SECTION B
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS
2) c) Explain why you have chosen your particular characteristic for muscular involvement and environmental conditions.
5 marks
d) Explain how your profile for the table tennis serve might assist a coach in planning practices for players learning this skill.7 marks
3) a) Generally a skill should be taught as a whole as far as possible. Give reasons for this.3 marks
b) Some skills need to be split up into parts to be taught effectively. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of skill presentation?6 marks
4) a) You are observing a number of tennis players being coached. There is a mixture of abilities. Explain what is meant by ability, and give examples of gross motor abilities, and psychomotor abilities.5 marks
b) Give two types of abilities that are important to play tennis effectively.
Why is it wrong to assume that there is such a thing as natural ability?4 marks
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS
AND THE USE OF DIFFERENT PRACTICE METHODS TO ENSURE
EFFECTIVE INVOLVEMENT IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
PHASES or STAGES OF MOVEMENT SKILL LEARNING
THAT AFFECT PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE IN
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
figure 86 – phases of learning
COGNITIVE PHASE (beginner)
initial learning of basic skill
understanding of the activity
analysis of techniques
use of models
The phases of learning (according to Fitts and Posner see figure 86) are:
The cognitive (early) phase
In this phase, the learner attempts to understand the skill, begins to look at techniques
and memorise what is required, begins to practise and repeat the skill according to a
simple model, and learns by trial and error. Feedback involves reinforcement of success
by the coach, with mistakes corrected by reference to the model. This phase applies to
the novice player who can require a lot of support in order to achieve success.
The associative (intermediate) phase
In this phase, the learner will understand a skill and movement patterns will be more
fluent and established (can be repeated at a reasonable level without much thought).
Feedback involves the learner associating the ‘feel’ of the activity (via kinaesthesis)
with the end results, with the coach giving detailed guidance. This phase applies to the
competent performer who still requires full support from a coach to correct mistakes.
ASSOCIATIVE PHASE
focus on movement
comparison of action with model
error detection and correction
skill still inconsistent
AUTONOMOUS PHASE
(elite sportsman)
action automatic
attention can be given to
environmental aspects of activity
focus on tactics / strategy
The autonomous (final) phase
In this phase, movements are well integrated and automatic, with the learner able to perform without conscious effort. The
performer can now give attention to the environment and wider cues about play (such as the position and movements of
opponents). Feedback is mostly via the learner being able to judge performances and make corrections by him / herself, with
guidance from a coach needing to be more detailed and specific. This phase applies to the player who can perform by him /
herself, who can make decisions about tactics without prompting, and whose skill under pressure is stable.
Types of guidance and their impact upon effective performance
and participation in a balanced, active and healthy lifestyle
Visual guidance
This type of guidance works mainly through demonstration (by video or poster, by human live model, or by demonstration of
techniques by a coach or teacher, see figure 87).
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ACQUIRING MOVEMENT SKILLS
This demonstration should:
• Be realistic or appropriate and not too complex.
• Emphasise relevant aspects of a skill.
• Be repeated.
Visual guidance is very important in the cognitive early
stage of learning, the learner should be attentive and
retentive, and should be capable of matching the
demonstration (performer at the appropriate level of
learning). The performer would learn by watching and
imitating a model who should be of high status and
technically competent and correct. The coach should
reinforce correct copying of skills.
Verbal guidance
figure 87 – types of guidance
VERBAL
it is explained to
the learner what to
do
VISUAL
the learner
watches a model
GUIDANCE
MECHANICAL
using a mechanical
aid to fix the
learner's body
positions
MANUAL
supporting or
physically moving a
learner's body
This type of guidance is used often to accompany visual
guidance and is used more with competent performers
at a later stage of learning. The amount of verbal guidance must be controlled and the quality of this guidance is important for
effective coaching / teaching. Verbal guidance can be used for conditioning a response (giving reinforcement).
Manual guidance
This type of guidance uses physical support (as in a coach supporting a gymnast performing somersaults), or placing
limbs in correct positions (as for a novice thrower). This helps with kinaesthetic awareness, is useful for giving confidence,
particularly for beginners, and is useful for safety reasons.
Mechanical guidance
This type of guidance uses a mechanical aid, for example:
• Stabilisers on a bike.
• Flotation devices for swimming.
• Belay ropes for climbers.
• Somersault rig for trampolinists.
Mechanical guidance gives confidence and ensures safety, gives some idea of kinaesthetic sense of movement, but must not
be overdone because this form of kinaesthesis is not the same as the real thing. The performer can become over-reliant on
the mechanical device used.
Practice methods and their impact upon effective
and efficient performance of movement skills
figure 88 – practice conditions
Variable practice
This way of organising practice (see figure 88) is a method in which
practice conditions are varied to encourage the formation of schema.
Schema are ‘the patterns in the brain which enable a sportsperson
to perform skills with fluency and competence’, and are discussed
below. Practice activities would include a number of different activities
which could be performed in different ways. Conditions should be as
realistic as possible, in as many situations as possible, and as near to
the competitive or match situation as possible. The method is relevant
to open skills.
Distributed practice
variable
practice
distributed
practice
massed
practice
PRACTICE
CONDITIONS
mental
practice
overlearning
This way of organising practice is a method in which training sessions
include rest intervals which could involve mental practice. Sessions would be short and spread over time with recovery
periods between. This is good for the beginner and most skill learning, gives time to recover physically and mentally and is
good for potentially dangerous situations.
Practice methods and their impact upon effective and efficient performance of movement skills 69
SECTION B
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS
Massed practice
This way of organising practice is where practice is done with no rest intervals with sessions long in duration. A single
training session lasting a relatively long time in which all the activities are performed one after the other. This method is good for
‘grooving’ of skills and to encourage an habitual response, and is good for discrete skills of short duration. However, massed
practice can lead to fatigue and boredom and there may be elements of negative transfer.
Overlearning
This involves a learned skill that is habitual because of many repetitions. Motor programmes and schema are formed and
performed ‘automatically’ in response to a game or sporting situation (stimulus). This means that attention can be directed
peripherally to other elements of a game (for example, tactics or strategy).
Mental practice or rehearsal
figure 89 - mental practice
figure 89 – mental practice
This method of practice (see figure 89):
imagine
• Creates a mental picture of a skill.
success or
simulate
a
whole
mental warm-up,
• Can be used to simulate a whole movement
avoid failure
movement
readiness for action
sequence or just part of it.
sequence
• Can be used to imagine and envisage success
must be as
and avoid failure in a competitive situation.
realistic as
mental picture
• Can provide a mental warm-up in order to
possible
of a skill
promote a state of readiness for action.
USES OF
• Must be as realistic as possible to be
used during
MENTAL
effective.
rest periods
control arousal
PRACTICE
• Can be used during rest / recovery
before
periods during a performance or in
performance
prevents wear
between performances.
and tear
• Can be used to focus attention on
building
important aspects of a skill.
small muscle
self-confidence
focus attention
contractions same as
• Can build self-confidence for an upcoming
on important
actual practice
performance.
aspects of skill
• Can control arousal and induce calmness before a
performance.
It works by producing small muscle contractions in the same sequence as an actual practice, and since the gross movement of
the skill does not actually happen, it prevents wear and tear.
figure 90 – organisation of practice
1) a) Figure 90 shows the improvement in performance of a gymnast over a period of time. Name the phases A, B and C shown on this chart and explain their significance to the gymnast.
6 marks
b) Identify the characteristics of a performer in phase C.
4 marks
c) How might the type of mental practice change in the last phase of learning?
4 marks
success
Practice questions
A
B
C
time
2) Explain how feedback differs through the associative and autonomous phases of learning as a performer makes progress.
4 marks
3) * According to Fitts and Posner, learning passes through three phases. Use an example from one of your practical activities to describe the key characteristics of each of these phases.
10 marks
This question will assess quality of written communication – the answer must be written in prose (essay) form. Marks will
be awarded for spelling, punctuation and grammar, use of appropriate form and style of writing, and for organising work
clearly and coherently. Use of examples from practical activities will help with mark allocation.
4) a) Other than visual guidance, what other main methods of guidance are there? Give a practical example for each.
6 marks
70
ACQUIRING MOVEMENT SKILLS
4) b) How would you optimise the use of visual guidance in teaching motor skills? What are the drawbacks of this method?
4 marks
5) Identify two different mechanical items for movement skill learning.
Give reasons for the use of these mechanical items to help a learner come to grips with a motor skill.
4 marks
6) a) Explain the difference between massed and distributed practice using examples from a sport of your choice.4 marks
b) Justify the choice of practice conditions for a training session of a sport of your choice.
c) Name two characteristics of the task, and two attributes of the learner which might lead you to decide which method (massed or distributed) of practice to use.
4 marks
INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING
THE PERFORMANCE
OF SKILLS IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
figure 91 - Welford's information processing model
figure 91 – Welford’s information processing model
DISPLAY
MODELS OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING AND EFFECTIVENESS
IN THE LEARNING AND
PERFORMANCE OF MOVEMENT
SKILLS
stimuli
How is information processed by the brain
in such a way as to convert information
received from the surroundings into muscular
activity? The following models attempt to explain
what the brain does during this process.
sensory information
perceptual mechanism
extrinsic feedback
intrinsic feedback
decision mechanism
muscular system
effector mechanism
response
Welford’s model of information
processing
In Welford’s model (see figure 91):
• Display refers to the range of actions and things that
are happening in the surrounding environment of the
performer.
• Perceptual mechanism refers to the part of the brain which
perceives the surroundings (via sight, sound and touch).
• Decision mechanism refers to the part of the brain which
makes decisions.
• The effector mechanism is the part of the brain which
carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and
parts of the body which act out the relevant skill.
Intrinsic
feedback is the feedback as to what actually
•
happens to the body via the proprioceptors, which inform
the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and
angles and so on.
• Extrinsic feedback is the feedback via the result (response)
of the actions made, what happens in the game or
performance or to a ball or the other players in a game, the
results of which feed back as part of the display.
Whiting’s model of information processing
In Whiting’s model (see figure 92):
6 marks
MOVEMENT
(output)
figure 92 – Whiting’s model of information processing
body boundary
perceptual
mechanisms
translatory
mechanisms
effector
mechanisms
tral mechanis
ms
cen
re
sy cep
ste to
m r
s
r
ula
sc em
u
m yst
s
ata
ut d
p
out
m
fro
ta y
a
d a
ut spl
inp di
fe
ed
ba
ck
da
ta
Information processing during the performance of skills in physical activity 71