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CHAPTER 5
5.
THE VERB: TENSES, MOOD AND REFLEXIVE VERBS
In this section of chapter 5 the different tenses of the verb will be discussed. Even
though one cannot assume that time is always divided into past, present and future
and is expressed formally by way of morphological changes in the verb form in all
languages (Lyons 1969:304), this is true to some extent for both German and Zulu. As
Posthumus (1988:282) points out, it is necessary to distinguish between tense and
time reference. The distinction between absolute tense and relative tense is relevant
for both languages under discussion and could provide some point of departure for the
Zulu-speaking learner of German, even though relative tense manifests itself in
different ways in these languages. Bantu language scholars, such as Posthumus
(1988), for example, have described relative tense in Zulu in terms of auxiliary verb
stems and complementary verb stems expressing tense relative to coding time,
whereas relative tense in German is dependent on context to express the relationship
between coding time and event time. However, it could prove to be relevant to the
teacher of German for Zulu speaking learners to be aware of the semantic equivalents
in Zulu when it comes to enabling these learners to understand the concept of relative
time in German.
The term ‘main verb’ will be used to denote the verb in the sentence that carries the
semantic value in German, as opposed to the auxiliary verb, which has a secondary
(semantic) role. This applies to compound tenses such as the perfect, pluperfect and
future tenses.
5.1
5.1.1
The present tense in German
The formal characteristics of the present tense in German
In German the form of the verb in the present tense is dependent on the subject. The
changes that take place when nouns are involved are limited to distinguishing between
singular and plural, involving the stem of irregular verbs (verbs that exhibit changes
in the stem vowel in the 2nd and 3rd person singular in the present tense and/or in any
of the past tense forms), as well as the suffixes -t and -en.
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1.
Der Vater fährt nach Hause.
(The father drives home.)
2.
Die Väter fahren nach Hause.
(The fathers drive home.)
Where personal pronouns are used, the suffixes -e and -st are used for 1st and 2nd
person singular respectively, -t for 3rd person singular as well as for 2nd person
plural, and -en for 1st and 3rd person plural, as well as for the polite form.
3.
Ich fahre nach Hause.
(I am driving home.)
4.
Du fährst nach Hause.
(You are driving home.)
5.
Er fährt nach Hause.
(He is driving home.)
6.
Wir fahren nach Hause.
(We are driving home.)
7.
Ihr fahrt nach Hause.
(You are driving home.)
8.
Sie fahren nach Hause.
(They are driving home/You are driving home [polite form]).
The verb fahren is classified as an irregular verb, because the verb stem vowel changes
from -a- to -ä- in second and third person singular. Compare examples 1, 4 and 5 to 2,
3, 6, 7 and 8.
The Umlaut is not the only mechanism employed in these vowel changes in the
present tense. The -e- in the verb sehen (to see) changes to -ie- in 2nd and 3rd person
singular and the -e- in the stem of the verb geben (to give) changes to -i- in 2nd and 3rd
person singular. All vowels that can take Umlaut do undergo this change in irregular
verbs in 2nd and 3rd person singular (present tense) but not all -e- stems undergo the
change to -i- or -ie-, even though the verbs in question may be classified as irregular,
because of other stem vowel changes involving the past tenses. Compare examples 9
and 10 to 11 and 12 below. Even though the verb stehen is classified as irregular
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because of the verb stem change in the past tense stand, the stem vowel does not
change in the present tense. The stem vowel of the irregular verb stoßen, however, does
change to -ö-
9.
Ich stehe am Fenster.
(I am standing at the window.)
10.
Du stehst am Fenster.
(You are standing at the window.)
11.
Ich stoße mit dir zusammen.
(I collide with/bump into you.)
12.
Du stößt mit mir zusammen.
(You collide with/bump into me.)
The error analysis reveals that Afrikaans speaking learners have greater difficulty
with respect to congruence of subject and verb form and could benefit from a more
detailed explanation as well as additional exercises, both written and oral. (See page
28.) An explicit comparison with English might also benefit the learners, who have all
learnt English in a formal setting.
5.2
5.2.1
The present tense in Zulu
The formal characteristics of the present tense in Zulu
As far as the formal aspects of the verb system are concerned, Zulu is more complex
than German. As has already been established, the whole noun class system and the
personal pronouns for first and second person come into play. In addition to the
influence of the noun class system, the form of the agreement morpheme used in the
particular verb may also be influenced if used with a vowel verb stem. Compare
examples 13 and 14, where the normal agreement morpheme for class 9 is used with
the verb -dla (to eat), but the morpheme y- is added to the verb -eba (to steal).
13.
Inja idla ukudla.
(The dog eats the food.)
14.
Inja yeba ukudla.
(The dog steals the food.)
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Zulu distinguishes a long and a short form of the present tense. The long form is used
when the verb is in the positive and the focal point of the sentence, providing new
information or appearing in the sentence final position. Compare examples 15 and 16
with the German equivalent in examples 17 and 18.
15. Umama wenzani? Umama uyapheka.
(What is Mother doing? Mother is cooking.)
16. Umama uphekani? Umama upheka ukudla.
(What is mother cooking? Mother is cooking food.)
17. Was macht Mutter? Sie kocht.
(What is Mother doing? Mother is cooking.)
18. Was kocht Mutter? Sie kocht das Essen.
(What is mother cooking? Mother is cooking food.)
In example 15 the long form of the verb is used, as opposed to the short form in 16.
In the German examples these verb forms are identical.
5.3
The use of the present tense
The present tense is mainly used to denote an action taking place at speech/coding
time, or on a regular basis, (iterative events/actions) as well as for expressing
universal truths (a-temporal events/actions). This is true for both German and Zulu.
Example 19 is an examples of the absolute tense, where the morphological structure
of the verb indicates that the event is taking place at the moment of utterance, also
called the deictic centre (Posthumus 1988:284). Example 20 is an examples of the use
of the present tense for iterative events/actions, while example 21 illustrates the use
of the present tense for a-temporal events. Examples 21 illustrate that knowledge of
the world can also act as determiner of the relationship between coding time and event
time.
19.
Die Mutter kocht das Essen.
Umama upheka ukudla.
(The mother is cooking the food.) (present tense)
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20.
Du fährst jeden Tag zur Arbeit.
Uya emsebenzini nsuku zonke.
(You travel to work every day.) (iterative action)
21.
Die Sonne geht im Osten auf.
Ilanga liphuma eMpumalanga.
(The sun rises in the East.) (a-temporal event)
The present tense is also used for the historical present, where one relates something
that happened in the past, but switches over to the present tense when the narrator
wants to create a feeling of immediacy in order to involve the listener, or keep the
interest by making it more exciting.
22.
Gestern fuhr ich auf der Autobahn, und plötzlich kommt ein Motorrad auf mich zu. Ich bremse
scharf, aber es knallt trotzdem.
Izolo ngihamba emgwaqeni kwaqonda isithuthuthu kimi. Ngishaye amabhuliki kodwa ingozi
ivelile.
(Yesterday, as I was travelling on the freeway, a motorcycle suddenly came towards me. I
braked sharply, but the accident happened nevertheless.)
One can also express something that will happen in the future by using temporal
adverbs with the present tense. It expresses a high degree of certainty about a future
occurrence.
23.
Nächstes Jahr mache ich das Abitur.
Ngonyaka ozayo ngibhala umatriki.
(Next year I will do my matric.)
5.4
The past tense in German
In the German verb system provision is made for three different past tenses, as in
English. These are the simple past tense (Präteritum), the perfect tense (Perfekt) and
the pluperfect tense (Plusquamperfekt).
5.4.1
The form of the simple past tense
The simple past tense of regular verbs (80% of the verbs in German) is formed by
adding the suffix -t to the stem as well as the ending -e for 1st and 3rd person singular, -
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nd
est for 2
person singular, -en for 1st and 3rd person plural and the polite form, and -et
for 2nd person plural. Consider the paradigm below.
Singular
Plural
1
ich machte
wir machten
2nd
du machtest
ihr machtet
er/sie machte
sie/Sie machten
st
rd
3
The simple past tense of irregular verbs is formed by changing the verb stem and
adding the ending -(e)st to the stem of the 2nd person singular, -en to the verb stem of
1st and 3rd person plural and the polite form, and -(e)t to the stem of 2nd person plural.
No ending is added to 1st and 3rd person singular. Consider the paradigms below for
the verbs kommen and finden.
1st
Singular
Plural
ich kam
wir kamen
nd
du kamst
ihr kamt
rd
er/sie kam
sie/Sie kamen
Singular
Plural
2
3
1st
ich fand
wir fanden
nd
2
du fandest
ihr fandet
3rd
er/sie fand
sie/Sie fanden
A third group of verbs is distinguished, which seems to have characteristics of both
the regular and the irregular verbs. The vowel of the verb stem changes, but the
endings correspond to those used for regular verbs. Consider the paradigm for the
verb kennen, which belongs to this mixed category, as do the modal verbs, as well as
nennen, brennen, denken, bringen, senden and wenden.
Singular
Plural
1
ich kannte
wir kannten
2nd
du kanntest
ihr kanntet
er/sie kannte
sie/Sie kannten
st
rd
3
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5.4.2
The use of the simple past tense
The simple past tense (Präteritum) is used to express that something happened at
some unspecified time in the past. In German this form of the verb is used mainly for
relating a story. The events are concluded. This usage can be considered absolute
tense, since the morphological structure of the verb indicates that the actions/events
occurred at a time preceding the deictic centre. Consider the following example:
24.
5.4.3
Es war einmal ein armer Holzfäller. Er hatte zwei Kinder. Eines Tages ging er mit ihnen in den
Wald und ließ sie dort allein.
(Once upon a time there was a poor forester. He had two children. One day he went to the
woods with them and left them there all alone.)
The form of the perfect tense in German
The perfect tense in German is formed by using the present tense of either haben (to
have) or sein (to be) as auxiliary verb. The form of the auxiliary verb is determined by
the subject of the sentence. These two verbs are irregular, as can be seen in the
following paradigms.
1st
Singular
Plural
ich bin
wir sind
nd
du bist
ihr seid
rd
er/sie ist
sie/Sie sind
Singular
Plural
ich habe
wir haben
2
du hast
ihr habt
3rd
er/sie hat
2
3
1st
nd
sie/Sie haben
The auxiliary verb haben is used with transitive verbs (i.e. verbs that can take an
object), reflexive verbs, modal verbs (wollen, sollen, müssen, dürfen, können and mögen),
intransitive verbs that do not indicate a change of place or state and most so-called
impersonal verbs, e.g. es regnet (it is raining). Exceptions to this rule are: es geschieht, es
passiert, es kommt vor, es bekommt and es gelingt, Intransitive verbs that do indicate a
change of place or state are used with the auxiliary verb sein (to be). The verbs bleiben (to
stay) and sein (to be) are exceptions to this rule. Consider the following examples:
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25.
Die Kinder haben den Kuchen gegessen.
(The children have eaten the cake.)
[Transitive verb]
26.
Der Fahrer hat sich verirrt.
(The driver has lost his way.)
[Reflexive verb]
Du hast das Buch lesen wollen.
(You have wanted to read the book.)
[Modal verb]
Das Kind hat geschlafen.
(The child has slept.)
[Intransitive verb, no change of place or state]
Das Kind ist eingeschlafen.
(The child has fallen asleep.)
[Intransitive verb, change of state]
Es hat geregnet.
(It has rained.)
[Impersonal verb]
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Die Mutter ist zu Hause geblieben.
(The mother has stayed at home.)
The form of the main verb, the past participle in this particular verb group, is
determined, as is the case in the simple past tense, by whether it belongs to the
regular, irregular or mixed category. This past participle is formed by adding the
prefix ge- to the stem of the verb. In the case of regular verbs the suffix is always -t.
This can be seen in the following example:
32.
Du hast eine Reise gemacht.
(You have undertaken a journey.)
[ge-+ -mach- + -t]
The past participle of irregular verbs is formed by adding the prefix ge- to a verb stem
that can have a different stem vowel to the stem vowel in the infinitive form of the
verb in question, as well as the suffix -en. Compare the following examples:
33.
34.
Der Dieb hat die Kamera gestohlen.
(The thief has stolen the camera.)
[ge- + -stohl- {from stehlen}+ -en]
Du hast den Roman gelesen.
(You have read the novel.)
[ge- + -les- {from lesen}+ -en]
Verbs from the mixed category have the prefix ge-, the verb stem vowel changes and
the suffix is -t.
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35.
Der Junge ist über die Straße gerannt.
(The boy has run across the street.)
ge- + -rann- {from rennen} +-t
The verbs sollen and wollen are the only ones in this category that do not have a
different stem vowel in the past participle to the vowel in the infinitive.
36.
Das hast du gewollt.
(That is what you wanted.)
[ge- + -woll- {from wollen}+ -t]
The prefix ge- is omitted where verbs already have a prefix or end in -ieren. Some
examples of such verbs are vergessen (to forget), beginnen (to begin), gedeihen (to thrive),
erfahren (to come to one’s attention) and entdecken (to discover), as well as diktieren (to dictate),
telefonieren (to phone), existieren (to exist), etc.
Compound verbs consisting of a separable prefix and a stem form the past participle
by inserting the -ge- between the prefix and the verb stem. The separable prefixes are
mostly prepositions. Some examples of such verbs are aufstehen (to get up), nachlesen (to
read up), vorbeugen (to prevent) and many more.
5.4.4
The use of the perfect tense in German
The perfect tense (Perfekt) is the ‘conversation’ tense and is used for verbal
exchanges relating to events in the recent past that still have an effect on the present
or are completed relative to the present.
37.
Willst du etwas essen? Nein danke. Ich habe schon gegessen.
(Would you like to eat something? No thank you, I have already eaten.)
There are a few verbs that are very seldom used in this form, even though the context
would normally require it. These verbs are sein and haben, as well as the modal verbs
sollen, wollen, mögen, müssen, dürfen and können.
These verbs take the form of the simple past tense, which means that no auxiliary
verbs are required. Example 38 serves as an illustration of this usage. The principle of
linguistic economy and simplicity is probably at work here (Bene, 1985) considering
that the opposite tendency has been established, namely that the so-called Präteritum
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is in the process of disappearing from spoken German and is no longer used in some
dialects (Abraham and Conradie, 2001). According to Rug and Tomaszewski
(1993:67) some Präteritum forms sound archaic or pretentious and have been
replaced by the perfect tense.
38.
Gestern Abend wollte ich mit meiner Freundin in die Disco gehen. Sie konnte aber nicht
mitgehen, denn sie hatte Kopfschmerzen. Da bin ich allein gegangen.
(Last night I wanted to go to the disco with my friend. She could not go, because she had a
headache, so I went alone).
39.
Gestern Abend habe ich mit meiner Freundin in die Disco gehen wollen. Sie hat nicht mitgehen
können, denn sie hat Kopfschmerzen gehabt.
Example 39 is not grammatically incorrect, but it is very unlikely that any L1 speaker
of German would use the perfect tense with those verbs, except in the dialects
mentioned by Abraham (Abraham and Conradie, 2001).
The perfect tense as relative tense can be used to refer to the future by using temporal
adverbs.
40.
5.4.5
Bis Ende Januar hat er das geschafft.
(By the end of January he will have achieved that.)
The form of the pluperfect (Plusquamperfekt)
The only formal difference between the perfect and the pluperfect tense is the form of
the auxiliary verb, which is used in its Präteritum form, namely hatte (from haben) and
war (from sein). All the other rules concerning the use of a particular auxiliary verb and
the form of the past participle are the same for both tenses. Compare examples 41 and
41a to 28 and 29, which are repeated here.
41.
Das Kind hatte geschlafen.
(The child had slept.)
41a.
Das Kind war eingeschlafen.
(The child had fallen asleep.)
28.
Das Kind hat geschlafen.
(The child slept).
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29.
5.4.6
Das Kind ist eingeschlafen.
(The child has fallen asleep).
The use of the pluperfect
As in English the pluperfect tense is only used for events/actions that precede the
deictic centre. Expressing an event that occurred in the past before another event that
also occurred in the past requires the so-called Plusquamperfekt. A comparison with
the pluperfect tense in English could be helpful to the learner.
42.
Als ich gestern nach Hause kam, sah ich, dass ein Dieb eingebrochen hatte.
(When I came home yesterday, I saw that a thief had broken in.)
Expressing the idea that something occurred in the remote past is not necessarily
linked to a specific morphological structure of the verb, but rather to other elements
such as temporal adverbs and other expressions denoting time.
43.
Vor vielen Jahren kam ein junger Mann in einer fremden Stadt an. Er sah, dass ein böser
Zauberer alle Kinder entführt hatte.
(Many years ago a young man arrived in a strange town. He saw that an evil magician had
abducted all the children.)
In example 42 the verb forms refer to events in the recent past, whereas the same
tenses in example 43 refer to events in the remote past. The error analysis reveals that
Afrikaans speaking learners have a particular difficulty concerning the pluperfect.
Consciousness-raising could be beneficial, especially if done by means of a
comparison with English. All the learners from all the language groups could benefit
from practice regarding the use of the auxiliary verb sein in the perfect and pluperfect
tense, since none of the source languages currently share this phenomenon with
German. (See page 29.)
5.5
The past tense in Zulu
Posthumus (1988) argues against the usage of the term ‘perfect tense’ to indicate the
past tense in the Bantu languages. These languages distinguish between present tense
and past tense. Two past tenses are distinguished for Zulu, namely a recent past, and a
remote past. The recent past tense in Zulu has two forms. However, the long and short
92
form of the past tense in Zulu do not constitute a simple past and perfect tense as in
English and German.
There is no formal correspondence between the verb forms denoting past tense in
German and Zulu. Zulu has two absolute past tenses and distinguishes a long and a
short form of the recent past tense, (which operates under the same conditions as the
long and the short form of the present tense), whereas German makes no such
distinction. Consider the following examples:
44.
Nifike nini? Sifike kuthangi.
(When did you come? We came the day before yesterday.)
45.
Wenzeni izolo? Ngisebenzile.
(What did you do yesterday? I worked.)
The prefix a- and the verb final morpheme -a that form part of the morphological
structure of the remote past tense in Zulu indicate remoteness in time, while German
uses temporal adverbs to fulfil this function. The Zulu prefix is affixed to the noun
class agreement morpheme, while the morphological structure of German verbs
differs from Zulu verb forms. Compare the German examples 42 and 43 to the
following Zulu sentences:
46.
Amadoda abona inyoka. (< a + a> a: a + bon +a)
(The men saw the snake.) (long ago)
47.
Inkomo yabona inyoka. (< i + a> ya+ bon + a)
(The head of cattle saw the snake.) (long ago)
Since the error analysis has shown that the deep structure rather than the learnable
surface structure of the tenses in German constitute the main source of errors, it could
be helpful if teachers were aware of the differences between the languages that form
part of the constellation of languages in the linguistic repertoire of the learners in
order to devise an appropriate teaching strategy. Simple grammar exercises where the
learners only have to fill in the correct form of the verb have their place, but have to
be augmented with essay type tasks where context would determine which tense is
required.
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5.6
The future tense in German
The future tense in German, the so-called Futur I, consists of the auxiliary verb werden
in its various present tense forms and the infinitive form of the main verb.
48.
Du wirst das Essen kochen.
(You will cook the food.)
The future perfect tense or so-called Futur II consists of the auxiliary verb werden in
its various present tense forms, the past participle of the main verb and the infinitive
form of either haben or sein.
49.
Heinrich wird seine Aufgabe schon gemacht haben.
(Heinrich will have done his assignment already.)
50.
Bis Ende des Jahres wird er zurückgekehrt sein.
(By the end of the year he will have returned.)
The Futur I shows similarities to the absolute tense(s) of Zulu, in the sense that
coding time and event time coincide.
The Futur II, on the other hand, shows
similarities to the relative time of Zulu, in that the verb group (wird gemacht haben)
expresses a relationship between coding time (now), event time (past) and reference
time (future).
51.
Wir werden in die Schweiz fahren.
(We will go to Switzerland.)
[Futur I used to denote a future event.]
52.
Wo ist Andrea? Sie wird in ihrem Zimmer sein.
(Where is Andrea? She will be in her room.)
[Futur I - used to denote the present. The context determines that the verb form
denotes an event coinciding with the deictic centre.]
Semantically the German usage of the Futur I is quite differentiated. Apart from
expressing that something is expected to happen in the future (example 51), it also
conveys the idea that the speaker surmises something in the present (example 52).
Giving a command that has to be obeyed immediately is another example of using the
Futur I as a verb form denoting the present instead of the future.
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53.
Du wirst dein Zimmer sofort aufräumen!
(You will clean up your room this instant!)
Denoting the distant future in German involves using temporal adverbs that express
this idea.
54.
In hundert Jahren werden wir nicht mehr leben.
(A hundred years from now we will no longer be alive.)
5.7
The future tenses of Zulu
There is no formal correspondence between the future tense in German and Zulu.
While German distinguishes formally between actions/events that will take place in
the future and those that will be completed at some point in the future, Zulu
distinguishes between actions/events that will take place in the near future and those
that will take place in the distant future. Using the future tenses as absolute tenses is
much more prevalent in Zulu than in German. German employs an auxiliary verb to
indicate future, while Zulu uses prefixes (that have developed from auxiliary verbs)
for this purpose. Except for the expression of future time, the languages under
consideration have no common ground as far as the future tense is concerned. The
learners would do well to devise their own strategy for mastering the future tense in
German. The most common errors in the erroneous usage of the future tense involve
the modal verbs sollen and wollen instead of werden. This clearly relates to the Afrikaans
and English structures with sal and will. The future tense is also only used as absolute
tense by the learners, never as relative tense. There are no examples of Futur II in the
writings of any of the participants in the error analysis.
The concept of time being divided into past, present and future is common to both
German and Zulu. Even though vast differences in the morphological structure of
verb forms in these two languages exist, the learner is able to exercise a certain
amount of control over mastering the German system by committing these items to
memory on a regular basis. Adopting such a cognitive approach to this particular
section of the German language system could prove useful as far as the formal aspects
are concerned. The error analysis reveals greater inadequacy in the deep structure than
in the surface structure. Learners from diverse L1 backgrounds have difficulty
95
choosing the appropriate tense and being consistent in their choice. Changing tenses
where it is not required is evident in the work of all the participants to a lesser or
greater degree, the Afrikaans speaking learners being most consistent, but exhibiting
an affinity for the pluperfect where it is inappropriate. (See page 29.)
5.8
Infinite verb forms
Included in this category are those verb forms that are not marked for tense or person,
but retain the same morphological structure irrespective of any factors that normally
affect the morphology of verbs in German.
5.8.1
Past and present participles
In German two participles are distinguished, namely the present and past participles.
The present participle is roughly the semantic equivalent of the present continuous
tense in English, or the qualificative (relative) mood or the participial mood in Zulu.
The present participle in German is formed by adding -d to the infinitive form of the
verb and is mainly used as an adjective or adverb that expresses continuous action.
55.
Das weinende Kind sucht seine Mutter./Umntwana okhalayo ufuna umama.
(The crying child is looking for its mother.)
56.
Die Kinder spielten laut lachend im Garten herum./Abantwana badlale engadini behleka.
(The children played in the garden laughing loudly.)
This particular form of the verb in German has lost its verbal characteristics to a large
extent and is not marked for tense, person or number. Present participles are even
used as nouns, which then have the same declension as adjectives, such as ein
Reisender, der Reisende (a [male] traveller, the [male] traveller); eine Reisende (a [female] traveller),
die Reisende, (the [female] traveller).
The past participle is an infinite verb form and is not marked for noun class, person or
number. (See 5.4.3, page 85, for a description of the morphological structure of the
past participle.) In the perfect tense the past participle is used with either haben or sein
as its auxiliary verb. Only the auxiliary verb is marked for person, number and tense,
distinguishing between the perfect and the pluperfect tense as illustrated in the
following examples.
96
rd
57.
Der Junge hat [3 person, singular, present tense] den Apfel gegessen.
(The boy has eaten the apple.)
58.
Der Junge spielte mit seinen Freunden, nachdem sie den Apfel gegessen hatten. [3
rd
person,
plural, simple past tense.]
(The boy played with his friends after they had eaten the apple.)
The past participle is also used in the passive voice in German, which will be
discussed in more detail in the chapter on syntax.
Acquiring the stem changes of the strong verbs proves to be challenging for learners
of German as a foreign language in general. It will require much effort on the part of
learners from a Zulu speaking background as well, since the past tense in Zulu has no
formal affinity with the German counterpart of this verb form. Sperber (1993:26 - 28)
gives helpful hints for the struggling learner.
The past participle can be used in a similar way to the present participle, i.e. as
adjective and noun.
59.
Wir essen weichgekochte Eier zum Frühstück.
(We have soft boiled eggs for breakfast.)
60.
Der Verletzte musste ins Krankenhaus gebracht werden.
(The injured man had to be taken to hospital.)
61.
Die Verletzte musste ins Krankenhaus gebracht werden.
(The injured woman had to be taken to hospital.)
The semantic equivalent in Zulu to these participles is the relative, but there is no
formal equivalent. Compare the following examples to examples 59 – 61:
62.
Sidla amaqanda abilisiwe athambile ngebhulakfesti.
(We have soft boiled eggs for breakfast.)
63.
Indoda elimele bekumele iswe esibhedlela.
(The injured man had to be taken to hospital.)
64.
Umfazi olimele bekumele aswe esibhedlela.
(The injured woman had to be taken to hospital.)
97
5.8.2
The infinitive
The infinitive form of the verb can be used for several functions in German. Retaining
its function as a verb, this form is used,
1.
as the main verb in the future tense together with the auxiliary verb werden in its
various forms, marked for number and person;
2.
together with the modal verbs können, müssen, sollen, wollen, dürfen and mögen in all
the tenses;
3.
following zu or um zu in the so-called infinitive sentence;
4.
as an imperative.
The following examples illustrate these usages:
65.
66.
66a.
66b.
Der Lehrer wird die Arbeiten korrigieren.
(The teacher will mark the assignments.)
[future]
Du kannst/konntest die Schuhe kaufen.
(You can/could buy the shoes.)
[present/simple past tense]
Du hast/hattest die Schuhe kaufen können.
(You could have bought the shoes.)
[perfect and past perfect tense]
Du wirst die Schuhe kaufen können.
(You will be able to buy the shoes.)
[future tense with modal verb]
67.
Es ist nicht leicht, diese Aufgabe zu machen.
(It is not easy to do the assignment.)
68.
Ich gehe in die Stadt, um die Frau zu besuchen.
(I go into town [in order] to visit the woman.)
69.
Einsteigen und die Türen schließen!
(Get in and close the doors!)
[imperative]
The infinitive form of the verb can also be used as a noun. In some cases it retains
some of the semantic value as a verb, but quite often its origin in this category is
completely obscured. Compare example 70 to example 71 and 72:
70.
Das Rauchen im Theater ist untersagt.
(Smoking in the theatre is prohibited.)
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71.
Mord ist ein schweres Verbrechen.
(Murder is a serious crime.)
72.
Das Essen ist fertig.
(The meal is ready.)
All verbs acting as nouns have the definite article das, and some even have plural
forms, even though these are not morphologically discernable in the nouns, but only
in the article and in the adjective endings.
73.
Ich habe ein schönes Andenken gekauft.
(I have bought a beautiful memento.)
74.
Ich habe diese schönen Andenken in Rom gekauft.
(I bought these beautiful mementoes in Rome.)
In Zulu the infinitive is used as a noun and as a verb and it belongs to noun class 15,
consisting of the norm prefix uku- and a verb stem. This noun class does not
distinguish between singular and plural. When it is used as the complement of an
auxiliary verb such as -zama (to try), -thanda (to like), -funa (to want) -qala (to begin) and -qeda
(to finish), it functions as a verb and corresponds to the German infinitive sentence with
zu, e.g. Ich versuche, die Probleme zu lösen. (I am trying to solve the problems.)
Some scholars in the field of Bantu languages, such as Doke (1927), have classified
the infinitive as a mood. The closest German equivalent is the infinitive as it is used in
conjunction with modal verbs and always having the infinitive form, regardless of the
tense. Consider examples 66, 66a and 66b above and compare them to the following
examples, which are the morphological equivalent if not the semantic equivalent.
75.
Ukudlala.
(playing/the game.)
76.
Ngithanda ukudlala ibhola.
(I like playing soccer.)
77.
Ngizama ukudlala ibhola.
(I am trying to play soccer.)
In German there is a stronger division between using the infinitive as a verb and using
it purely as a noun. In Zulu one has to rely more heavily on context to make this
distinction. On a purely formal morphological level there is a useful correspondence
99
between German and Zulu. The learner could confidently generalize the principle of
forming infinitives and using them as verbs or nouns.
5.9
Reflexive verbs
A relatively large proportion of verbs in German are reflexive verbs, much more so
than in Zulu or in Afrikaans and English. For this reason it is prudent to pay special
attention to this category, especially as the error analysis reveals an inadequacy in this
particular area in the work of learners irrespective of L1.
All verbs denoting actions that one does to oneself fall into this category. The
reflexive pronoun for first and second person singular and plural is the same as the
personal pronoun. The reflexive pronoun for the third person singular and plural, as
well as the polite form, is sich. Consider the following examples:
78.
Ich rasiere mich.
(I am shaving [myself].)
79.
Du ziehst dich an.
(You are dressing yourself.)
80.
Wir freuen uns.
(We are happy.)
81.
Ihr setzt euch.
(You are sitting [yourselves] down.)
82.
Er/sie konzentriert sich auf die Arbeit.
(He/she is concentrating on the work.)
Reflexive pronouns are also used for reciprocal actions as in the following examples:
83.
Sie küssen sich.
(They are kissing each other.)
84.
Wir begrüßen uns.
(We are greeting each other.)
85.
Ihr lernt euch kennen.
(You are getting to know each other.)
100
Reflexive pronouns are used in the dative, when the verb can only take a dative
object, or when the subject is acting to her/his own advantage or detriment. The
following examples illustrate this fact.
86.
87.
88.
Ich sehe mir den Film an.
(I am watching the film.)
[dative object]
Du widersprichst dir.
(You are contradicting yourself.)
[own detriment]
Ich erlaube mir ein Glas Wein.
(I am allowing myself a glass of wine.)
[own advantage]
Often the dative form of the reflexive pronoun is used when the object of the sentence
is part of the subject.
89.
Ich wasche mir die Hände.
(I am washing my hands.)
Some verbs that do not refer to actions done to the subject are used with reflexive
pronouns in German. Some examples are sich verlieben (to fall in love), sich etwas ansehen (to
look at something), sich erkälten (to catch a cold), sich wundern (to be surprised at
something/someone), sich erinnern (to remember something), sich etwas vorstellen (to imagine
something), sich sehnen (to long for something/someone), sich irren (to be mistaken).
Some reflexive verbs refer to an occurrence where the agent of the action is not
mentioned. Compare the following examples:
90.
Der Vorhang öffnet sich.
(The curtain goes up.)
91.
Der Bühnenarbeiter öffnet den Vorhang.
(The stage-hand opens the curtain.)
The positioning of the reflexive pronoun in the German sentence is not completely
rigid. One hard and fast rule is that the reflexive pronoun comes directly after the
finite verb if the subject of the sentence is in position one. In main clauses with
inverted word order, however, the positioning of the reflexive pronoun can be varied.
Consider the following examples:
101
92.
92a.
Der Vater ärgerte sich über seinen Sohn.
(The father became angry with his son.) [subject, finite verb, reflexive pronoun]
Da ärgerte sich der Vater über seinen Sohn.
(Then the father became angry with his son.)
92ba. Da ärgerte der Vater sich über seinen Sohn.
(Then the father became angry with his son.)
Even though example 92a is the preferred option, 92b is not uncommon. Steyn
(1990:44 - 56) found that the positioning of the reflexive pronoun in German poses a
problem to Afrikaans speaking learners, who tend to insert it as illustrated in 92b
rather than as in 92a. In the examples she cites, the learners were aware of the fact
that the reflexive was required. The error analysis that forms the basis for this study
reveals that learners do not just place the reflexive pronouns in the less common
position, but omit the reflexive pronoun when composing their own sentences,
because they are often unaware that it is required. Consider the following examples:
93.
Bingo und Stefan sind gesetzen. [haben sich gesetzt]
(Bingo and Stefan sat down.)
94.
…während Ronny, Karel’s Vati, ausziehen.[sich auszieht ]
(...while Ronny, Karl’s father takes his clothes off.)
In Zulu the reflexive is marked by the morpheme -zi- and is not dependent on person
or noun class. It is used to express himself/herself/itself and is always positioned
directly before the verb stem, thus the same position as the object concord. See the
following examples:
95.
Ngiyazigeza.
(I wash myself.)
96.
Sizibona emanzini.
(We see ourselves in the water.)
When the morpheme -zi- is used together with the morpheme -el- in the verb, it
indicates that something happens easily, unintentionally or by itself. This is illustrated
by the following examples:
102
97.
Ngiyazihambela nje.
(I am merely walking.)
98.
Le moto iyaziphukela.
(This car just breaks [by itself].)
99.
Umnyango uyazivaleleka.
(The door closes [by itself].)
Compare example 99 to the following German example to illustrate the similarity in
usage.
100.
Die Tür schließt sich.
(The door closes [by itself].)
One can express the idea that something happens easily by using the reflexive or the
reflexive in combination with the verb lassen in German. Consider the following
example:
101.
Diese Bilder kopieren sich leicht/lassen sich leicht kopieren.
(One can copy these pictures easily.)
To express the idea of reciprocal action in Zulu, the morpheme -an- is inserted directly
after the verb root. The following examples illustrate the difference between transitive
and reciprocal use of some verbs:
102.
Insizwa ithanda intombi.
(The young man likes/loves the girl.)
103.
Insizwa nentombi bayathandana.
(The young man and the girl like/love each other.)
104.
Abafana bashaya inja njalo.
(The boys always hit the dog.)
105.
Abafana bashayana njalo.
(The boys always hit each other.)
The same principle applies to German usage, but the reflexive pronouns are used to
express reflexive as well as reciprocal use, each being dependent on the context for
interpretation. Compare examples 78 - 82 with examples 95 and 96, and examples 83,
103
84 and 85 with examples 103 and 105. In the Zulu examples the reflexive morpheme
-zi- is clearly distinguished from the reciprocal morpheme -an-, while in the German
examples the contrast is purely context based.
The extent to which verbs can be used with reflexives in German far exceeds the
usage in Zulu, English and Afrikaans and the learners would do well to memorize
reflexive verbs as they come across them. Errors involving non-usage of the reflexive
where it is required in German occur across the whole spectrum of languages
represented in the error analysis, which indicates a gap in the knowledge of all the
participants. Making lists and rote learning is not always advisable, but some things
require that kind of attention, reflexive verbs being a case in point. Rug and
Tomaszewski (2001:226-250) contains some useful lists, one of which is a list of
reflexive verbs. Teachers could devise games, such as card games, to assist the
learners and make memorising less tedious.
5.10 Moods
Distinguishing between the different moods is important for the communicative
ability of the foreign language learner, because this particular aspect of the language
greatly influences the communicative competence, both receptive and productive.
Technical knowledge of exactly what constitutes a mood in German as opposed to
Zulu is not necessary, but for German the learner has to be able to distinguish between
statements, commands and utterances indicating reality and non-reality.
In both German and Zulu the following moods are distinguished: indicative,
imperative and subjunctive. Other moods that are distinguished in Zulu will not be
considered in detail here, because they are not relevant to what the learner will have to
master when acquiring moods in the target language.
5.10.1 The indicative
The indicative in Zulu differs from the German equivalent in that in the latter
language three categories are distinguished. The so-called basic category expresses
104
the process/action/state as a reality. The verb in this category is marked for tense. This
category corresponds with the indicative as it is found in German.
106.
Die Kinder essen die Bananen.
Abantwana badla ubhanana.
(The children eat the bananas.)
107.
Die Kinder aßen die Bananen.
Abantwana badle ubhanana.
(The children ate the bananas.)
108.
Die Kinder werden die Bananen essen.
Abantwana bazodla ubhanana.
(The children will eat the bananas.)
The situative and the consecutive category do not have direct mood equivalents in
German, although one can express the same thoughts. In German one would mark the
verbs for tense in the situative and the preposition während would be used to express
the situation. The present participle can also be employed. Being an infinite verb
form, it is not marked for tense. The time reference would be determined by the main
verb.
109.
Ngenkathi befunda ...
(While they were learning …)
110.
…während sie lernen/während sie lernten
(…while they are learning/while they were learning.)
111.
Sie saßen lernend am Feuer.
(They sat at the fire while they were learning.)
The narrative category could be said to correspond roughly with the historical present
tense in German, although the situation is past tense instead of present tense as it is in
Zulu.
5.10.2 The imperative
The imperative mood in Zulu corresponds formally with the German equivalent as far
as marking for singular and plural is concerned. In Zulu the verb stem is used to give
a command in the singular. The same holds true for modern German, except where
105
verb stems end in -d or -t, in which case an -e is added to the stem. Compare the
following examples:
112.
Mach die Aufgaben!
(Do the assignments!)
113.
Antworte dem Lehrer!
(Answer the teacher!)
If the verb is irregular and has a stem vowel that changes to -i- or to -ie- in the present
tense singular, this change also applies to the imperative.
114.
Lies das Buch!
(Read the book!)
115.
Gib mir das Buch!
(Give me the book!)
The exceptions to the rule in Zulu occur when monosyllabic verbs or vowel verb
stems are used. Either the prefix i- or yi- or the suffix -na can be added to the verb
stem.
116.
Idla/Yidla!/Dlana!
(Eat!)
117.
Akha/Yakha!
(Build!)
The plural form of the command in Zulu is characterised by the suffix -ni, while in
German the plural marking is -t. While in German there are no exceptions to this rule,
similar principles concerning monosyllabic and vowel stem verbs apply to both the
singular and the plural form of the command in Zulu.
118.
Lest die Bücher!
(Read the books!)
119.
Gebt mir die Bücher!
(Give me the books!)
120.
Idlani/Yidlani!/Dlanini!
(Eat!)
106
121.
Akhani/Yakhani!
(Build!)
German distinguishes a third imperative form, the so-called polite form, which is used
for making requests to one’s superiors or to others with whom one has a formal
relationship. The form applicable to Sie, which is the same as the 3rd person plural, is
used with inversion.
122.
Geben Sie mir bitte das Buch!
(Give me the book, please!)
Such a form does not exist in Zulu, probably because it is unthinkable to give
commands to one’s superiors, no matter how polite one might be. In Zulu one can
express politeness by using the prefixes a-/ma-/ake- with the subjunctive form of the
verb, but the semantic value is not the same as the German form with Sie. The German
equivalent of this particular form of the imperative is the word group verb + wir.
Consider the following examples:
123.
Masiye ekhaya./Asiye ekhaya/Ake siye ekhaya.
Gehen wir nach Hause.
(Let us go home.)
In Zulu a distinction is made between requesting that one other person join the
speaker in doing something, and more than one other person join the speaker.
Compare example 123 with 124a, and 124b.
124.
Masiyeni ekhaya.
(Let us [all] go home.)
124a. Lass uns nach Hause gehen.
(Speaker and one other person.)
124b. Lasst uns nach Hause gehen.
(Speaker and more than one person.)
In German only the form with lassen can make this distinction, while all Zulu verbs
used with a-, ma- and ake distinguish between polite requests to include one person
besides the speaker, and more than one other person besides the speaker.
107
Using the subjunctive mood for polite requests is common to German and Zulu.
Putting the request as a question adds a further element of politeness to the German
request, not only to requests in the polite form, but to other commands as well.
Another way of softening a command in German is the use of the particles mal and
doch. Consider the following examples:
125.
Komm doch mal her!
(Would you please come here?)
126.
Komm her!
(Come here!)
The infinitive form of the verb as well as the past participle can also be used to give
commands in German. Urgency can be conveyed by both these forms. In a situation
of potential danger, for instance, one can expect to hear such utterances. Zurückgetreten!
(Stand back!) at the train station gives the command to passengers to move away from
the railway line when a train approaches. In public parks one would find signs such as
Den Rasen nicht betreten! (Keep off the grass!) Even though there is no danger, the
seriousness of the command is not in doubt. This form of the command is also found
in recipes, e.g. Die Butter und das Ei schaumig rühren. Mehl und Zucker löffelweise hinzufügen.
(Beat the butter and the egg until frothy. Add the flour and the sugar by the spoonful.)
The
distinction that is made in Zulu between commanding someone not to do something
while he/she is doing it, (Musa ukuhamba!) and preventing someone from doing
something before the action is carried out, (Ungahambi!) is not found in German.
Giving commands is perceived as face threatening acts (FTA’s) in many cultures. See
Brown and Levinson in Goody (1978:196) for examples from Tzeltal. They suggest
this fact as the reason why many languages omit the personal pronoun in imperative
forms, as is the case in German and Zulu, except in the polite form. In German,
special emphasis is given to the status of the addressee by using the upper case for the
personal pronoun in writing/printing. The fact that there are so many different ways of
expressing commands and requests also indicates that this is a sensitive area that
needs extra care.
108
5.10.3 The subjunctive mood
According to Taljaard and Bosch (1988:132) the subjunctive mood “expresses an
action or a state as a visualised event and not as a reality.” This is true of German, but
one can claim semantic equivalence at best as scholars do not all agree that this is the
case.
In German one distinguishes the following types of sentences that require the
subjunctive mood: irreale Wunschsätze (non-real wishes), irreale Aussagesätze (nonreal
statements),
irreale
Bedingungssätze
(non-real
prerequisites)
irreale
Vergleichssätze (non-real comparisons), höfliche Bitten (polite requests).
127.
Wenn es nur nicht so kalt wäre!
(If only it were not so cold!)
128.
Du gibst deinen Kindern zu viel Taschengeld. Ich gäbe ihnen viel weniger.
(You give your children too much pocket money. I would give them a lot less.)
129.
Wenn ich reich wäre, könnte ich ein schickes Auto kaufen.
(If I were rich, I could buy myself a fancy car.)
130.
Er tut so, als ob er krank wäre.
(He pretends to be sick.)
131.
Wären Sie so nett, mir das Salz zu reichen?
(Would you be so kind to pass me the salt?)
The subjunctive mood (Konjunktiv II) is not only used to express non-reality. In
indirect speech the subjunctive mood can be used to express doubt as to the veracity
of the reported utterance, which also constitutes non-reality. If, however, the verb
form used for reported speech (Konjunktiv I) exhibits no formal difference to the
indicative form, the subjunctive mood is used instead, without adding the semantic
value of non-reality.
132.
Paul hat den ganzen Tag am Strand gelegen. Jetzt sagt er seinem Chef, dass er keine Zeit gehabt
hätte, seine Arbeit zu machen.
(Paul was lying on the beach all day. Now he tells his boss that he did not have time to do his
work.)
133.
Der Zeuge sagt, er und seine Familie hätten die ganze Sache genau gesehen.
(The witness says that he and his family saw the whole thing.)
109
As an expression of relief that something is completed or one has survived an ordeal,
the subjunctive expresses reality:
134.
Das hätten wir nun endlich geschafft.
(We made it at last.)
Polite requests constitute the only category that corresponds with the use of the
subjunctive mood in Zulu as described by Taljaard and Bosch (1988). There is no
formal agreement between the two languages. In German the stem of the past tense is
used, Umlaut is added to those irregular verbs that can have it and suffixes are added
depending on the subject of the sentence. Verbs are marked for tense.
Consider the following paradigms comparing the simple past tense with the
subjunctive mood (present) and the perfect tense with the subjunctive mood (past) of
the irregular verb kommen:
Simple past tense
Subjunctive mood (present)
ich kam
ich käme
du kamst
du käm(e)st
er/sie kam
er/sie käme
wir/sie/Sie kamen
wir/sie/Sie kämen
ihr kamt
ihr kämet
Perfect tense
Subjunctive mood (past)
ich bin gekommen
ich wäre gekommen
du bist gekommen
du wärst gekommen
er/sie ist gekommen
er/sie wäre gekommen
wir/sie/Sie sind gekommen
wir/sie/Sie wären gekommen
ihr seid gekommen
ihr wäret gekommen
There is no morphological difference between subjunctive mood (present) and the
simple past tense of regular verbs. To indicate subjunctive mood the subjunctive of
110
the verb werden is used with the infinitive form of the regular verb. The following
paradigm illustrates this usage:
Simple past tense
Subjunctive mood (present)
ich lachte
ich würde lachen
du lachtest
du würdest lachen
er/sie lachte
er/sie würde lachen
wir/sie/Sie lachten
wir/sie/Sie würden lachen
ihr lachtet
ihr würdet lachen
In Zulu the appropriate subject morphemes are prefixed to the verb root and the verb
ends in -e in the positive. The present tense morpheme -ya-, which is used in the
indicative mood, is not used in this mood. According to Taljaard and Bosch (1988)
the verbs are not marked for tense, although Doke (1927) distinguishes a presentfuture, two past tenses (indefinite and continuous) and an emphatic future tense. There
are more differences than similarities between what is called subjunctive mood in
German and in Zulu. The wishes expressed in the irreale Wunschsätze, for instance,
are not the same as the following example in Zulu and its semantic equivalent in
German:
135.
Uthisha ufuna abafundi baphumelele bonke.
Der Lehrer will, dass alle Schüler bestehen. (Subjunctive mood I)
(The teacher wants all pupils to pass. Lit. Teacher wants that all pupils pass.)
The verb form baphumelele in example 135 is in the subjunctive, while the verb form of
the semantic equivalent (bestehen), is in the subjunctive I, but is not distinguishable
from the indicative.
Habitual sequential actions or actions in the present sequential are in the subjunctive
mood in Zulu, but not in German:
136.
Sivula isango singene.
Wir öffnen das Tor und gehen hinein.
(We open the gate and enter.)
111
Even polite requests that are said to require the subjunctive mood in both German and
Zulu, are not semantically quite equivalent:
137.
Masihambe.
Gehen wir.
(Let’s go.)
The rendering of the German sentence in the subjunctive mood II is considerably
more polite than gehen wir in example 137 (unless, of course, the speaker is being
sarcastic!)
138.
Könnten wir jetzt gehen?
(Could we go now?)
A category that corresponds semantically with the irreale Konditionalsätze mentioned
as one manifestation of the subjunctive mood in German, is called the Conditional
Construction by Doke (1927) and discussed under the heading “Syntax of the
Descriptive” (Doke 1927:364). The verb forms in this type of construction are in the
indicative/situative mood, which accounts for the fact that they are not mentioned
under the heading “subjunctive mood”. In German, however, the subjunctive mood is
clearly indicated when expressing the same thoughts.
139.
Ngangizohlala, uma enginika imali.
Ich würde bleiben, wenn er mir Geld gäbe.
(I would stay if he gave me money.)
The so-called Konjunktiv I is used for reported speech, polite wishes and biblical
language in German. There is a tendency, especially in spoken German, to use the
indicative instead of the Konjunktiv I in reported speech, because very often the forms
are no longer distinguishable, so that this particular form of the verb is often ignored
in beginners’ courses. The importance of this particular verb form lies in the semantic
value. It expresses neutrality in reporting what someone else said, and as such is
important in the journalistic field. Because the receptive abilities of the learner have to
be better than the productive abilities she/he has, this particular verb form is included
in this study.
112
The morphological structure of the Konjunktiv I is derived from the infinitive verb
stem. The following paradigm illustrates the differences and similarities between the
indicative and the Konjunktiv I.
Present tense : indicative
ich fahre
du fährst
er/sie fährt
wir/sie/Sie fahren
ihr fahrt
Konjunktiv I (present)
ich fahre
du fahrest
er/sie fahre
wir/sie/Sie fahren
ihr fahret
ich bin
du bist
er/sie ist
wir/Sie/sie sind
ihr seid
ich sei
du seiest
er/sie sei
wir/Sie/sie seien
ihr seiet
Those verb forms that are identical in the indicative and in the Konjunktiv I are
changed to Konjunktiv II if the speaker wishes to stress the fact that it is reported
speech.
Both Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II distinguish only one past tense form as opposed
to the three forms distinguished in the indicative. The verbs consist of the Konjunktiv
form of the auxiliary verb haben or sein, plus the past participle of the main verb.
Raising the consciousness of the learner with respect to the differences that exist
between the subjunctive mood in German and Zulu is valuable for receptive as well as
for productive communicative competence. Particularly the difference in reality and
non-reality expressed in the subjunctive mood in Zulu and German can prove to be
crucial for accurate communication. Receptive competence was not tested in the error
analysis, therefore the value of this particular aspect of German grammar for
communication purposes can only be surmised.
113
5.
THE VERB: TENSES, MOOD AND REFLEXIVE VERBS ................................... 81
5.1 THE PRESENT TENSE IN GERMAN ................................................................................ 81
5.1.1 THE FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRESENT TENSE IN GERMAN ....................... 81
5.2 THE PRESENT TENSE IN ZULU ...................................................................................... 83
5.2.1 THE FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRESENT TENSE IN ZULU............................. 83
5.3 THE USE OF THE PRESENT TENSE ................................................................................. 84
5.4 THE PAST TENSE IN GERMAN ....................................................................................... 85
5.4.1 THE FORM OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE ....................................................................... 85
5.4.2 THE USE OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE........................................................................... 87
5.4.3 THE FORM OF THE PERFECT TENSE IN GERMAN .......................................................... 87
5.4.4 THE USE OF THE PERFECT TENSE IN GERMAN ............................................................. 89
5.4.5 THE FORM OF THE PLUPERFECT (PLUSQUAMPERFEKT)................................................ 90
5.4.6 THE USE OF THE PLUPERFECT ...................................................................................... 91
5.5 THE PAST TENSE IN ZULU ............................................................................................. 91
5.6 THE FUTURE TENSE IN GERMAN .................................................................................. 93
5.7 THE FUTURE TENSES OF ZULU ..................................................................................... 94
5.8 INFINITE VERB FORMS .................................................................................................. 95
5.8.1 PAST AND PRESENT PARTICIPLES ................................................................................ 95
5.8.2 THE INFINITIVE ............................................................................................................ 97
5.9 REFLEXIVE VERBS ........................................................................................................ 99
5.10 MOODS....................................................................................................................... 103
5.10.1 THE INDICATIVE ...................................................................................................... 103
5.10.2 THE IMPERATIVE ..................................................................................................... 104
5.10.3 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD ........................................................................................ 108