APRIMERONSCANSION
BasicFeet
Thebasicunitusedforcountingaccentsinpoetryiscalledafoot.Eachfoothaseithertwosyllablesinitorthreesyllablesin
it.Therearefourbasicfeet,twofortwo-syllableunitsandtwoforthree-syllableunits:thenamesareGreekbecausewe
traceonesystemofpoeticscansionbacktotheGreeks.Herearethefourbasicfeet:
Theiambicfoot(iam)consistsoftwosyllables,thefirstofwhichisspokensofterthanthesecond:
_/ _/ _/
suggest
pretend
René(nameofapersoncalledRené)
Thetrochaicfoot(trochee)consistsoftwosyllables,thefirstofwhichisspokenlouderthanthesecond:
/_ /_ /_
problem
rather Robert(nameofapersoncalledRobert)
Theanapesticfoot(anapest)consistsofthreesyllables,thefirsttwoofwhicharespokenmoresoftlythanthethird:
__/ __/
__/
interrupt
understand
apprehend
Thedactylicfoot(dactyl)consistsofthreesyllables,thefirstofwhichisspokenlouderthanthesecondandthird:
/__
murmuring
/__ ruminate
/__
Henderson(nameofapersoncalledHenderson)
Thefollowingfeetaresometimesusedwhenscanningalineofpoetry:
Thespondaicfootconsistsoftwosyllables,bothloud.Thereisnounaccentedsyllableinaspondee:
// //
seagull penguin
Thepyrrhicfootconsistsoftwosyllables,bothsoft.Thereisnoaccentedsyllableinaphyrric:
__ __
inthe ashe
Therearetwomorefeetinadditiontotheabovesix,buttheyareusedinfrequentlyinscansion.Theyareboththreesyllablefeet.
Theamphibrachfootconsistsofthreesyllables,oneloudsyllablesandwichedbetweentwosoftsyllables.
_/_
_/_
whatever
ambitious
Theamphimacerfootconsistsofthreesyllables,onesoftsyllablesandwichedbetweentwoloudsyllables:
/_/
/_/
twentytwo
Pentecost
BasicMeters.Anumberoffeetinalineofpoetryconstitutesameter.Thereis,theoretically,aninfinitenumberoffeet
possibleforanylineofpoetry,butpoetrytendstobewritteninshortratherthanlonglines,sowetraditionallystopour
linecountsateight.Thefollowinglistrepresentsthebasiceightmeters,eachdependentuponthenumberoffeetinthe
line: monometer=alineofpoetrywithonlyonefoot
dimeter=alinewithtwofeet
trimeter=alinewiththreefeet
tetrameter=alinewithfourfeet
pentameter=alinewithfivefeet(Shakespeare'sfavorite)
hexameter=alinewithsixfeet(theFrenchloveit)
heptameter=alinewithsevenfeet
octameter=alinewitheightfeet
Handydefinitionstoremember:
Footisaunitofmeter. Meterisrhythm.
1
ThefollowingdiscussionofANTITHESISisfrom
JohnBarton,PlayingShakespeare,page55
Wecan’tgofarwrongifwejustkeeprememberingShakespeare’sadvicetotheplayersfrom
Hamlet: Speakthespeech,Iprayyou,asIpronouncedittoyou,trippinglyonthe
tongue…Benottootame,neither.Butletyourowndiscretionbeyourtutor.
Suittheactiontotheword,thewordtotheaction.”(3.2.)
It’sallthereisn’tit?Nottoolittle,nottoomuch.I’malwaysstruckbythesentence‘Suittheactiontotheword,theword
totheaction’.I’mnotsure,butIthinkShakespeareisherepartlyexpressinginElizabethantermswhatwe’vebeen
expressingbytheword‘intention’.‘Intention’equals‘Whatareyoudoing?’and‘Action’equals‘Thatwhichyouaredoing’.
Sosuittheactiontotheword,thewordtotheaction.
ThatsentenceofHamlet’sremindsmeofavitalpointaboutShakespeare’slanguage.IfIweretoofferonesinglebitof
advicetoanactornewtoShakespeare’stext,IsuspectthatthemostusefulthingIcouldsaywouldbe,‘Lookforthe
antithesesandplaythem.’‘Suittheactiontotheword,thewordtotheaction’isagoodexampleofadoubleantithesis.
Wecaneasilyoverlookitbecausewedon’tuseantithesisverymuchtoday,particularlyinoureverydayspeech.Yet
Shakespearewasdeeplyimbuedwiththesenseofit.Hethoughtantithetically.Itwasthewayhissentencesoverandover
foundtheirshapeandtheirmeaning.
‘Antithesis’isinawayabadwordforsomethingverypractical.Itsoundsobscureandlearned.Perhapsitwouldbebetter
touseaphraseofShakespeare’sandtalkof‘settingthewordagainsttheword’.Inthesentencewe’vejustheard,‘inthe
mindtosuffer’issetagainst‘totakearms’,and‘byopposing’issetagainst‘endthem’.Sothatiswhatyouhavetodo:set
onewordorphraseagainstanother.Ifanactordoesn’tpointupantitheses,hewillbehardandsometimesimpossibleto
follow.
SHAKESPEARE’SIMAGERYfromSimplyShakespearebyTobyWiddicombe(pp.46-88)
Imageryconsistsoftwoqualitiesinherentinalllanguagebutmostfrequentlyfoundinpoetryandindramaticlanguage.
Thefirstcomprisesliteralstatementsthatappealtoanyorallofthefivesenses:sight,hearing,touch,taste,andsmell.
Thesecondcomprisesfigurativelanguage,non-literalstatementswhichaskustoseesomethinginsomeneworunusual
ways.
LiteralAppealstotheSensesfromMACBETH.Firsttheliteralappeals:
AppealtotheSenseofSight
WhenMacbethshoutsatBanquo’sghost:“Nevershake/Thygorylocksatme”(3.4.50)weseeaghostwithbloody,mattedhair.
AppealtotheSenseofHearing
WhenLadyMacbethsays,afterherhusbandmurdersDuncan:“Iheardtheowlscreamandcricketscry”(2.2.16),wehearthemtooinour
minds.
AppealtotheSenseofTouch
WhenMacbethshoutsatBanquo’sghost:“thybloodiscold”(3.4.95),wefeelthatsensation.
AppealtotheSenseofTaste
WhenMacbethtoastshisguestsatthebanquet,“Idrinktothegeneraljoyo’the’wholetable”(3.4.90),ourtastebudsarearoused.
AppealtotheSenseofSmell
WhenLadyMacbethinhermadnesstriestoremovethestainofherguiltforDuncan’smurderbywashingoffDuncan’snonexistentbloodfrom
herhands,shegrotesquelycomplains:“Here’sthesmellofthebloodstill”(5.1.49).Wesmellthatbloodtoo.
FigurativeLanguage.
Analogy.Thedescription(usuallydevelopedatsomelength)ofanideabycomparingitwithanotherideathatismore
familiar.Thedistinctionbetweenananalogyandasimileisthatinananalogytheframeworkofthecomparisonis
emphasized.InAsYouLikeIt,Jaquescomparesthelifeoftheindividualtothatofanactorplayingmanyroles.
2
Hyperboleisanexaggerationforthesakeofeffect.Itisnotmeanttobetakenliterally.Sometimeswesay:“Idon’t
understandawordyoujustsaid.”That’srarelyifevertrue(aslongasthepersonisspeakinginourownlanguage);we
simplysayittopointoutthattherewassomethingwrongwiththewayanideawasexpressed.
WhenMacbethsaystohiswife: …Iaminblood
Steppedinsofarthat,shouldIwadenomore,
Returningwereastediousasgooe’r(3.4.137-39)
HehashimselfmurderedDuncanandhistwoguardsaswellashavinghadthreemurdererskillBanquo.Nonetheless,hehasnotkilledsomany
menthathewouldhavetowadethroughtheirbloodasonewouldwadethroughastream.
Ironyisabroadandsometimesoverusedtermthatcomesinseveralvarieties.Whatallexamplesofironyshareisthe
realizationofasignificantgapbetweenappearanceandreality.Therearefourmaintypesofirony:cosmic,dramatic,
structural,andverbal.
1.Cosmicironyrevealshumanbeingstobeatthemercyofacruelfate.CosmicironyoccursinMacbethwhenMacbeth
decidestomakesuretheWitches’prophecythathewillbecomekingcomestrue.Hebecomesking,andisthenassuredbytheWitchesthatno
onewilloverthrowhimunlesstwoseeminglyimpossibleeventsoccur.Andso,Macbethistrickedbyamalignfate.
2.Dramaticironycreatestensionbyemphasizingthegapinknowledgebetweentheaudienceandsomeorallof
thecharactersonstage.Theaudienceseesalltheactiononstage;thecharactersareawareofonlypart.Dramaticirony,asyoumight
expect,isthecommonestformofironyinShakespeare’splays.WhenamessengerannouncestoLadyMacbeththatDuncanwillvisit
Macbeth’scastletohonorhimforhisbraveryindefeatingtheScottishrebels.Themessengersayssimply:“TheKingcomesheretonight”
(1.5.31).HemeansDuncan,buttheaudience(whichhaswitnessedtheWitches’prophesyingMacbethwillbeking)knowsthatShakespeare
meansMacbethaswellasDuncanbythetitle“King”.
3.Structuralironydoesnot(perhaps,cannot)occurinsopessimisticaplayasMacbeth.Hamlet,however,providesa
goodexampleofstructuralironyinthecharacterOphelia.Shedrawsmuchofherpowerfromhernaïveteincontrasttothecynicismof
Claudius,thedouble-dealingofPolonius(herfather),themachinationsofHamlethimself,andtheworldlinessoftheaudienceorreader.
4.Verbalironyisatoned-downformofsarcasminwhichsomeonesaysonethingbutmeansanother.Itisthislast
formthatismostcommonlyusedoutsidethecontextofliterature.If,forinstance,yougotoareallyboringpartyand,then,saytoafriend
afteryou’veleft:“Ihadawonderfultime!”you’rebeingironic.“Banquo’ssafe?”(3.4.25).Whatthewordsafeshouldmeaninalmostany
contextisthatBanquoisdeadand,so,he—Macbeth—issafe.
Metaphoristhesinglemostimportantandfrequentlyusedfigureofspeechwherethewriterdescribesoneideaorobject
intermsofanothersothereisanidentitybetweenthetwo.InMacbeth,whenLadyMacbethcallsmemory“thewarderof
thebrain”(1.7.66),sheissayingthatthememorylooksaftertheotherpartsofthemindinthesamewaythataprison
guardlooksafteraprisoner.Whenametaphortakesplaceovermorethanalineorisdevelopedatsomelength,itis
labeledanextendedmetaphor.InMacbeth,DuncanandBanquotalktogetheraftertherebelshavebeensuccessfullydefeated,anddevelopthe
samemetaphoratlength.Duncanbeginswithanagriculturalmetaphor:“Ihavebeguntoplantthee,andwilllabor/Tomaketheefullofgrowing”(1.4.2829).TowhichBanquoresponds:“ThereifIgrow,/Theharvestisyourown”(32-33).Duncanrepliesinkindwithametaphorsuggestingtheirrigationof
crops:“Myplenteousjoys,/Wantoninfullness,seektohidethemselves/Indropsofsorrow”(33-35).
Onomatopoeiaisadevicematchingthesoundofthewordascloselyaspossibletowhatisbeingdescribed.Wordssuchas
“buzz,”“tick-tock,”“hiss,”and“crash”aresupposedtorepresenttheverysoundstheydescribe.InMacbeth,theThird
Witch’scry“Adrum,adrum!”isintendedtoreinforcethesounditself(1.3.30).
OxymoronThisdeviceyokestogethertwocontradictoryideas.ItderivesfromtwoGreekwordswhichtogethermean
“sharp-dull.”Weuseoxymoraallthetimewithoutthinkinghowoddthecombinedtermsare:“bittersweet,”“jumbo
shrimp,”and“liquidpaper.”InMacbeth,theprotagonistdefendshismurderofDuncan’sguardswithastringofoxymora:“Whocanbewise,
amazed,temp’rateandfurious,/Loyalandneutral,inamoment?”(2.3.110-11).
Personification.Thisfigureofspeechtreatsanimals,ideas,orinanimateobjectsasiftheywerehuman.InMacbeth,when
MacbethpreparestomurderDuncanheissonervousthathebegstheearthnottobetrayhimandsaywhathehasdone:“Thousureandfirm-set
earth/Hearnotmystepswhichwaytheywalk,forfear/Theverystonesprateofmywhereabouts(2.1.57-59).Stonescannotliterallytalk(or“prate”).
Pun.Aplayonwordswithidenticalorverysimilarsoundsbutdifferentmeanings.Punsareimportantbecauseoftheir
abilitytoallowtheusertosaytwothingsatonce.Some,however,considerthepunthelowestformofhumor.
Shakespeareusespunsfrequently.AsimpleexampleisinMacbethwhenthetitlecharacterpunsonthewordgrave(inthesenseofboth
“serious”anda“tomb”)ashetalkswithBanquo,whomhewillsoonhavemurdered.Hesaystohim,“Weshouldhaveelsedesiredyourgoodadvice,/
Whichstillhathbeenbothgraveandprosperous,/Inthisday’scouncel”(3.1.21-23).Thissamepun(onson/sun)isevenmoreimportantinRichardIII,
3
whereitbecomesalmostamotif(somethingwhichrunsthroughouttheplayasacommentontheaction).Thefirsttwolinesoftheplay,whichare
spokenbythefutureRichardIII,read,“Nowisthewinterofourdiscontent/MadeglorioussummerbythissonofYork.”
Simile.Alongwithitsfigurativecousin,themetaphor,simileisoneofthecommonestliterarydevices.Simileisaless
powerfulliterarydevicethanismetaphor,however.Wheremetaphordenotesanidentitybetweentwodissimiliarthings,
similedenotesmerelyalikenessanddoessousingsuchintroductorywordsas“like,”or“as,”or“so.”Toclarifybriefly:
Whenonesays“Myloveislikearose,”you’reusingasimile;ifyouweretosay,“myloveisarose,”thatwouldbea
metaphor.Justasthereareextendedanalogiesandextendedmetaphors,sothereareextendedsimiles.
Symbol.Thisdevicerepresentsanabstractideabymeansofaconcrete(i.e.physical)object.Symbolscanbedividedfor
convenienceintopublic(oruniversal)andprivate(orgroup-specific)types.Thefirstofthesecanbeillustratedwellbya
rose,awell-knownsymbolofloveorthebeloved.Thesecondtypeofsymbolcanbeillustratedbyreferringtothepoetry
ofSylviaPlath,amajortwentieth-centuryAmericanpoet.Forher,blackshoeswereevocativeofherfather,andplaster
castsrepresentedherfragilesenseofself.Neitherisauniversalsymbol;theycanonlybeunderstoodinthecontextofher
poetryandlife.Symboldiffersfrommetaphorandsimilebecausewhereasinmetaphorandsimiletherelationismade
clear,withasymboltherelationisneverstatedbutonlyunderstood.Somesymbolsgainpowerfromtheirsimplicityand
frequency.
Shakespeare’sRhetoric.RhetoricbecameahighlydevelopedartintheClassicalworldunderthecareofsuchGreek
rhetoriciansasSocrates,Plato,andAristotle,andtheirRomandescendants:Cicero,Cato,andQuintilian.TheClassicalfivepartmodelfororganizinganypersuasivespeechhascomedowntoustodayasthemosteffectivemethodforconvincing
anaudienceofthevalidityofanargumentorpointofview.Thefivepartsare:
Invention.Thistermmeansdevelopmentofideas.Itrestsonthreeconcepts:
1.Ethos(orthecharacterofthespeaker)
2.Pathos(orappealstotheemotionsoftheaudience)
3.Logos(orthestructureoftheideaspresented).
Arrangement.Thistermreferstohowthespeechisorganized.Ideallythatorganizationisinsevenparts:
1.Opening
2.Statementofbackgroundfacts
3.Definitionofterms
4.Statementofthesisormainidea
5.Proof
6.Refutationoftheopposition’sarguments
7.Conclusion
Style.Thistermmeansfittingthelanguagetothesubjectandtotheaudience.Itdependsonfourqualities:
1.Accuracy
2.Clarity
3.Appropriateness
4.Colorfulness
Memory.Thistermreferstothewaysinwhichthelanguageitselfprovidesthespeakerandhisorheraudiencewiththemeanstoremember
theideaspresented.
Delivery.Thistermrefersprimarilytothepersuasiveedgegiventorhetoricbygestureandvoice.
AndhowdoesallthisrelatedirectlytoShakespeareandhisplays?
1.Rhetoriciseverywhereinhisplays,andsoitbecomesanotherusefulmeansofseeingwhatShakespeareistryingtodowithlanguage.
2.Hisstyleisremarkable,varyingquitedeliberatelyfromtheverysimpletotheimpressivelyornate.
3.Shakespeare’scharactersmakeappealsbased,withremarkablefrequency,onethos,pathos,andlogos.Justthinkforamomentaboutthe
powerofHenryV’sspeechatHarfleur(3.1.1-34),thefamousonebeginning“Oncemoreuntothebreach,dearfriends,oncemore.”That
speechworksbecauseofathreefoldappeal.
•Itworksbecauseofethosorthecharacteroftheking:Hehassufferedwhathistiredmenhavesuffered.
•ItworksbecauseofpathosorHenryV’sappealstotheemotionsofhissoldiers(menwhomhecalls“dearfriends,”“noblest
English”and“goodyeomen”).
•Itworksbecauseofthespeech’slogosorcleardevelopment(fromrequestthroughseveralwell-developedmetaphorsandsimiles
toanappealtopatriotismandbackattheendtothatsamerequest:Stormthetown’sdefensesevenagainsttheodds).
4
Shakespeare’sDramaticRhetoric
Adage.Apithyorshortsayingverymuchlikeaproverboraphorism.“Astitchintimesavesnine”or“hastemakeswaste”
arewell-knownadages.InRichardII,JohnofGauntremarkstoBolingbroke,“Thereisnovirtuelikenecessity”(1.3.278).
Alliteration.Therepetitionofthesameinitialsounds(usuallyconsonants)insuccessiveornearbywords.Guildenstern’shope
inHamletthathecanhelpGertrudefindthecauseofthechangeinherson’spersonalityshowsamoresophisticateduseofthesamedevice:“Heaven’s
makeourpresenceandourpractices/Pleasantandhelpfultohim!”(2.2.38-39).Here,thereisadoublealliterationof“h”and“p”consonantswiththefirst
alliterationbracketingthesecond.
Anaphora.Therepetitionofwordsatthebeginningofsuccessiveclauses,lines,orsentences.Shakespearebegins
RichardIIIwithhis“Nowisthewinterofourdiscontent”speech.Togiveclearstructuretothespeech,ShakespearehastheDukerepeat
“Now”atthebeginningoflines5and10,and“I”atornearthebeginningoflines14,16,18,23,24,30,and37.
Antistrophe.Therepetitionofwordsattheendofsuccessiveclauses,lines,orsentences.Thisdeviceis,then,thereverse
oftheoneabove,anaphora.InMacbeth,forexample,Macbeth,afterhehaskilledDuncan,looksdownathisbloodstainedhandsandcomments,
“Thisisasorrysight.”Hiswife,inanefforttosnaphimoutofhisshock,replies,“Afoolishthought,tosayasorrysight”(2.2.24-25).
Aside.Thisdeviceisusuallydefinedasacommentorshortspeechbyonecharactertotheaudienceortoanother
characterwhich,byconvention,isnotheardbytheothercharactersonstage.Suchadefinition,however,scarcelycovers
thewidevarietyofasidesusedbyShakespeareinhisplays.Asalways,helikestobreakthe“rules”forthegoodofdramatic
effect.AtypicalasideisViola/Cesario’sremarkinTwelfthNighttotheaudiencewhenher/hisbeloved,Orsino,asksher/himtowooOliviaonhisbehalf.
Sheresponds:“Yetabarfulstrife!/Whoe’erIwoo,myselfwouldbehiswife”(1.4.41-42).
Assonance.Repetitionofvowelsoundsinsuccessiveornearbywordswheretheconsonantsthatfollowthevowelsand
sometimesthosethatprecedethevowelsdifferfromeachother.InMacbeth,theWitches’chantat1.3.32-37employsassonancewith
the“i”soundsof“thrice,”and“mine,”and“thrice”and“nine.”
Caesura.Apauseinalineofverseorprose.Itusuallyoccursinthemiddleofthelineorsentence,andisfrequently
signaledoremphasizedbypunctuation.CaesuraisoneofShakespeare’sfavoritedevices.Heusesittomatchthespeedof
deliverytotheemotionofthespeakerandtobreakupthelongiambicpentameterlinesthatarethestapleofhisplays.
Chiasmus.Thesequenceoftwoormorephrasesinthefirstpartofasentenceorlineofpoetryisreversedinthesecond
half.Numerically,thesequencewouldberepresented1-2-2-1.PresidentJohnF.Kennedy’sfamousexhortationtotheAmericanpeople
inhisInaugurationAddressisaclassicexampleofchiasmus(combinedinthiscasewithanaphora):“asknotwhatyourcountrycandoforyou;askwhat
youcandoforyourcountry”(Horner322).InRichardII,thedeposedkingreflectsonthemistakeshemadeinhislife:“Iwastedtime,andnowdothtime
wasteme”(5.5.49).
Consonance.Repetitionoffinalconsonantsoundsinsuccessiveornearbywordsinwhichthevowelsoundsaredifferent.
Thisdevicedoesforconsonantrepetitionwhatassonancedoesforvowels.Ineverydayspeech,thewords“lad”and“tread”
areanexampleofconsonance.In3HenryVI,thefutureofEdwardIVinsultsHenryVIandhisqueen,Margaret:
Butwhenhe[HenryVI]tookabeggartohisbed
Andgracedthypoorsirewithhisbridalday,
Eventhenthatsunshinebrewedashowerforhim
Thatwashedhisfather’sfortunesforthofFrance
Andheapedseditiononhiscrownathome.
Forwhathathbroachedthistumultbutthypride?(2.2.154-59,emphasisadded)
Threeofthewords--bed,brewed,andbroached--areanexampleofsustainedconsonance(aswell,incidentally,of
alliteration).Eachendsinthesameconsonant(bed,brewed,andbroached),buteachtimethatconsonanthasadifferent
vowelsoundbeforeit(bed,brewed,andbroached).Indeedafourthexampleinthesamespeechcouldalmostbeaddedto
thelist,forthewordbridal,followedasitisbydayhasalmostthesamepatternastheotherthree.
Ethos.Thecharacterofthespeakerand,byextension,thematchbetweenthecontentofthelinesspokenandthe
personalityandworthofthespeaker.TheconceptisavitaloneinShakespeare’splaysbecausetheaudienceneedstobe
abletojudgewhethertotrustsomeone’swords.Alongwithlogosandpathos,itisoneofthemajorformsofpersuasion
availabletoanydramaticcharacter.
5
Logos.Thefitbetweenthoughtanditsexpressionaswellastheappearanceofcleardevelopment.Alongwithethosand
pathos,itisoneofthemajorformsofpersuasionavailabletoanydramaticcharacter.Logosisacrucialconceptbecauseit
allowstheaudienceorreadertojudgethequalityofanycharacter’swords.Whereethosdescribesthecharacterofthe
speaker,logosdefinestherelationbetweenthoughtandexpression.Atitssimplest,howappropriatearethewordstothe
ideasbeingexpressed?
Pathos.Theemotioninaspeech,dialogue,orentireplay,thepurposebeingtomovetheaudiencetosorrow,compassion,
andsympathy.Alongwithethosandlogos,itisoneofthemajorformsofpersuasionavailabletoanydramaticcharacter.
Pathosasapersuasivedeviceiswonderfullyeffectivebecauseittargetsthewaysinwhichallhumanbeingsare
fundamentallythesame.Atthedeepestlevel,weallhavethesamesenseofunfulfilleddesire,thesamefeelingofregret,
thesamefearofdeath.
Rhyme.Therepetitionofidenticalstressedvowelsoundsinwordsaswellasallthesoundsafterthestressedvowel.
Rhymecanbethoughtofasacombinationofassonanceandconsonance,andmostoftenreferstowordsattheendsof
successivelinesthatmatchIthewayI’vejustdescribed.Suchaninstanceofrhymeisstrictlycalledendrhyme,butthere
aremanyexamplesinShakespeareandotherpoetsofinternalrhyme,thatisrhymeusedelsewhereinlinesofpoetryor
prose.Therearethreetypesofrhyme,dependingonthenumberofsyllablesthatrhyme:
1.
2.
3.
Masculine(orsingle)rhyme,inwhichtherhymeinvolvesonlyonestressedsyllable(runandfun).
Feminine(ordouble)rhyme,inwhichboththestressedsyllableandthesyllablefollowinghavethesamesound(thunderandwonder).
Triplerhyme,inwhichthestressedsyllableandthetwosyllablesthatfollowallhavethesamesound(gloriousandfurious).
Rhymeisthegreatestmnemonicdevicethatthepoethastoworkwithbecausethemindinstantlypicksuponthe
repetitionofidenticalsounds.Thevalueofrhyme,then,asrhetoricisthatitpersuadesbyemphasizingparticularwordsor
ideas.Italsoprovidessomethingelse,variety.
Soliloquy.Aspeechdeliveredtotheaudiencebyacharacterwhenaloneonstage.Thecontentofthespeechisofoneof
twokinds:eitherthecharacterrevealshis/herinnermostthoughts,orhe/shepreviewsthecomingactionbylettingthe
audienceknowwhathis/herintentionsare.Sometimes,asoliloquy(suchasIago’sinOthello1.3.383-405)combinesboth
purposes.AlthoughShakespeare’smostfamoussoliloquiescomefromhisgreattragedies,hewrotethemthroughouthis
career.
Stichomythia.Adialogueinwhichtwocharactersdisputewitheachotherinshortalternatinglines.Oneofthebest
examplesinallofShakespeareisthedialoguebetweenRichardIIIandQueenElizabeth,thewidowofRichard’sbrother,
EdwardIV,inRichardIII4.4.ThetopicoftheirdisputeisRichard’swishtomarrytheQueen’sdaughter,ElizabethofYork.
RichardbeginsbypointingoutthatsheisthedaughterofthequeenknowsthatRichardhasareputationforkillingthose
whogetclosetohim,notleasthispreviouswife,LadyAnne.Thekingopenstherapid-firedialogueitselfbystatingthat
ElizabethofYork“isaroyalprincess,”andthedebatecontinues:
QUEENELIZABETH
Tosaveherlife,I’llsaysheisnotso.
KINGRICHARD
Herlifeissafestoninherbirth.
QUEENELIZABETH
Andonlyinthatsafetydiedherbrothers(theprincesintheTower).
KINGRICHARD
Lo,attheirbirthgoodstarswereopposite.
QUEENELIZABETH
No,totheirlivesillfriendswerecontrary.
KINGRICHARD
Allunavoidedisthedoomofdestiny(213-18).
Peopledotendtospeakinshortsentences,buttheyalsorarelygiveeachotheralternatinglines.So,whatisShakespeare’s
purpose?Tochangethetempoofhisplaysandtoemphasizetheimportanceofparticularconcernsbythealternating
rhythmofstichomythia.StichomythiaissimplyonemorewayinwhichShakespearevarieshisrhetorictomakehis
dramaticpointmorepersuasively.
Pattern,Repetition,Variation
SomuchforthespecificsofShakespeare’smasterfuldramaticrhetoric.Theoveralleffectofthatrhetoricneedstobe
examined,too,andthateffectcanbestbesummedupinthreewords:pattern,repetition,andvariation.
6
Pattern
Patternismostobviousinsuchdevicesasstichomythiaandrhyme,butitalsoappearsinanaspectof
Shakespeare’srhetoricthatislessobviousbutultimatelymoresignificant:manyofhismajorcharactersuse
languageinaparticular,individualway.Tousethetechnicalterm,eachofthemhasanidiolect.
Repetition
RepetitionisevidentinmanyoftherhetoricaldevicesShakespeareused:alliteration,anaphora,antistrophe,
assonance,caesura,chiasmus,consonance,isocolon,rhyme,andstichomythiaareallatheart,formsofrepetition.
Yet,Shakespeareismuchmoresubtleinhisuseofrepetition.
•Thereisthesimplerepetitioninproseofakeyterm.InOthello,forexample,thereisIago’sconstantreturntothewordmoneyin
hisspeechtoRoderigowherehesuccessfullyconvinceshimtocontinuetryingtoseduceDesdemona.
•Thereistherepetitioninduetformwheretwocharactersshowtheirclosenessbybeingalmostofonevoice.So,inTheMerchant
ofVenice,thetwolovers(LorenzoandJessica)showtheirmutualaffectionbyeachechoingthesamephraseacross24lines.Eight
timestheyinterweavethewords,“Insuchanight”(5.1.1-24).
•Thereistherepetitionacrossthescenesofaplay,arhetoricaldevicewhichtiestogethertheactionofaplayjustasamelodygives
coherencetoapieceofmusic.So,inTheMerchantofVenice,thePrinceofMorocco’sworryat2.1.1thathewillberejectedby
Portiabecauseofthecolorofhisskin(“Mislikemenotformycomplexion,”hesays)isechoedsixsceneslaterbyPortia’sclosing
couplet.
•Thereisevenrepetitionamongplays,arhetoricaltracethatsuggestsShakespeare’saffectionforcertainwords,ideas,orpreviously
successfuldramaticstrategies.
Variation
Shakespeare’smostpersuasivedeviceisonethatstressestherangeofhispowersasawordsmithbyjuxtaposing
thetwoendsofthespectrumoflanguage:sometimes,simplicityandcomplexity;sometimes,straightforward
wordchoiceandgrandiloquence.Againandagain,heachievesvarietyinhisplaysbyhavingasimplestatement
followacomplexone.InMacbeth,MacbethwonderswhetherthestainofDuncan’smurdercaneverbewashed
offhishands.ShakespearehasMacbethbeginhisanswertothatquestionwithlongimpressive-soundingwords
andthenrepeathimselfinasimplershorterway: WithallgreatNeptune’soceanwashthisblood
Cleanfrommyhand?No,thismyhandwillrather
Themultitudinousseasincarnadine,
Makingthegreenoneread(2.2.64-67).
SOMECLUESregardingShakespeare’sGRAMMAR
Mostlanguageshaveafamiliarformandapoliteformof‘you’.InShakespeare’stimethatwasalsotrueofEnglish.
‘Thou’wasthefamiliarformofyouandhaditsownverbpart,e.g. Thouart=youare;Thouhast=youhave;Thoudost=youdo
‘You’wasthepoliteformusedtostrangersorsocialsuperiors.AswithotherEuropeanlanguages,thiswasalsotheplural
formoftheverb.Thereforeaconjugatedverbwouldincludeanextrapart–thesecondpersonsingular:
ToBe Singular
Iam Thouart
He,she,it,is
Plural Weare Youare Theyare
ToHave
Singular
Ihave Thouhast
He,she,it,has
Plural Wehave
Youhave
Theyhave
ToDo
Singular Ido
Thoudost Sheheitdoes
Plural
Wedo
Youdo
Theydo
Itisimportanttonotethatusing‘thou’toasocialequalorsuperiorwouldconstituteaninsult,unlesstheywereaclose
friendorfamilymember.
AsinmodernEnglish,theverbisinvertedinordertoaskaquestion:
Areyou?
Haveyou?
Didyou?
Wouldyou?
Withthesecondpersonsingularfollowingthisrule:
Artthou?
Hastthou?
Dostthou?
Wouldstthou? Etc.
Theewasusedwhenthepersonwastheobjectofthesentence:
Igivetheeanapple.
Idefythee.
Ilovethee.
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Thisoriginallymatchedwith‘me’.Sowhereyouwouldsay”Hegavemeanapple,”“Hedefiesme”,or”Helovesme”,you
substitute‘thee’whenitisappliedto‘you.’
‘Thy’isthepossessive,meaning‘your’:
“Thisisthydoing.”“Iwishthyheartweremine.”“ItisthyloveIwant.”
Thisoriginallymatchedwith‘my’.SoifyouwantedtosayThisismydoing,IwishmyheartwerehisorItismylovehe
wants,yousubstitute‘thy’whenitisappliedto‘you.’
Thineisalsopossessiveandusedinthesamesenseas‘mine’:
Thisappleisnowthine;AllIhaveisthine;
Usingthefamiliarformastheobjectofasentence.Youhavelearnedhowtousethefamiliarform‘thou’asthesubjectof
asentence,andhowtouseitinquestions.Whenitbecomestheobjectofasentenceitchanges.Whenyouuse‘I’asa
sentenceobject,itbecomes‘me’;youwouldnotsay‘HegavethebooktoI’,but‘Hegavethebooktome’.Thefamiliar
formfollowsthispattern.‘Hegavethebooktothee’(not‘Hegavethebooktothou’).
Thisisalsotrueofthepossessiveforms.Toindicatebelonging,wewouldsay,‘Thisismybook,’orperhaps,‘Thisbookismine.’
Inthefamiliarform,thisbecomes‘Thisisthybook’or‘Thisbookisthine.’
Formsofaddress
InShakespeare’sday,mannerswerefarmoreformalthaninmoderntimes,andasocietysoclassconsciousthatthey
prescribedwhatmaterialsandcoloursthedifferentclasses,or‘estates’astheywerecalled,shouldwear,wasvery
particularaboutsuitablemodesofaddress.
TheKingorQueenwouldbeaddressedas‘YourGrace’or‘YourHighness’,orsometimes‘MyLiege’,rarelyifeveras‘Your
Majesty’.
Generallytheupperclasseswerereferredtoas‘MyLord’orMyLady’,(oftenjust‘Lady’)withchildrenbeingcalled‘My
youngLord’or‘MyyoungLady’.
Itoftendependedonwhowasaddressingthem,e.g.TheDukeofNorthumberlandmightbeaddressedas‘MyLordDuke’,
or‘MyLordofNorthumberland’,or‘Northumberland’,or‘Gaunt’(thefamilyname)or‘oldGaunt’or‘Cousin’or‘Uncle’or
‘Father’or‘MyLord’or‘Sir’or‘Husband’or(rarely)‘John’,dependingonwhowastalkingtohimatthetime.
AKnightwouldgenerallybecalledbyhistitleandfirstname,as‘SirToby’orSirAndrew’.Amoregeneralmodeofaddress
wouldjustbe‘Sir’or‘Madam’,ormaybe‘Gentleman’or‘Gentlewoman’(pluralformscouldalsobeused).
Middleclasspeoplemightbeaddressedas‘Goodman’or‘Goodwife’(oftenshortenedto‘Goody’,asin‘GoodyTwoShoes’).
‘Master’or‘Mistress’wasapolitealternative,usuallyaccompaniedbyaname,like‘MasterJones’or‘MistressMary’.
Peoplewithmilitaryrankswouldbeaddressedbythem,as‘Captain’or‘Lieutenant’.
TheChurchwasamuchmoreimportantinstitutionthen,andhaditsownlevelsofhierarchy,sothatabishopwouldbe
addressedas‘MyLordBishop’,apriestas‘SirPriest’orbyhisnamelike‘SirTopas’andacurateas‘MasterCurate’.
Lowerclasspeoplewouldnormallybeaddressedas‘fellow’or‘wench’.Howeverthiscouldalsobequalifiedbyusingajob
appellationlike‘Smith’or‘Innkeeper’,perhapswiththeadditionof‘Master’and,ifyouwantedtobespeciallypolite,
‘Good’aswell,sothat‘GoodMasterInnkeeper’mightgetyoubetterservice!WhenFesteorTouchstoneareaddressedas
‘Fool’itsignifiestheirprofessionandisnotaninsult,andisoftencoupledwith‘Good’.However,justasinmoderntimes,
theuseof‘Good’canhaveironicconnotations,whichthestudentneedstolookoutfor!Ofcoursefamilyandclosefriends
woulduseChristiannames,aswedotoday.
DerivativesofHere,There,andWhere.InShakespeare’stime,peoplenotonlyused‘here,‘there’and‘where’toreferto
places,theyalsohadtheformshither,thitherandwhither,meaningroughly‘tohere’,‘tothere’and‘towhere’;inaddition
theyusedhence,thence,andwhence,meaningroughly‘fromhere’,‘fromthere’and‘fromwhere’.Forexample,someonemight
ask,“Whithergoestthou?”(Whereareyougoingto?)andcouldreceivetheanswer,“O,hitherandthither”(O,hereandthere.)Ifapersonwasasked,
“Whencecameyou,master/mistress?”theymightreply“FromCanterbury,goodsir/madam.”Ifquestionedaboutwhentheycame,theycouldanswer
“Irodethenceyesterday.”Anidleservantmightbetold,“Gettheehence,thouknave.”
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