the last war too?." As a result of that conversation,
the Glenn Miller Air Force Band played the new arrangements.
On December 15, 1944, Miller boarded a plane from England
to Paris to make preparations for the band's appearance. The
plane never reached its destination. And to this very day, no
trace of it has ever been found.
Glenn Miller, bandleader, arranger, musician, and a person
with the foresight to give the public what they wanted to hear,
will forever be remembered for his contributions to the advancement
of jazz during the Swing Era.
The personnel of the Glenn Miller Orchestra were, Ernie
Caceres, Willie Schwartz, Hal McIntyre, Al Klink and Tex Beneke,
(saxes), Charlie Frankouser, Zeke Zarchy, Mickey Mcmickle and
John Best, (trumpets), Paul Tanner, Jimmy Priddy, Frankie D'Anolfo
and Miller, (trombones). The rhythm section consisted of Bobby
Hackett, (guitar), Moe Purtill, (drums), Doc Goldberg, (bass), and
Chummy MacGregor, (piano).
Larry Clinton is noted more as an arranger and composer
than as a band leader and musician. His band -leading career was
a short-lived one, lasting only four years from 1937 to 1941.
During those years he recorded some hits, namely, "Deep Purple,"
and "My Reverie" with Bea Wain doing the vocals.
Clinton, on the other hand, was kept busy writing
arrangements for other bands. For Tommy Dorsey, he wrote, "Satan
Takes A Holiday" and "The Dipsy Doodle." For the Dorsey Brothers
band he wrote, "Tap Dancer's Nightmare" and "Dusk In Upper Sandusky."
He then wrote, "A Study In Brown," for Glen Gray and the Casa
Loma Orchestra. He further went on to arrange for Ferde Grofe,
Isham Jones, Claude Hopkins, Jimmy Dorsey, Louis Armstrong and Bunny
Berigan.
In 1942, Larry Clinton enlisted in the United States Air
Force, and was assigned the position of director of entertainment.
After his discharge in 1946 Larry made an unsuccessful attempt t o
r e co r d a b an d o f hi s o wn fo r th e C o sm o l ab el . D ef e at ed ,
Clinton retired from the music business completely. He lived in
his Florida home until his demise in 1988.
Gene Krupa, considered one of the best big-band jazz drummers
in his day, got his recognition working with various bands in
the Chicago area. Going east to New York, he became active in
the studio and pit bands. In 1934, Benny Goodman heard Krupa
play and invited him to join his band. Krupa was the backbone of
the Goodman rhythm section. His drumming set the pace for the
band to swing, and swing it did. Even to this day, when people
talk about the Benny Goodman concert in Carnegie Hall on January
16, 1938, inevitably, the first thing people remember is Krupa's
drum solo on "Sing, Sing,Sing."
Later that year, Krupa left Goodman to form a band of his
own. He scouted around and hired the best sidemen available, among
them were, Shorty Sherock, Corky Cornelius, Roy Eldridge, Leo
Watson, Sam Donahue, Vito Musso, Clint Neagle, Dave Schultz,
Sam Musiker and vocalist Ire ne Daye. For his arrangers there
were, Jimmy Mundy, Fred Norman, Benny Carter and Chappie
Willett. Well rehearsed with new charts, Krupa signed with
Brunswick Records to make "Blue Rhythm Fantasy," "Prelude To
A Stomp," "Rhythm Jam" and "Jungle Madness," all swing
instrumentals.
After a short stay with the band, Irene Daye left to join
the Casa Loma group and Anita O'Day replaced her to do the vocals.
Anita's first recording with the band proved how much of an
asset she was. The sides were, "Georgia On My M ind," "Green
Eyes," " Thank s For The Boogi e Ride," M urder , He Says, " and
"That's What You Think." Then as a singing duo, Anito and Roy
Eldridge teamed up to produce the biggest hit Gene Krupa would
ever have, "Let Me Off Uptown." The song also featured a
fantastic trumpet solo by EldridgeIn 1943, Krupa was forced to disband his group because
of some bad publicity. In 1944, he put together a trio to record
"Dark Eyes" and "Body And Soul," with Teddy Wilson on piano,
Charlie Ventura on tenor sax and Krupa on drums, the success of
these records was guaranteed.
By 1945, Krupa organized another big band with superb
soloists in his line-up. He had Red Rodney and Don Fagerquist,
(trumpets), Charlie Kennedy, Buddy Wise and Charlie Ventura,
(saxes), Dick Taylor, and a short time later, Frank Rossolino and
Urbie Green, (trombones), and a good solid driving rhythm
section. "Disk Jockey Jump," "Drum Boogie," "Leave Us Leap," "Back
Home Again In Indiana," "Margie" and "Drummin' Man," were
some of their best recordings.
In 1951, Krupa gave up the big band venture and did some
tours with Jazz at the Philharmonic. Then in 1954, with Cozy
Cole, another outstanding drummer, they opened a school of
percussion in New York. He remained active, teaching at the
school until October 16, 1973, when he died.
Les Brown worked as an arranger for the Larry Clinton,
Jimmy Dorsey, Red Nichols and Isham Jones bands until 1938, when
he decided to form his own band in New York City. Brown, with
his new band, got a three-month engagement at the Edison Hotel
in New York. Because of that successful "gig", theaters, hotels,
ballrooms and nightclubs threw open their doors for Les Brown
and His Band of Renown.
Brown had done some recordings on the Okay label in 1941
that provided hits such as, "Mexi can Hat Dance," "Bizet Has His
Day," and "Tis Autumn." With a line-up of outstanding arrangers, the
band continued to record hit after hit, namely, "Lover's Leap," "I
Got The Sun In The Morning," "Just One Of Those Things," and the
extraordinary trumpet solo by Jimmy Zito on "High On A Windy
Trumpet."
In 1944, with Doris Day's vocal, they recorded "Sentimental
Journey." Shortly after that came another hit.for the Brown
band, "I've Got My Love To Keep Me Warm." In 1948, Les Brown's band
provided the music for the Bob Hope radio show.
Throughout his big-band days, Brown always managed to have a
top quality band with excellent soloists, and the best of arrangers,
Skippy Martin, Ben Homer, Frank Comstock, Glenn
Osser and Bob Higgins. The band played a good deal of jazz, and
it should be looked upon as a band that was devoted to the advancement
of jazz during the days of the Swing Era and beyond.
Will Bradley started his first band in 1939 in New York
City with the financial and promotional assistance of Willard
Alexander. The band first opened at the Roseland State Ballroom
in Boston. From there, they went on to the Famous Door in New
York City. New York's Paramount Theater kept the band on stage
for four weeks, and the Biltmore Hotel hired them for an extensive
engagement.
The Bradley band had a line-up of the best studio musicians
available, including its drummer, and co-leader, Ray McKinley, The
band recorded "Celery Stalks At Midnight," which proved that
the Bradley-McKinley band could play jazz as good as any other
band. "Beat Me Daddy, Eight To The Bar," "Rhum -Boogie," and
"Scrub Me Mama With A Boogie Beat" proved their viruosity in the
boogie rhythm.
World War II took musicians out of all bands and Bradley's
band was no exception. In 1942, Will Bradley disso lved the band
and never reorganized again. Meanwhile, Ray McKinley joined
Glenn Miller in the Army Air Force Band. After the war, McKinley
took over the Glenn Miller Band and Will Bradley went into retirement.
Harry James, at the age of thirteen was playing trumpet
in local bands in Beaumont, Texas. Wherever there was an opening
the young James would sit in, and he usually played better than
the adult musicians.
In 1935, at the age of nineteen, James was playing lead
trumpet in the popular Ben Pollack Orchestra. He was so good, that
in September of 1936, when Pollack featured him on a couple of
tunes, Glenn Miller and Charlie Spivak went to the recording
studio to hear him play.
James' playing began to draw raves from other musicians,
and in December, 1936, Benny Goodman asked James to join his
band. Next, Goodman had his arrangers write arrangements that
would feature James on solo spots. His explosive solo on "Sing,
Sing, Sing," and "Life Goes To A Party," helped Goodman earn the
title of "King Of Swing."
In 1939, with Goodman's blessings James left to form his own
band. He gath er some of the to p musici ans f or his fir st group.
Dave Matthews, Drew Page, Claude Lakey, and Bill Luther, (saxes),
Jack Palmer, Jack Schaeffer and Claude Bowen, (trumpets), T r u e t t
J o ne s a nd Ru ss el l B r ow n, (t ro mb o ne s ), R a lp h Ha w ki n s, ( d ru ms ),
T h ur m an T e ag ue , ( ba s s) , R ed K en t , ( gu it a r) a nd Ja c k Garner,
(piano). Connie Haines was the fenale vocalist and Frank Sinatra
the male vocalist.
James took the band on the road and everywhere he p layed,
be it the Pennsylvania Hotel in New York City, the Benjamin
Franklin Hotel in Philadelphia, the Steel Pier in Atlantic City,
the Roseland Ballroom in New York, Chicago's Sherman Hotel or
Frank Dailey's Meadowbrook in Cedar Grove, New Jersey, he grew
in popularity, and was much in demand.
Harry James was happy with this band. He recorded music
to satisfy all his fans. There were the rhythmic swinging tunes
like, "King Porter Stomp," "Feet Draggin' Blues," "Two O'Clock
Jump," and "Crazy Rhythm." Then there were the ballads, "Velvet
Moon," "You Made Me Love You," "I Surrender Dear," and "Just A
Gigolo."
The vocals were, Frank Sinatra's "All Or Nothing At All,"
and "It's Funny To Everyone But Me." Later, with Dick Haymes doing
the vocal, there was, "You've Changed," "Fools Rush In," and the
"Nearness Of You." Helen Forrest recorded, "I Don't Want To
Walk Without You," "Skylark," " I Cried For You," and . "I've
Heard That Song Before."
Finally, what every trumpet player waited anxiously to hear,
(the author included) were the concert show pieces, namely, "Carnival Of
Venice," "Concerto For Trumpet," "Flight Of The Bumble Bee," "Nora
Staccato," and his famous theme song, "Ciribiribin."
James kept the band together playing concert tours
throughout the United States and Europe. He worked the ballrooms,
hotels and nightclubs, up to his last days in 1983 when he died in
a Las Vegas hospital.
Lionel Hampton, as a young teenager, was playing drums with
the Chicago Defenders Boy's Band. In 1930, he recorded, "Memories Of
You" on the Vibraphone, with Louis Armstrong on trumpet. Hampton
gained a good deal of professional experience working with the
Paul Howard Orchestra and Les Hite's band, in the Los Angeles
area.
In 1937, Hampton made a series of recordings on the
Victor label featuring outstanding prominant soloists of the day
while he was still a member of the Benny Goodman Quartette.
The first session featured trumpeter Jonah Jones rendition of
"I Surrender Dear," and later, Ziggy Elman on "After You're
Gone." In 1938, Johnny Hodges, Cootie Williams and Edgar Sampson
were featured on the tune, "You're My Ideal." Harry James was
featured on "Anytime At All." Walter Fuller, trumpet and Budd
Johnson, sax were highlighted on, "Rock Hill Special." In 1939,
there were, Leon "chu" Berry on "Sweeyhearts On Parade" and R e x
S t e w a r t ' s v e r s i o n o f E u b i e B l a k e ' s " M e m o r i e s O f Y o u . " Coleman
Hawkins and Charlie Christian were soloists on, "One Sweet
Letter From You." "Hot Mallets," a fast swinging jump tune, featured
Dizzy Gillespie, Benny Carter, Coleman Hawkins and Cozy Cole. Lionel
Hampton on drums, along with Ziggy Elman, Toots Mondello, Jerry Jerome,
and Ben Webster played. "Gin For Christmas."
In 1940, with financial assistance from Benny Goodman,
Lionel Hampton formed his own big-band. His first engagement was
in Harlem's Apollo Theater. Hampton was able to employ the b e s t
musicians for that band, Joe Newman, Dexter Gordon,
Illinois Jacquet, Jack McVea and Milt Buckner.
Quick to recognized his talents, Decca Records offered
Hampton a recording:contract. The band turned out hits such as,
"My Wish," "Just For You," "Flying Home," "Air Mail Special,"
"Sweethearts On Parade," "Hey Ba-ba-re-bop," "Memories Of You," and
many more.
Members of the band included, Arnette Cobb, King Curtis,
Charles Mingus, Quincy Jones, Bobby Plater, Coleman Hawkins,
Leon "Chu" Berry, Sid Catlett, Bennt Carter, Dinah Washington
(vocalist) and a host of other great musicians.
Claude Thornhill started his first big-band in 1940 in
New York City. The band became popular with the public, but not
before many disappointing experiences. Then in 1941, Thornhill
became the resident band at the Glen Island Casino,New York.
There was no reason why this band would not skyrocket in
popularity. The band contained exceptionally good musicians.
Conrad Gozzo and Rusty Diedrick, (trumpets), Tasso Harris and
Bob Jenny, (trombones), Irving Fazolo, (clarinet), and a good
solid rhythm section. This band however, had a short life
because in 19 42 Thornhi ll an d several of hi s musician s wer e
called for military service. He went into the United States Navy
and was assigned to Artie Shaw's Navy Band.
In 1946, after Thornhill was discharged from the Navy, he
formed his band again and with Gil Evans his chief arranger,
wrote some excellent arrangements which propelled the Thornhill band
to the top, even though the swing era was declining. Their recording
effords produced, "Where or When," "Lullaby Of The Rain," "Sleepy
Serenade," "Snowfall" (the band's theme song), "Someone El se Is
T a ki n g My Pl ac e, " " T he re ' s A Sm a ll Ho te l ," a nd Fr a n Warren
singing, "A Sunday Kind Of Love."
Thornhill remained active in the music business until 1965,
when he succumbed to a heart attack in his Caldwell, New Jersey
home on July 1, Claude Thornhill's Orchestra was a major asset and
contributor to the development of jazz during the swing era.
Charlie Spivak formed his first band in 1940 in Washington
D.C. with the encouragement and financial assistance from his very
close friend Glenn Miller. Spivak's reputation as a trumpet player
placed him alongside Ben Pollack, the Dorsey Brothers, Ray Noble,
Bob Crosby, Tommy Dorsey, Jack Teagarden, Benny Goodman and Glenn
Miller.
Spivak was labeled "The man who plays the sweetest trumpet
in the world." His band played the ,Glen Island Casino, Frank Dailey's
Meadowbrook, the Pennsylvania Hotel, and the Hollywood Palladium.
With the aid of Nelson Riddle's arrangements, the Spivak
band is best known for its recordings of "Nature Boy," "Tenderly,"
"I'll Walk Alone," "Blue Velvey ," and "We Three." Spivak kept his
band active until the early 1960s when poor health caused his
departure. After his recovery, he settled in Greenville, South
Catolina and played with a five-piece combo until his death in 1982.
Hal McIntyre with the financial backing of Glenn Miller,
started his first band in 1941 in New York. With an aggregation
of top level musicians, McIntyre took his group into the Glen
Island Casino and then into the Hollywood Palladium.
The band's immediate success was due to the outstanding arrangers
on his staff. Dave Matthews set the style of the band. The Hal
McIntyre band played more jazz than most other white bands and as
much as some of the black bands. Most of the arrangements were written
with jazz in mind, allowing openings for the improvisational
soloists, Eddie Safranski provided the bass solos. Ted Goddard
and Johnny Hayes were responsible for the tenor sax solos.
Arranger and pianist Danny Hurd provided some of the best
swing arrangements for the band, including, "Rockin' and Riding,"
"Sheik Of Araby," "Strange Mood," "Available Jones" and "Apple
Shiner." The author had the privilege of studying arranging and
orchestration with Danny Hurd and also became a Schillinger Teacher
under his tutelage.
The Hal McIntyre band continued to play engagements into
the 1950s. But in 1959, while making preparations to do a Las
Vegas Lounge act, Hal fell asleep with a cigarette in his hand.
It started a fire in his bedroom and took his life at age 44.
Stan Kenton organized his first band in 1941, and got a
summer engagement at the Rendezvous Ballroom in Balboa, California.
With the success of that engagement, Kenton was booked into the
Hollywood Palladium. The audience's acceptance was so great that
offers to bring the band to the east coast were plentiful.
In New York he played the Roseland Ballroom and then New
Jersey's Meadowbrook. Taking on Pete Rugolo as his chief arranger,
the band recorded an exciting session for Capitol Records. The
numbers recorded were, "Adios," "Taboo," "Gambler' s Blues," and
"St. James Infirmary."
In 1943, Kenton recorded his theme song, "Artistry In
Rhythm," and the ever-popular, "Eager Beaver." In 1945, June
Christy recorded with the band, "Tampico," and "Willow Weep
For Me." Kenton was constantly working, doing radio broadcasts, onenighters on the road and recording sessions.
In 1947, he was forced to disband his orchestra due to poor
health. After recuperating for about a year, he regrouped
h i s b an d i n 19 48 an d w en t b ac k o n t he r o ad a ga i n. In 1 9 50 , he
decided to settle on the west coast where he remained for about
fifteen years. However, in 1977, he accepted an offer to go on an
eastern tour. While on tour, he was found unconscious in his hotel
room, and was rushed to the hospital in Reading, Pennsylvania for
removal of a blood clot on the brain. After surgery, Kenton returned
home to California and remained there until his death in 1979.
Buddy Rich organized his first big band in 1946 while he
was still in New York. He played the usual hotels, theaters,
and ballrooms. Buddy wanted a band that could swing and play
jazz. Even when playing a ballad, Buddy said, "I like ballads
with a beat."
However, he was not able to keep his band together for any
length of time, due to the fact that he started his group after
the big band era had begun to fade. Therefore, he disbanded his
group and joined other bands as a drummer.
He went with Norman Granz's "Jazz ay the Philharmonics,"
then to Les Brown, to Charlie Ventura, to Harry James, to Tommy
Dorsey and from 1957 to 1961, he formed a small combo. Then a
heart attack took him out of circulation for a while. When he
returned, he joined with Harry James again in 1961 and stayed
with the James band till 1966.
In 1966, Rich started another big band. They played mostly
jazz arrangements. In 1967, he was invited to appear as a
regular on the Jackie Gleason summer replacement show and afterward
joined with Frank Sinatra on a concert tour.
]n the early 1970s, Rich again had special arrangements
written that featured some "Rock" sounding overtones to attract the
new Rock "N" Roll audiences. But once more poor health slowed him
down. He discarded his band in 1974 and opened a nightclub in New
York City, which he called "Buddy's Place." With a small combo, he
played in his place nightly. He remained active until his death in
1987.
As a teenager, Ray Anthony got a job playing trumpet with
Al Donahue. After a short stay with the Donahue band, Anthony
joined the Glenn Miller band. He stayed only a few months with
Miller, however, because Miller had Anthony in the fourth chair
and wouldn't feature him on any solos. Anthony soon packed up
his horn and signed with Jimmy Dorsey. This was also a short
visit. In 1942, Anthony went into the United States Navy and
led a Navy band for two years.
After his discharge from the military, Anthony formed his
first big band in 1946, while in New York City. Although it
was at a time when most big bands were fading out of sight, or
were completely disbanded, Anthony managed to put together an
ensemble of top musicians. The band was booked solidly into
hotels and whatever ballrooms that were still using big bands.
In 1952, the Ray Anthony Orchestra recorded one hit single
called "Bunny Hop." This one record started a national dance
craze that propelled him to financial success, and made him
the most popular of the remaining big bands.
In the late 1950s, there wasn't much work for a big band. So
he dissolved his group and organized a small combo to play
the lounges in Las Vegas, Lake Tahoe and anywhere else that
booked live entertainment.
It is not likely that Ray Anthony made any type of contribution
to the advancement of jazz in the swing era (From 1935 to 1945.)
Ray's band was a carbon copy of the Glenn Miller band, and his trumpet
playing was an attempt to mimic Harry James.
Maynard Ferguson played in the big bands of Boyd Raeburn,
C h ar l ie B a rn et , J im m y Do r se y an d m o st n o ta bl y w it h t he St an
Kenton band. Ferguson was an extremely talented musician who
played several instruments, trumpet, valve trombone, french horn,
baritone horn, alto sax, clarinet and oboe.
Ferguson's reputation stems from his command of the trumpet's
highest range. He formed his own band in the mid -1950s. His music
was that of the jazz-rock style. The band was popular throughout the
United States and Europe. His two big hit records were, "MacArthur
Park," and "Gonna Fly Now," the "Rocky' motion picture music theme.
Ferguson reduced his band down to a sextette, and performs
throughout his hometown of Quebec City, Canada. And is also
very much in demand with the college circuit.
Melvin James "Sy" Oliver was born in Battle Creek, Michigan
and grew up in a family where both of his parents were music teachers.
At an early age, Sy studied the trumpet, and eventually got into
the high school band.
When he was seventeen years old, he joined Zack Whyte and
his Chocolate Beau Brummels, a prestigious local band. Later
he moved to Cincinnati to join Alphonso Trent'S Orchestra.
In 1933, Oliver joined the Jimmy Lunceford band as
trumpeter and arranger. Before long, he was scoring one hit arrangement
after another. Some of them were, "For Dancers Only," "Marg ie,"
"Ain't S he Sw ee t," "Che atin' O n Me," a nd "S wa nee River." Oliver
further organized what was to become the popular Lunceford singing
trio, with himself , Henry Wells and Willie Smith.
In 1939, Oliver signed with the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra as
chief arranger. Again "magic" came out of the pen of his
arrangements producing such hits as, "On The Sunny Side Of The
Street," "Opus One," "Yes, Indeed," "Swanee River," "Chicago,"
and "Well Git It."
Oliver remained with the Dorsey band until 1943, when he was
called to serve in the United States Army. After his release in
1945, he became staff arranger and conductor for Decca Records. He
remained in that position for the next sixteen years. After
that, he devoted his time to writing arrangements for Frank
Sinatra, Louis Armstrong, Sammy Davis, Jr., Jackie Gleason,
Count Basie, Mike Douglas, Don Rondo and many more.
In 1968, Oliver's music career took him to Paris, Fr ance, a s
music director, arranger and conductor for the Olympia
Theater in Paris. However, he wanted to front his own band and in
1970, he came back to New York and formed his own group. The band
secured immediate, long term bookings in the Riverboat, a
nightclub located in the Empire State Building, the Rainbow
Grill, a nightclub in the N.B.C. Building and Downbeat, located
in New York City.
With the success of his new band, Oliver was now ready
to make records. In 1971, he contacted the author to act as his
manager. Within a few months, plans were made for Sy Oliver,
his Orchestra and trio (ala the Lunceford style) to record their
first album. The album title was, "Take Me Back" on the Flac
label. The sides included, "Take Me Back To The Old Days Again,"
"Yes, Indeed," "Lonesome Street," (a pretty ballad sung by Buddy
Smith) "Tain't Whacha Do," "There's No Town Like Your Old Home
Town," "There'll Be A Rainbow Tomorrow," "C.O.D. Blues," "For
Dancers Only," "When You Call Me Sweetheart," "Let There Be
Drums," (featuring the talented drummer Don Lamond,) and "Opus
One."
The band personnel included, Chris Woods, (alto sax), Mike
Gerych, (tenor sax), Steve Furtado and Sy Oliver (trumpets), Al
Cobbs and Candy Ross, (trombones,) Cliff Smalls, (piano), Leonard
Gaskins, (bass), Don Lamond, (drums,) and Buddy Smith, (vocalist.)
At age 77, in 1988, Sy OLiver died with Cardiovascular
complications, a great loss to the music business.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
BOP COMES ALIVE
Mid-way into the swing era, around the late 1930s and
1940s, a handful of young musicians found jobs in big bands.
Lester Young played tenor sax with the Count Basle band, Charlie
Christian played guitar with Benny Goodman, Charlie Parker,
Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Eckstine were with Earl "Fatha" Hines,
and Fats Navarro was one of the "Twelve Clouds Of Joy" with
Andy Kirk.
What they all had in common was that big band swing music
was not to their liking. They wanted to play music they originated,
and did not want to be confined to the notes on the manuscript.
Frequently, they would drop in at an all-night club and
participate in a jam session, playing for hours at a time.
Eventually, such clubs became musicians' hand-out-places where
soloist could experiment and develop their improvisations.
Minton's Playhouse in New York City was probably the first
club to feature the jam session scene. The house band consisted of
Kenny
Clarke,
(drums),
Thelonious
Monk,
(piano),
Nick
Fenton,
(bass), and Joe Guy, (trumpet).
It was not unusual on any given night to have musicians
like Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Bud Powell, Ben Webster,
Don Byas, Charlie Christian, Jimmy Blanton, Denzil Best and
Sid Catlett come in, take out their instruments and join the
house band on stage.
This jam session was different from the usual sessions, in
which the house band would start out playing a popular tune like
"Tea For Two," and the regular swing musicians would play a
coupls of choruses based on the chord progressions and to improvise
around the melody.
The Minton Playhouse jam session would actually challenge
the musicians' imagination by playing unusual chord changes
without a definite key center, with the drummer providing irregular
rhythmic patterns. Often, more than one soloist would improvise and
not be aware of what the other musicians were playing. it became a
musical free-for-all.
In the early 1940s, this new music was a further developement
of jazz, and was usually played by small groups. A typical bop
group would consist of a saxophone, trumpet, and a rhythm section of
piano, bass and drums.
Bop was not the creation of any one individual. There were
many musicians who spearheaded this revolutionary development.
About 1945, when the swing era came to an end, a group of black
jazz musicians developed the "bop" sound by the altera tion of
the basic chords. With the changing of the melody and the inclusion of
complex rhythmic patterns, bop became an expression of revolt.
It was a revolt against the commercial music dominated by
white bands. Ross Russell, in his "Be-bop Instrumentation"
record changer, summed it up best when he said, "Bebop is the
music of revolt. Revolt against big bands, arrangers, vertical
harmonies, soggy rhythms, non-playing orchestra leaders, and Tin
Pan Alley-against commercial music in general."
The public's in terest in bop didn't last any length of
time. This could be the fault of the same musicians who created
this new music. Their attitudes probably out of contempt and
malice toward the public, caused them to do everything they could
to discourage the acceptance of bop.
When performing in public, the musicians would completely
ignore and reject their audiences. Often they would play with
their backs to the audience and the soloists would leave the
stage immediately after their solos.
Not only did they resent the audience, they also rebelled
against other jazz musicians who came out of the swing era, and
wanted to get in on the bop movement. This was not taken kindly
by the other bop musicians. So, they created a musical problem by
changing the structure of the chord progressions and modulating
into different keys. These changes, plus the complicated rhythms,
became discouraging to the older musicians, causing them to leave
the scene. The younger bop musicians
would gloat over their accomplishments with satisfac tion and
tell the departing musicians, "If you don't dig these new
sounds, man, you're real square."
Dizzy Gillespie, a young trumpeter from South Carolina, changed
the tempo of "How High The Moon," from its usual slow ballad to
a bright instrumental tempo. Since then, "How High The Moon" has
become the standard bebop tune for improvisation for every
musician leaning toward this new music discovery.
Charlie ("Bird") Parker, alto saxophonist was another
great musician who was instrumental in bringing bop to the
attention of the public. He was considered to be one of the
best when it came to jazz improvisation. He was the master
of his instrument. His recording of "Lover Man" and "Embraceable
You," is as refreshing to listen to today as it was when first
recorded in the 1940s.
Lester Young, tenor saxophonist was another early
developer of bop. After spending a little over one year in the
Army, he formed his own small group and made several records.
"Boogie Woogie," "Lady Be Good," "Evenin'," and "Shoeshine Boy. "
His style of playing was pretty and laid back. When one listens to
his recordings and solos, it's not hard to imagine why they called
him the "Prez" of the tenor sax.
Thelonious Monk, pianist, is credited with making a
valuable contribution to bop. Thelonious has been labeled
as the "High Priest of Bop," and an outstanding genius in his
interpretation of bop music.
Many other bop greats who came out of the big bands were,
Kenny Clarke, (drums), and Al Killian, (trumpet), with the
Teddy Hill Band, Hank Jones, (piano and arranger), Howard
McGhee, (trumpet) and Ben Webster, (tenor sax), from Andy Kirk's
Band, Bennie Green, (trombone), Little Benny Harris and Freddy
Webster, (trumpets), Budd Johnson, (tenor sax and arranger),
with Earl "Fatha" Hines. Billy Ec kstine's big band provided
Gene Ammons, Wardell Gray, Dexter Gordon, and Lucky Thompson,
(tenor saxes) Sonny Criss and leo Parker (alto saxes) Miles
D a vi s ( tr u mp et ) T om m y Po t te r (b a ss ) A rt Bl ak ey (d r um s) an d
Walter "Gil" Fuller (arranger).
Nat "King" Cole, not known to be a bop recording artist,
got caught up in the spirit of bop music and did in fact two
bop tunes titled, "That's What," and "The Geek."
The impact of Afro -Cuban music came about in 1947, when
Dizzy Gillespie hired Chano Pozo, a Cuban drummer for a special
concert in Town Hall, New York. During his featured solo, Pozo held
the attention of the audience for a full thirty minutes with his
complicated cuban rhythms.
The results of this performance brought about the rise of AfroCuban music. New York City was soon inundated with Afro -Cuban
b a n d s . T h e m a m b o , t h e s a m b o , a n d c h a- c h a b e c a m e t h e p o p u l a r
dances.
Keeping this extention of the bop era active were bands led
by Luis del Campo, Machito, Tito Puento, Miquelito Valdez, Chico
O'Farrell, Jack Costanzo and Nora Morales.
Meanwhile, the remaining active big bands were taking an
interest in latin music and adding it to their libraries. Cab
Calloway, with his Cuban arranger, Matio Bauzo, recorded "The
Congo Conga." Duke Ellington, featuring trombonist Juan Tizol,
recorded, "Caravan." Stan Kenton waxed, "The Peanut Vendor,"
and Woody Herman, Count Basle and Harry James played latin tunes.
By 1954, the Afre -Cuban music began to fade out of the music
scene along with the departure of the bop era.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
MORE JAll STYLES'
Since the early 1950s, there have been several new styles and
innovations entering the jazz scene. These new musical ideas did
not in any way preclude the continued existence of previous jazz
idioms, such as dixieland and bop, which remained active.
After the demise of the swing era, jazz became a form of
music meant for listening rather than for dancing. At jazz
concerts, especially on college campuses, audiences heard music
b e in g p la y ed i n n ew rh yt h ms a nd ha r mo ni e s, w it h u n fa mi l ia r
meters like 5/4, 7/4, and jazz being played in 3/4 time. Other
musical instruments introduced to the jazz scene were the flute,
french horn, 'cello, baritone sax, electric piano and synthesizer.
"Cool jazz," was the first music form to emerge from the
bop scene. Unlike bop in style, cool jazz was more sedate and
relaxed in expressions. Dominating this new creation were musicians
Stan Getz, (tenor sax), Lee Konitz, (alto sax), Gerry Mulligan,
(baritone sax), Lennie Tristano, (piano), John Lewis, (piano),
Miles Davis, (trumpet), and Gil Evans, (piano and arranger).
Cool jazz was predominantly developed by white musicians
who encouraged white audiences to attend the concerts. There
were however, some black musicians who were also instrumental
in the development of cool jazz, such as Miles Davis and John
Lewis.
Cool jazz compositions were longer in length than bop and depended
more on written arrangements. Gil Evans, an exceptionally talented
arranger, was instrumental in writing charts for Stan Getz,
Lennie Tristano and for Miles Davis' popular "Boblicity" - and
"Moondreams" on Capitol Records.
Gil Evans, who was a former arranger for the Claude Thornhill
band, took up writing for the Gerry Mulligan group and John
Lewis' Modern Jazz Quartette featuring Milt Jackson on vibes.
Before long many groups were formed to become part of the
cool jazz scene. There was for example, Dave Brubeck's quartette
with his ever-popular "Take Five" in 5/4 time .featuring Paul Desmond on
tenor sax.
Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers along with Horace Silver, had
a seventeen piece jazz band on the east coast. Soon, the cool
jazz sound reached the ears of musicians on the west coast, who, in
turn, began to incorporate the new style into their
performances. Chico Hamilton organized a west coast ensemble, and
trumpeter Art Farmer played a major role in the development of
cool jazz on both coasts.
Since the east coast musicians were predominately white
and the Los Angeles musicians were black, cool jazz became
identified as black and white jazz, to signify its point of
origin.
The 1960s ushered in "Free Jazz," with Ornette Coleman,
(alto sax), Cecil Taylor, (piano), and John Coltrane (tenor sax).
Coleman's concept of free jazz was to dispense with any and all
musical forms and harmonic chord sequences. With an eight-piece
ensemble, Coleman took his group into a recording studio and
told the musicians to play anything they wanted, using no format as
regards to melody, harmony or any pre-set form. It really became a
performance of free jazz.
The 1970s witness the "Jazz-Rock," or fusion, which is a
combination of musicians' improvisations played against a rock
rhythm. Jazz-rock was, by far, more popular than cool jazz, east
and west coast jazz, modal jazz and free jazz. It was
immediately accepted by the public,
Jazz-rock groups depended heavily on electronic instruments
such as synthesizers, electric pianos, amplified basses and
guitars. The percussion section often included a drummer with
a full set and a percussionist with a set of bongos and tom-toms
in various pitches.
Miles Davis, along with Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea, Wayne
Shorter, Joe Zawinul and John McLaughlin were instrumental
in the development of jazz-rock. In 1971, Joe Zawinul and
Wayne Shorter formed a jazz-rock group called Weather Report.
In 1977, Weather Report recorded its biggest hit, "Birdland."
The outstanding feature of the group was based on its overall
sound, rather than on individual solos.
Jazz-rock, as well as all other forms of jazz, whether
New Orleans style, swing, bop, cool and free jazz, can still
be heard in one place or another today.
Other musicians who have participated in the various jazz
styles are Sonny Rollins, Don Cherry, George Russell, Thelonious
Monk, Charles Mingus, Albert Aylers, Don Ellis, Cannonball Adderley,
Jimmy Smith, Leon Roppolo, Art Pepper,Bud Shank, Herb Geller,
Hampton Hawkes, Carl Perkins, Elmo Hope, Warne Marsh, Billy Bauer,
Thad Jones, Lucky Thompson, Tadd Dameron, Jimmy Giuffre and Shelly
Manne.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
RHYTHM AND BLUES—ROCK 'N' ROLL
Shortly after World War II in 1945, record companies, such
as Savoy, Atlantic, Columbia, Victor, King, Imperial, and other
lesser known independent labels were recording music for the
black population which were referred to as "race" records.
But in 1949, Billboard, a music-trade magazine proposed
that the term "race" be removed and replaced with Rhythm 'n' blues
or R&B. The new terminology placed emphasis on the traditional blues
pattern being performed as ensemble music, plus a rhythm section of
electric guitars, electric bass, electric piano or organ and a
complete drum set.
Taking an active lead in R&B were B.B. King, Bobby "Blue"
Bland, Roscoe Gordon, Johnny Ray, Fats Domino, Chuck Berry,
Little Richard, Roy Brown and Johnny Otis. The early 1950s,
brought out many vocal groups singing R&B. There were the Drifters
with their recording of "Money Honey," the Dominoes' rendition of
"Sixty Minute Man," the Midnighters' "Work With Me Annie," and
the Five Royales doing "Think" and "Dedicated To The One I Love."
Rhythm and blues soon became a stepping stone to rhythm and
gospel, with such groups as the Soul Stirrers, the Swan Silvertones,
the Dixie Hummingbirds and the Pilgrim Travelers.
In 1951, Jackie Brenston recorded "Rocket 88" for. Chess Records
in Memphis, Tennessee. The record became the number one hit on
the R&B charts that year, but it was also referred to as the
first rock-and-roll record.
Bill Haley, who had a western group called the "Saddlemen,"
recorded "Rocket 88" for the Essex label in 1951. Then in 1952
with his new group, Bill Haley and His Comets, began recording rockand-roll records, the first being "Rock The Joint."
Picking up the momentum and further exposure of rock -androll music to a racially mixed teenage audience were white disc
jockeys Alan Freed in Cleveland, Ohio, and Dewey Phillips from
Memphis, Tennessee.
By the mid-1950s, rock-and-roll, or simply put, "rock,"
became the popular music craze. Much of rock music came from
the fusion of blues, jazz and gospel styles, along with co untrywestern and folk music.
Bill Haley and His Comets have been credited with being
the first to produce a rock-and-roll hit with his "Rock Around
The Clock" in 1955. Following close behind Bill Haley
were Elvis Presley's country-western hits, "I Forgot To Remember
To Forget" and "Mystery Train" on Sun Records. Chuck Berry's
"Maybellene" and Fats Domino's "Ain't That A Shame" were top
R&B hits around that time.
1955 was the first year for rock-and-roll. Teenagers proved
to be devoted and faithful audiences. Rock was a music for the
younger gener at ion. It was a ls o music for d an cing, an d the
youth of America wanted to dance.
In 1956, Elvis Presley recorded for RCA Records, "Heartbreak
Hotel," whidh became an instant success. From then on Elvis
recorded one hit after another, including, "Hound Dog," '!Jailhouse
Rock," "Love Me Tender," "Don't Be Cruel," and "All Shook Up."
With so many successful hits and their acceptance by the public,
Elvis Presley was labeled the "King" of rock-and-roll.
Other artists who participated in the rock explosion were,
Bill Doggett, Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, Ray Price, the
Five Satans, Jerry Lee Lewis, the Diamonds, Danny and the Juniors,
Buddy Holly, Lloyd Price, the Coasters and Jackie Wilson.
During the decade of the 1950s, many vocal groups contributed
to rock-and-roll with their "doo-wop" type of singing. Among
them wer e the P latters (The Gr eat Pret ender s, ) the Or ioles ,
(Crying In The Chapel,) the Dell Vikings, (Come Go With Me,) the
Flamingos, (I Only Have Eyes For You,) the Marcels, ( Blue Moon,)
Dion and the Belmonts, (A teenager in Love,) and many outstanding doo-wop
groups.
Rock-and-roll grew so rapidly that it became an international
craze. All of Europe was listening to this new jazz style over
the radio airwaves. Parents of teenagers in America and Europe,
however, did not take a liking to the music because of its lyrical
sexual innuendos and the sexual gyrations of the performers. But
by the beginning of the 1960s, rock -and-roll was evidently dying
a slow death, because of its own actions.
The payola scandal was a major factor in rock-and-roll's
decline which began in 1959. Independent record companies, producers
and distributors were paying rock-and-roll disc jockeys to play
their records on the air at regular i ntervals. For doing this,
the disc jockeys received cash or gifts, and some DJ's got
royalties on records sold at "record hops."
The early 1960s saw an increase of instrumental groups. Among
these were the Ventures, Johnny and the Hurricanes, the Champs,
Booker T. and the MGs, Les Cooper and the Soul Rockers, Duane Eddy
and the Rebelettes, and Billy Joe and the Checkmates.
During the 1960s, the term "Rhythm-and-blues" was replaced
with "soul music." Black performers provided much of soul music
with its gospel roots and emotional expression. Spearheading
the soul music movement were James Brown, Aretha Franklin, Ray
Charles, Stevie Wonder and Diana Ross and the Supremes.
From the early to mid-1960s, the Beatles from England, the
Rolling Stones, the Four Seasons and the Beach Boys dominated the
music scene in the United States. The latter half of the sixties
saw a variety of music styles--"Folk-Rock," "Classical-Rock,"
"Country-Rock," and "Psychedelic-Rock."
"Folk-rock" existed briefly in the rock era. 1965 was the
year of its fame with such artists as Bob Dylan, the Lovin'
Spoonful, the Mamas and the Papas, Sonny and Cher, the Byrds,
and Joan Baez.
"Funk," "Punk," and "New Wave" were all descendents of
early rock-and-roll. A rock group called "Emerson, Lake, a nd
Palmer," played a classical composition with an up to date rock
arrangement and they labeled it "Classical-Rock."
During the late 1970s and 1980s, the instrumental groups,
"Chicago," "Blood, Sweat and Tears," and "Weather Report," were
featuring more "rock-jazz" in their concerts.
Along
These
with
included,
rock-and-roll
the
stroll,
music
the
came
shake,
a
variety
of
dances.
the
monkey,
the
mashed
potato, the frug, the twist, the watusi, the hustle, the swim, the
bunny hop, disco, the strand, the stomp and the hully-gully.
The 1970s was a decade of good and bad happenings for the
rock-and-roll artists and their fans. Chuck Berry was happy
about his 1972ssuccess of "My Ding-a-Ling," then in 1975, he
was the star attraction at the Grammy Awards. But in 1979 , he
served a prison sentence for income tax evasion.
In 1974, the Beach Boys made a comeback with a million
selling record album called, "Endless Summer."
1970 saw the break -up of the Beatles. Jimi Hendrix and
Janis Joplin died of drugs, and Jim Morrison of the Doors group
had a heart attack.
On the other side of the coin, the 1970s continued the
popularity of rock-and-roll. Country-rock grew more popular in
that decade through the talents of Johnny Cash and Willie
Nelson.
Other notable contributors to the rock-and-roll era were
The Everly Brothers, Don and Phil had their first big hit
in 1957 with "Bye, Bye, Love," followed by "Wake Up Little Susie,"
which was later banned from the airwaves because the lyrics
intimate d tha t Susie wa s sle ep ing with some on e at a d rive - in
movie.
However, the years from 1957 to 1973 were exceptionally
good to them with record hits in each of the sixteen years
together until a dispute between them separated the brothers
breaking up the act.
Sam Cooke enjoyed some major hit records such as, "You Send
Me," "On ly Si xt een," an d "Ch ai n Gang." Then w ith sing er Lo u
Rawls, the duo recorded a two sided hit with "Bring It On Home To
Me," and "Having A Party."
Unfortunately, Sam Cooke's life was cut short when a motel
manager shot him three times then beat him with a baseball bat.
Three days later, Sam died from these wounds on Decamber 11, 1964.
He was 34 years old.
Roy Orbison was a prolific songwriter and had written songs
for the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and Jerry Lee Lewis. Roy
had submitted a song for Elvis Presley who rejected the material.
Reluctantly, Orbison decided to record the song himself. The
results was "Only The Lonely," became his first million record
seller. This was followed with other hits including, "Crying,"
"Dream Baby," "Mean Woman Blues," and "Oh, Pretty Woman."
When "Oh, Pretty Woman" hit the top 40 chart in 1964, Elvis
Presley when discharged from the Army told the press that his
major concern was that Orbison was going to be a threat to his
career.
Then there were Otis Redding, Paul Simon, the Grateful Dead,
the Jefferson Airplanes, Eric Clapton. Led Zeppelin, Prince,
Bruce Springsteen, the Village People and a host of others.
In the 1960s, a new musical form developed to the succession
of dance rhythms from J amaica. In 1968, Reggae was the name
given to this creation. This African-Caribbean music combined
with American rhythm and blues especially those from New Orleans
and Memphis, playing through a sound system that placed heavy
emphasis on the bass tones, was popular among the poor in the
ghetto sections in Jamaica. Early Reggae artists were, Lautel
Aitken, Owen Gray, Jackie Edwards, Jimmy Cliff, Bob Marley,
Derrick Morgan and Peter Tosh.
In the 1970s, Reggae continued to grow in popularity. More
and more the public was beginning to understand and accept the
messages of artists such as, Steel Pulse, Black Slade, the
Police, and Scritti Politti. These were among the popular Reggae
artists into the mid-1980s.
"Rap," made its entry into the music world in 1979 wh en the
Sugarhill Gang recorded, "Rapper's Delight." It was a new black
music style coming from the ghettos where poverty, violence, crime
and sex were the background. Rap consisted of fast talking rhymes
and catch-phrases spoken over a recorded rhythm track.
Rap music describes the social, cultural and political
issues in our society. It represents the black's expression
of his environment emerging from the South Bronx section in New
York in the mid-1970s. Rap manifested itself in the forms of breakdancing, slang, fashion and graffiti. "Hip-Hop," was a
term used to describe the dance parties of the younger generation.
There are three forms of rap. The first is "party rap,"
which was the fun rap where people would gather together and
talk about the good times. Associated with the party rap are,
Salt 'n' Pepa's recording of "Get Up Everybody Get Up," Sir Mix-aLot's "Baby Got Back," 2Live Crew's "Pop That Coochie," and
rapper Heavy D.
The second rap form is "knowledge rap." The message delivered
here is to express the right and wrongs of today's world. A
classic example of this is Public Enemy's, "It Takes A Nation
Of Millions To Hold Us Back," Ice Cube's, "The Nigga You Love To
Hate," and A Tribe Called Quest's version of "Description Of A
Fool."
The third form of rap is "gangsta rap." It tells the story
of the rappers life--what life in the ghetto is all about and the
everyday incidence that has been witnessed. Women rappers
commonly known as gangsta women or gangsta bitches expose the men
who frequently seek sex from women without the involvement of
love.
Gangsta rappers are, Boss, (two black women from Detroit,)
Naughty By Nature from New Jersey, Ice T, Scarface, DJ Quik,
and the best known gangsta rapper, N.W.A. (Niggers With Attitude.)
In the mid-1990s, rap's popularity did not seem to be waning.
When listening to the rhythmic structure of rap and the messages
that it has to deliver, rap is destined to be around for a long time
to come.
Jazz is constantly changing in styles and forms. What, when
and where will be the next turn in the road is up to the creatAvp
minds of the jazz musicians. Perhaps a revival of the music of t h e
past with modern interpretations, or a closer look at the
classical music with jazz rhythms. Perhaps a revival of the brass
band. There are many places to look. For Instance, music i n o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s s u c h a s , A s i a , C h i n a , I n d i a , E g y p t , A r a b i a , Morrocco and
all of Africa, can be explored for the jazz development.
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provides a wealth of ideas for the jazz musician and composer.
Therefore, what is in store for jazz depends on how fast
and from what culture the musician will create. However, one
thing is certain, when the current music fads fade out of the
American scene, a new form or style will be ready at hand to
replace it, and most likely its roots would be traced back to
jazz, where it all began.