Exempel 11, sid 4-5
Underlying Reasons for the
Persistence of Female Genital
Mutilation
A Case Study in Babati, Tanzania
ABSTRACT Female genital mutilation is an ancient custom that has preserved and persisted for thousands of
years. In recent decades it is recognized as a violation of human rights of girls and women since
the practice has physical and psychological health consequences. Every year millions of girls are
facing FGM, and in Africa the occurrence is common. Therefore there is a worldwide consensus
where international, national and local organizations and governments take measures to stop
FGM. This essay will examine the persistence of FGM though recognizing the various
perceptions and motives behind the practice. Human rights law provides legal frameworks that
should be adopted and adjusted by the states ratifying them. Some conventions specifically
describe the abandonment of violence of harmful practices towards women and children, and
FGM is considered one of them. These approaches are tackling with a practice that is deeply
rooted in social, cultural and religious traditions and must be understood in its form. A case study
research was conducted by semi-structured interviews where different perceptions and opinions
on FGM were captured. This is later complemented with previous research and various statistics
to strengthen the overall understanding of the issue. It is acknowledgeable to address women’s
position in societies where they generally has little access to power and resources, and where
traditional and cultural practices mark an important social convention. It is not enough by
implementing human rights law to change attitudes and behaviours. The decision of change is
crucial by understanding the importance of the practice hence given the education needed to
empower women’s everyday life.
Key words: FGM, Human Rights, Culture, Tanzania,
ABBREVIATIONS FGM Female Genital Mutilation UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WHO World Health Organisation CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child UDHR Universal Declaration on Human Rights AFNET Anti Female Genital Mutilation Network NGOs Non Governmental Organisations Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ........................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Formulation of the problem .............................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Aims and objectives ........................................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Delimitations ...................................................................................................................................... 6 1.7 Sources and Materials ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.8 Disposition ......................................................................................................................................... 7 2. METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Qualitative case study research ......................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Material collection methods and informants .................................................................................. 10 2.3 Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................................... 11 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................ 13 3.1 A Human Rights Issue ...................................................................................................................... 13 3.1.2 UDHR ............................................................................................................................................ 14 3.1.3 Women and Childrens rights ........................................................................................................ 15 3.1.4 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ................... 16 3.1.5 The Convention on the Rights of the Child ................................................................................... 16 3.2 Culture and Relativism ..................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.1 Defining Culture ............................................................................................................................ 18 3.2.2 Cultural Relativism ........................................................................................................................ 19 5. FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ................................................................................................... 20 4.1 Historical Context ............................................................................................................................ 20 4.2 Various perspectives on the practice of FGM .................................................................................. 21 4.3 Motives behind the practice ............................................................................................................ 23 4.4 Introduction to the study area ......................................................................................................... 24 6. ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................... 28 5.1 Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 28 5.2 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 33 7. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................ 37 1. INTRODUCTION Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a term used to refer to any practice which includes the
removal or alteration of the female genital or other injury to the female genital organs for nonmedical reason.1
FGM is classified into four different categories where the different types of procedures can vary
in different cultures. In medical and anthropological literature it is common to classify three
different types of mutilation, depending on how the physical procedure comprises it is
categorized; clitoridectomi, excision and infibulations2. The World Health Organization uses
these categories, but has added a fourth type which is not classified as mutilation, and covers
other types of damage done to the female genitalia3. Causes to these practices are cultural,
traditional and social factors having different meanings within different communities and
families. FGM is dangerous and highly painful causing unbearable pain and suffering, and in
some cases life threatening. It is often performed in unhygienic conditions with razor blades,
knifes or broken glass and the immediate or long-term physical and psychological consequences,
are often grave. Direct complications often include severe pain, shock, severe bleeding, bacterial
infection, urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissues.
Long –term consequences of FGM can result in recurrent bladder and urinary tract infections,
cysts, infertility and an increased risk of child birth complications and new-born deaths4. These
procedures are often performed on young girls, sometime between infancy to the age of 15, and
occasionally on adult women. In Africa three million girls are at risk of FGM annually5.
Therefore FGM is internationally recognized as a violation of the human rights of girls and
women, and many organizations, locally and globally, are fighting against this practice. A vital
aim is to strengthen the role of governments and relevant non-governmental organizations in the
1
2
WHO 2011, FGM fact sheet Berggren, Franck, Kvinnlig Könsstympning, p.17 3
WHO 2011, FGM, Fact sheet Ibid 5
Ibid 4
1 process of eliminating FGM. WHO also promotes positive changes in decision-makers attitudes,
beliefs, behaviours and practices within families regarding FGM6.
There are many on-going activities and projects against FGM. During recent decades increasing
awareness of FGM has resulted in actions taken by local organizations and international
conventions. Amongst them the United Nations Convention on The Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, where specific
articles are directed against eliminating harmful customs or traditions to a child7. Decades of
prevention work undertaken by local communities, governments, and national and international
organizations have contributed to a reduction in the prevalence of FGM in some areas. Several
governments have adopted laws against the practice. These laws have been complemented by
culture- sensitive education and public awareness-raising activities, resulting in that the practice
has declined8.
One important measure taken to eliminate FGM is the regional plan of action against FGM
implemented by the World Health Organization in Africa, including Tanzania. This regional plan
of action has a long-term, medium-term and a short-term plan. The goal of the long-term plan is
to improve health and more so the quality of life for women and girls. A vital part of this effort is
to reduce the number of girls and women between 1-20 years of age who have been genitally
mutilated. The medium-term plan sustains technical to implement social mobilization, support to
formulate policy and legislation, training and research and program management to include
national and community based activities. Finally the short-term plan is focused on strengthening
the general objectives such as the advocacy and mobilization initiatives9.
It is estimated that between 100 and 140 million girls and women lives with the consequences of
FGM. The causes of this practice vary in different countries, within families and communities,
by a mix of cultural, religious and social factors10. FGM and its variety of forms are practiced in
Middle Eastern, Northern African and South of Saharan countries. Although FGM is mostly
practiced in Islamic countries, it is important to state that FGM is not an Islamic practice. FGM
6
WHO 2011, FGM CRC 2011, art. 24:3 8
WHO 2011, Eliminating Female genital mutilation, p. 4 9
Arvanitopoulou, Gia. 2010 Methods to Prevent Female Genital Mutilation.p 4-­‐5 10
WHO 2011, FGM 7
2 is in no way based on religious beliefs and is therefore not connected to Islam, Christianity or
any other religion. FGM is a cross-cultural and cross-religious ritual and it is based on ancient
myths and traditions within different religious and ethnic groups11.
1.2 Background Patterns of FGM prevalence emerge when countries are grouped by region. For example, in the
countries of northeast Africa (Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Sudan) 80 to 97 percent are
circumcised while in East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania) it ranges from 18 to 32 percent12.
In Tanzania FGM is traditionally performed by women. According to Tanzanian health statistics
15 percent of women between the ages of 15 to 45 have undergone some form of genital
mutilation the years of 1997-200913. The practice varies significantly by region and ethnicity. In
rural areas almost 18% of women are circumcised. The most affected areas include Manyara,
Dodoma, Singida, Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions.
The government of Tanzania launched a campaign against FGM in these regions in 1971 when
complications such as sepsis, bleeding and deaths among women alarmed the public. A
workshop was held in Dar-Es Salaam in 1986 where the proposal for a campaign to abolish FGM
was decided upon. This led to a fact-finding survey by the women’s section of the institute of
Adult education in 1988-89. This resulted in the production and distribution of a booklet on
FGM called “Dangers of Female Circumcision”, written in Kiswahili14.
Many international treaties and conventions condemn harmful traditional practices, such as the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Both treaties have been ratified by the
government of Tanzania15. It was not until 1998 however, that the Tanzanian government
enforced a law against FGM. The law is a part of “the sexual offences special provisions act” and
11
Ibid. These numbers should be interpreted with care since they represent national averages and does not reflect the often marked variation in prevalence in different parts of a given country. UNICEF, Tanzania DHS 1996, Tanzania DHS 2004-­‐2005 13
UNICEF 2011, Tanzania FGM/C country profile 14
Dorkeeno, cutting the rose. p. 113 15
United Nation 2011, Treaty collection, CEDAW, CRC 12
3 was passed by the government since young women often died while giving birth, due to
complications caused by FGM. The law states that anybody who has custody, charge or care of a
girl less than eighteen years and forced her to undergo FGM has committed the crime of cruelty
against children. The punishment is five to fifteen years in jail, or a fine of 300.000 shilling. The
accused could also be sentenced to both imprisonment and a fine, depending on the seriousness
of the crime16.
However, despite global and local attempts and public support to end FGM, the practice has
persisted in Tanzania as it has in most parts of the world. What today many may consider as an
out-dated custom is still in many areas considered an important social convention.
1.3 Formulation of the problem Throughout history many women have been victims of out-dated customs, attitudes and male
prejudice. FGM in particular can in some perceptions be based on the manipulation of women’s
sexuality in order to assure male domination and exploitation as a part of patriarchal repression.
The common thread running through all groups practicing FGM is that they are male-dominated
societies where resources and power are generally under male control 17 . However, the
practitioners of FGM are generally women, midwifes, aunts or grandmothers, therefore it is
practiced by women, and therefore be questioned as maintained by male oppression.
FGM is a practice of a deep-rooted social convention. Where FGM is widely spread, it is
generally supported by both men and women, and whatever legislation or action taking against it,
it is still executed. There are claims of an existing paradox where universal rights and human
equality stand against culture and traditional values. What perceptions and motives behind this
practice underlie the justification of it, and what have made it persist until today? By examining
this, it may shed a light on how it can be stopped in the future.
16
Arvanitopoulou, Georgia. Methods to prevent Female Genital Mutilation, 2010, p. 6 Dorkeeno, Cutting the rose ,p. 45 17
4 1.4 Aims and objectives The purpose of this study is to examine the practice of FGM and why this practice still continues
even though it is illegal and causes dangerous health consequences. For the research, a case
study is conducted in Babati, Tanzania with collection of material and semi-structured
interviews.
1.5 Research Questions I.
What perceptions about FGM contribute to its reproduction?
II.
What motives justify a continued practice of FGM?
III.
Has human right laws lead to changes in attitudes and behaviour towards FGM?
5 1.6 Delimitations It can be most misleading to generalize about the social position of women in societies that
practice FGM because of the difference in history, culture and ethnicity in which this practice
occurs. It is highly important to acknowledge the gender perspective of the issue as it is a crucial
part of the circumstances; however this study does not aim to examine this perspective as the
purpose is to look into the social conventions of FGM and the paradox within and against it.
Furthermore the focus of this study is to understand the continuation of FGM through by
analyzing the past, present and future. Previous studies have been carried out about FGM in
Tanzania where the focus has been on the different methods and the general overview on the
practice, this study will therefore try to shed light on what makes FGM continue.
1.7 Sources and Materials This study is based on primary and secondary data. The primary data are collected by a field
study in Babati, Tanzania. The secondary data comprehends scientific studies and literature
about FGM. General facts on FGM will be based on the literature of E. Dorkeeno that gives a
comprehensive overview of the issue, especially in Africa. Her research is based on various
testimonials, previous research and case-studies that present how to deal with the diverse
experiences of FGM found in different parts of the world. Furthermore the study will include
sources by UNICEF, WHO and the UN. These organizations play an important role since they
have a clear agenda about FGM. These sources are up to date with yearly reports and statistics
about the issue.
6 1.8 Disposition The study is divided into six chapters. The introductory chapter contains an introduction and a
presentation of the problem, the purpose and the research questions. The second chapter, method,
begins with an introduction of a field study conducted in Babati, Tanzania. A presentation of the
data collection and the informants as well as the validity and reliability will conclude chapter
two. The theory chapter will begin with a discussion of the chosen theories that will follow by a
more comprehensive review of the theories. In the fourth chapter the empirical research will be
presented with a historical context of FGM, to a general view of various perceptions and motives
behind the issue. The second part of the empirical research will be an introduction of the study
area, where the interviews conducted in Tanzania will be presented. And lastly FGM will be
issued through women’s and children’s right perspective.
The conclusive chapter will provide an analysis where the empirical data and the results of the
conducted interviews are interpreted and analysed based on the theoretical frameworks. This will
be followed by a discussion where the researches own opinions and reflections will argue the
various results and findings, and lastly a concluding chapter where the research questions are
answered based on the information found throughout the study.
7 2. METHOD This study is focuses on the District area of Babati in Tanzania. A field study was conducted
during a three-week period between February and March in 2011 where research took place in
the villages of Gallapo, Dareeda, Sigida and in Babati Town. Through good preparations before
the fieldtrip and a well-established network of contacts in Babati, the fieldwork provided a wellplanned excursion.
The case study focuses on the subject of FGM with the aim to examine why this practice still
continues. The study is based on research and interviews of individuals in order to collect
information that can be put into a broader sense of the situation.
Since the fieldwork consisted of collecting data in Babati, most of the empirical findings could
through the interviews verify or not, the general view on the practice and tradition of FGM.
Through semi-structured interviews the data collected from individuals could give their
perception on FGM. By not choosing to limit my focus, the interviews included men and women,
young and elderly, to get a broader picture with different experiences and perspectives. The
purpose with these interviews was to get a clear understanding, from their perspectives on what
the tradition and custom of FGM meant to them, as well as their views on what has changed over
time and also on what can be done in the future.
A lot of experience was gained by working on the field. The field-assistant was very qualified on
how to get in touch with locals and informants to talk about FGM, even considering the
sensitivity of the subject. However, one can never be fully prepared on what happens during an
interview, therefore being prepared and clear on what your purpose is and being open for
discussion can in many ways improve the result.
8 2.1 Qualitative case study research The method used for this study is qualitative research through a case study design. A case study
is a research design that entails the detailed and intensive analysis of a single case18. Case study
is not a method, but a design that include both qualitative approach, such as observations and
interviews, as well as quantitative approaches in terms of secondary data19. For the examination
of FGM and the continuation of the practice this requires a qualitative approach since it can go
deeper into a problem, which can further on be put into a larger context. However, a quantitative
approach will also be needed in this study since it relies on previous research done on FGM.
Many times, as in this case, previous research can leave questions that might need to get more
attention, therefore previous research can help to contribute to findings of materials about the
persistence of FGM. Through qualitative approach the researcher is given an opportunity to let
the informants’ control what information can be given, and in that way the researcher can find
information that he/she did not consider before20. Thereby having semi-structured interviews,
one can still follow the theme, that can lead to follow-up questions or even open discussions,
which gives the informants a larger influence on the interviewing process.
In empirical research the relationship between theoretical frameworks and empirical data are
often dependent on each other21 . Theories without empirical grounding can easily lead to
speculations; while empirical research without being rooted within a theoretical framework may
result in isolated descriptions of single phenomenon with limited value that cannot contribute to
new insight on new information about our society. This study is of deductive character. The
theoretical framework in this case study, ought to bring out the empirical findings and take the
general meaning and put it in a more actual manner. In other words, testing the general
proposition (theories) with empirical data22.
In a qualitative research, the researcher is the main instrument of data collection, whether it is
through observations or interviews. Critics towards these techniques argue that this makes it
18
Bryman, Social Research Methods, p 53-­‐54 19
A. Johannessen, P. Tufte Introduktion till samhällsvetenskaplig metod, p. 56 Ibid, p. 71 21
Ibid, p. 35 22
Ibid, p. 35 20
9 difficult to conduct a replication since the researcher is the one deciding on what to concentrate
on from what is observed or heard23, which in that case affects the works reliability. Another
issue of criticism comes from the problem of generalization. The issue is focused on when the
qualitative methods are used in form of participant observation, or when unstructured interviews
are conducted with a small group of individuals in a certain area, it is argued that it is impossible
to know how the findings can be generalized to other settings24. However in this case study
research, as it often is in a case study, the sample drawn is not representative of a whole
population. Rather it is the quality of the chosen theoretical influence of the developed
qualitative data that is crucial to the opinion of generalization.
2.2 Material collection methods and informants There are certain difficulties when writing about FGM. The findings of literature and facts that
oppose to the subject are easy to come across because of the well established and widely spread
movement against FGM. Therefore searching for sources giving reasons that justify FGM is
harder to come across. Given this, the theoretical frameworks will function as guidance through
the empirical findings when analyzing what the purpose of this study is; the persistence of FGM.
The interviews were conducted through semi-structured interviews with informants from
different groups of people; a volunteer from AFNET (Anti Female Genital Mutilation Network),
a local NGO in Babati, and separate group interviews with men and women from two different
villages. According to AFNET these villages used to practice FGM, but since AFNET
contributed with education about the harmful consequences the practice has declined. As these
interviews were contributing to the study, one main issue was still to be explored; the problem
with FGM still existing. An interview in an area where FGM still occurred was hard to locate
since AFNET had well-established connections in areas where they used to operate and where
the practice has already been ceased. I did not get the opportunity to visit a village where this
problem still occurred, which I was highly anticipating on doing. I am aware that could have
increased my understanding of what the problem was in the particular area. However,
interviewing an elderly woman that traditionally used to circumcise girls called Ngariba, and a
23
Bryman Social Research Methods, p. 391 Ibid 24
10 young girl that herself had undergone FGM was beneficial to investigate the issue of the
persistence. Through the semi-structured interviews it gave the informants, as desired, a broader
space open for follow- up questions and discussions.
2.3 Validity and Reliability Validity and reliability in a qualitative orientation constitutes the description of the collected
materials in a systematic and direct way25. The sources used for this study is of primary and
secondary data from the subject FGM. Primary data consisting of the semi-structured interviews
with specific questions that were translated by the field-assistant since some of the informants
did not know the English language. By having a translator some risks are involved such as,
having the questions misunderstood or misinterpreted, or valid information getting lost in
translation, which then can affect the reliability. However, the use of triangulation of sources can
help raise the internal validity26. This was done by having the same type of interviews with
individuals from different villages to try and find similarities or differences. In the analytical
piece of the study one can also analyse the materials with different paradigms or theories. The
focus on attitudes, beliefs and behaviours motivated the choices of secondary data consisting of
previous research and statistics on FGM that are well documented and useful, as well as the data
collected from interviewing locals in Babati. In preparation of selecting informants, the fieldassistant and the volunteer from AFNET prepared interviews with informants from different
villages. The choices were adjusted to the need for variations in collecting data, in terms of
including both men and women as adolescent and elderly to give me more perspectives. Also,
going out to different villages that have currently no upholding of the practice left, as well as to
the villages where this issue still is present.
Considering the issue of FGM and where the debate stands, coming from a Western society
automatically puts me in a position where I see though “Western eyes” and proceed within
Western based formalities. Being a woman gives even more hinders to be objective on the
subject, since it is a harmful practice and many women and children are affected each year,
taking a stand to end this is obvious from a personal view. However, everybody is coloured by
25
Infovoice 2011, Reliabilitet validitet Ibid 26
11 their cultural heritage and are imprinted by our surroundings and upbringing. Since the aim is to
understand a particular culture and focus on what makes FGM perceive, I need to take an
objective stand to understand particular aspects. Not for personal reasons, but hopefully to
contribute for further research about the study of FGM.
12 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The practice of FGM is deeply rooted in social, cultural and religious traditions and has persisted
for hundreds of years. The sensitivity to this subject claims separate the world into two
“paradigms”; the industrialized countries that tries to eradicate a tradition that is perceived as
brutal, backward and inhuman and traditional societies that tries to defend and preserve a
tradition which was, and still is, found as an essential part of their cultural identity and social
structure. By using different theories it can lead to different interpretations; therefore one can
find several theories to compose a broader understanding of the phenomenon, and help make the
analysis of the study more interesting.
By focusing on the aim of the study and attempt to identify the persistence of FGM, these two
standpoints will be presented through a theoretical debate, which will be taken from its
philosophical roots and into the way it is embedded in the world today.
3.1 A Human Rights Issue Human rights are understood to be the rights that an individual has simply because he/she is
human27. For a better understanding UNICEF declared human rights as; Inherent, inalienable and
universal. Inherent because we are born with them and they belong to us as a result of our
common humanity. They are inalienable, since individuals cannot give them up nor have them
taken away, even if governments do not recognize or protect them. Lastly they are universal in
the sense that they are held by all people, regardless of age, sex, race, religion, nationality,
income level or any other status or condition on life. Human rights belong to each and every one
of us equally28.
As such, we have equal rights because we are human beings. The Universalist approach to
human rights obtains that one can use nature, God or reason to identify rights, inherent to every
27
Donnelly, The relative universality of human rights. p. 282 UNICEF 2011, CRC Human Rights. 28
13 human and in such these rights existed pre-society29. The human rights theory is largely based on
Western philosophy and has throughout modernization and the spread of modern markets
expanded through globalization30.
The Universalist approach takes an ontological stand in human rights content since it establishes
human rights as something independent of our knowledge of it. The theory argues that despite
differences in sex, ethnicity or culture, human rights are directed towards all human beings and it
argues its essential standpoint31. However the idea of human rights is constructed by Western
philosophy and has only in recent decades established its ideology in the international arena.
Therefore human rights concepts are socially constructed which questions the ontological claim
of human rights.
3.1.2 UDHR Over the past decades the growth of an international human rights regime, based on the idea that
human rights should be internationally protected, has set its moral values and political statement
in a fast growing and globalising world. Following the Second World War the General Assembly
of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR).
“Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have
outraged the conscience of mankind... Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to
have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights
should be protected by the rule of law…” - United Nations General Assembly, Dec 10 1948
The UDHR was the starting point in the development of global and regional treaties and
declarations concerning human rights, followed by a number of Declarations and Conventions
which embody human rights principals, as well as the emergence of non-governmental
29
Donnelly, The relative universality of human rights. p. 284 Ibid, p. 287 31
Marsh, Stoker, Theory and methods in political science, p. 18 -­‐19 30
14 organizations and intergovernmental organizations in that particular field. The extent of the
human rights field in other words has become “universal” and transcultural, and in this way
affected the cultural understanding of human rights32.
The UDHR articles consist of six cross-cutting themes, one of them being linked to culture,
where the human rights concept is closely bound to the belief that culture is precious and central
to our identity. To take away cultural heritage is to deny ones identity, since the way we are
born, how we live and die, is affected by the culture to which we belong. The UDHR says;
“everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community”. By this it is
also stated that no one has the right to dominate, direct or eradicate a culture or impose their
culture upon others33.
The UDHR provides instruments and frameworks for political, civil, social and cultural rights. In
the declaration there are articles that together form a basis to condemn the practice of FGM.
Furthermore there are several conventions following the human rights declaration that contain
articles that are more specific to harmful practices against women and children, such as The
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and
the Convention on the Rights of The Child (CRC).
3.1.3 Women and Children’s Rights CEDAW and CRC are conventions that cover areas of human rights; I will only focus on those
that are relevant to the subject on FGM.
The 1960’s and 70’s were marked by an increasing awareness of women’s rights in many parts
of the world. Recognizing gender-based violence and violence against women in private and
public life, FGM could be categorised as violence against women and put into a human rights
obligation. Through Women’s organisations raising awareness of the harmful effects of FGM it
was the start point of the movement to end the practice34. FGM were to be addressed under two
important legally-binding international human rights instrument.
32
Baylis, Smith, Owen, The globalization of world politics, p. 507 UHDR 2011, cross cutting themes 34
Innocenti digest, Changing a harmful convention, p. 15 33
15 3.1.4 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women In 1979 the general assembly adopted the convention on the elimination of All Forms of
Discriminations Against Women (CEDAW). It defines discrimination against women as:
“… any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or
purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective
of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”
CEDAW is often described as an international bill of the right for women and is the only human
rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women. The convention addresses FGM
and other cultural practices that are harmful to women through unequal gender relations
perspective. The women’s convention is aimed at eliminating all discrimination, in all forms and
areas affecting women’s lives. By accepting the conventions, states are obligated to incorporate
the principles of equality of men and women in states legal system, abolishing all discriminatory
laws, and adopt appropriate ones that prohibit discrimination against women. The convention
sets up the frameworks that should provide women the equal access and opportunity in political
and public life, as well as education, health and employment as for men, and target social and
cultural patterns of conduct with a view to eliminate the prejudice and customary practices based
on stereotyped roles for men and women. Culture and tradition are seemed as influential forces
shaping gender roles and family relations35.
3.1.5 The Convention on the Rights of the Child Human rights protections apply to all humans, adults and children. However children are
considered more vulnerable and therefore need particular rights for their protection. FGM
violates the human rights of children when performed on infants and young children. The CRC
makes explicit reference to “harmful traditional practices” in the context of the child’s right to
the highest attainable standard of health36. As any international law, when ratifying, the state is
35
United Nation, text of CEDAW CRC art. 24.3 36
16 obliged to form and adjust domestic laws in order to follow the convention. In article 19 of the
CRC, calls upon state parties to;
“Take all appropriate […] measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse […] while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other
person who has the care of the child37.
Given that children are vulnerable in any society the dependency of adult members, the
governments and the international community has acknowledged the issue of protection of the
child and its welfare. The CRC gives the governments the responsibility to ensure the children’s
rights laying down articles that these rights, through legislations, should be protected38.
The practice of FGM is a tradition that is cultural contingent. The concept of culture has affected
the understanding of human rights through its terms and implementation, and has in that way
created controversy within the field. Therefore what is stated about culture will be presented
through definition of culture and the relativistic view of it.
37
Innocenti digest, Changing a harmful convention, p. 15 UNICEF 2011, Right of the child 38
17 3.2 Culture and Relativism 3.2.1 Defining Culture Anthropological research on culture has shown that there are profound differences between
western legal theories and cultures and those of Africa, Asia, India and Islam. Defining culture is
challenging since there are many definitions available. The most contemporary understandings of
culture, whatever their other theoretical differences may be, include the following characteristics:
•
Culture do not possess “agency to act”; individuals do.
•
Cultures are not things, but analytical categories.
•
Individuals “carry” multiple cultures simultaneously, including ones rooted in religion,
ethic, racial, or national affiliations; gender, class and occupation or profession,
•
Cultures are “reproduced” –passed down to individuals- and in this sense one can speak
of “tradition”; but cultures are also shaped, emergent, and responsive to environmental
(social and physical) exigencies.
•
Cultures are not monolithic, integrated, timeless, and stable wholes but are often
fragmented, contestable and contested.
•
Cultures do not cause conflicts; they are, however, “the lenses through which the causes
of conflict are refracted” and none the less crucial for that39.
These characteristics summarize different definitions of culture. Furthermore the author Kevin
Avruch definition of culture is based on the idea of symbolic or cognitive understandings. In
other words, in form of emotional framework, which is embodied as symbols, metaphors,
schemes, or images, with which individuals perceive, interpret, and then act in, their social
worlds40.
Many of these frameworks are often interpretations of the behaviours of others culture, both
socially nearby, and those more distant. Whatever the definitions or interpretations culture has,
the primary debate on universal human rights is that culture is relative and demands respect for
cultural differences. As mentioned earlier the Western categories and values set the norm for
39
Helsing, Mertus, Human rights and conflict, p. 101 Ibid 40
18 human rights and therefore the discussion for cultural relativism is essential in understanding
paradigms occurring when other cultures undertake Western.
3.2.2 Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism is the idea that each culture must be understood in its own terms and also that
each culture must be judged from its own terms41. It is understood to be the undoubted truth that
human cultures are different from each other and embody different values42. These are the
general principles presented by Ruth Benedict, an early American anthropologist that studied the
patterns of culture in different societies and through her research she guides us towards cultural
relativism. This approach to research means that a culture must be understood in its own terms,
according to its own perceptions, rather than by criteria and values from other cultures. One
important aspect is the need of tolerance towards cultural divergences, and the acceptance that
other people’s culture is meaningful to them43.
Culture relativism takes an anti-foundationalist position since it emphasizes the social
construction of a social phenomenon. Culture traditions are not static and do not persist over
time, they are socially constructed and therefore take an epistemological position by saying that
we can identify social phenomenon as real44.
By emphasizing the cultural context when studying traditional values, the study will follow this
aspect within the theory. To consider what was claimed earlier about the current paradigm
surrounding the issue of FGM, the debate will be taken from its theoretical roots, to be analyzed
in how it is practically embedded in the world today. FGM is currently spread in many countries
throughout the world. International boundaries do no longer set apart religion or ethnic groups;
therefore the issue becomes an international one. However, it is foremost a human rights issue
since FGM has a negative impact on millions of girls and women’s health, and particularly on
children rights since they do not have a voice of their own. Focus lies on FGM through a human
rights perspective condemning the practice and through a relative point of view where culture
must be understood based on its own terms and conditions, since this practice still exists.
41
Zalzman, Understanding culture p 69 Ellis 2011, Literature Lost, Relativism 43
Zalzman, Understanding culture p 69 44
Marsh. Stoker, Theories and methods in political science, p. 18 42
19 4. FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION
To understand how and why FGM persists even though it has numerous health and social
consequences, it is necessary to understand the tradition and see it as a complex social practice
and consider the different intersectional perspectives of FGM such as social, political, cultural,
genus and ethnic related factors.
4.1 Historical Context FGM existed as a social and cultural practice in pre-Christian and pre-Islamic time. The term
“pharaohnic circumcision” is originated from the myth that the pharaohs in ancient Egypt
executed similar practices on their women and that the custom later on spread though a dominant
culture along the African continent45.
When it comes to the African continent FGM is spread along two geographical axes, a northsouthern and an east-western. The two axes meet in the northern parts of Sudan which seems to
be the core area for the practice. It is here the most radical form of FGM is exercised. It is also
where this custom is connected to the strictest cultural code for female status, the passage for
marriage and for family honour46.
In more recent historic times the custom has spread from one ethic group to another in countries
such as Chad and Tanzania. For example, young women from Chad underwent circumcision as a
sign of modernity. Studies from West Africa done in the 1980s show that the custom with female
circumcision often goes parallel with the spread of Islam, this connection can be seen as the
reason for people’s misconception that FGM is tied to Islamic belief in Africa. A historic and
cultural association between Islam and FGM exists, but not an association between writing and
tradition. Among the members of the Tanzanian ethnic group Meru, that is merely consistent of
Christians, clitoridectomy became renewed as tradition as an indirect effect to the fast growing
modernization, economic downfall and political instability. The “moral decline” that the Meru
were witnessing gave a reason to contain tradition through circumcising their women. Gradually
45
Berggren, Franck, Kvinnlig Könsstympning,p. 27 Ibid 46
20 as the custom has spread historically, it has always throughout history occurred in different
shapes and adjusted to local cultural relations47.
Today there are varying meanings and explanations for FGM. In the different communities
where FGM is practiced, the procedures physical extent or cultural meaning, as the girls’ age and
the actual practice varies. When it comes to the girls’ age it can vary from new-born baby to
marriageable women.
4.2 Various perspectives on the practice of FGM According to E. Dorkeeno referring to research papers, interviews and testimonials, there are
different perspectives and motives behind FGM. They are generally categorized into four groups:
psycho-sexual, religious, sociological and hygienic. These perspectives and motives vary in
different communities where FGM is practiced48.
Psycho-sexual:
Different opinions surrounding FGM have been discussed, all from it being merely based on
superstitions to deeper analysis that points to a complex set of ideas which grounds a social
system49. The prevention of promiscuity and the preservation of virginity underlie some of those
grounds. Some societies believe that if the clitoris is left intact, a woman will become oversexed,
meaning that she cannot control her sexuality, and seek to men other than her husband. It has
even been told to young adolescents that the clitoris may be dangerous during child birth because
it can lead to death. Similar perceptions exist on the belief that both the female and male sex
exists within each person at birth, the clitoris representing the male, and the foreskin representing
the female sex. Therefore is should be removed in order to determine the real sex of the child50.
Consequently women become frightened by their sexual organ and wish to remove it. However
this determines the age of the women and the awareness of the ritual. When performed on infants
or when a child is unaware, it is most likely the influence of the parents that wish to have their
child circumcised. Often the reason for any type of circumcision is the ‘attenuation of sexual
47
Berggren,Franck, Kvinnlig Könsstympning, p. 28 Dorkeeno, Cutting the rose, p. 34 49
Ibid, p. 34 50
Ibid, p. 35 48
21 desire’. On women the excision is focused upon the removal of the clitoris, which is where her
sexual pleasure is coming from. The reason behind which, is to kill sexual feelings amongst
women to make them satisfied with their husband, and he is guaranteed that she will not engage
in outside marital affairs51.
Religious:
As mentioned before, it is important to note that FGM is not a religious practice. The practice is
pre-dated the arrival of Christianity and Islam in Africa and is not a requirement in any religion
or religious writing. It is rather based on the interpretation of the people and is practiced by
Christians, Muslims, Jews and Indigenous religious groups.
Sociological:
Other scholars explain the practice in terms of initiation rites of development into adulthood. It
has social significance for females becoming a woman. In many areas in Africa an elaborate
ceremony surrounds the event and is rich in rituals and symbolism, with special songs and
dances intended to introduce the young girl to her duties and how to become a good wife and
mother52. Failure to perform FGM can in some communities result in shame and exclusion, and
the girl may in some cases not be likely to be considered for marriage or child bearing which is
an important social status for women in these societies53.
Hygiene:
In some African countries such as Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia, the external female
genitals are considered dirty. The purpose is to have the hair and all extended genitals removed
to have a smooth skin surface and therefore you have a clean body. It is also considered that the
female genitalia, when not cut, is ugly and disfigured, to the extent of beliefs that the clitoris may
grow and hang between ones legs. However, the effect of the procedure gives the unhygienic
51
Ibid, p. 35 Ibid, p. 39 53
Inncenti digest, Changing a harmful convention, p. 1 52
22 consequences of the urine and menstrual blood that cannot escape naturally, which results in the
discomfort, odour and infection54.
4.3 Motives behind the practice Whatever varied perception or reason behind the practice of FGM, there seems to be a common
thread running through traditional societies that these are male dominated societies where
resources and power are generally under male control55. However it is inaccurate to suggest that
all women are under that generalisation. As stressed by Dorkeeno, it is important to know that
some women benefit from a certain degree of authority within socially prescribed roles and even
in oppressive situations you can come across extremely strong women who defy all kinds of
suppression56.
As pointed out earlier and motivated by various perceptions, the practice of FGM is not
presented to women in a straight forward manner. It has been covered in mystery, magic and
fear. Women who undergo FGM receive social approval and gain certain benefits; being
marriageable and through marriage, having access to resources in the community57. All the
communities practicing FGM have the similar theme with the concept of becoming a woman and
being raised to a higher status. In terms of gender roles FGM marks the difference of sexes in
preparation of their future roles in life and marriage58. In Some communities, when belonging to
an ethnic group, one often has to follow certain obligations in order to become a full member of
that group. These obligations often include following rules and regulations whatever they may be
within the group, to contribute and defend the groups’ cultural base. Cultural identity or
belonging to a linage group is considered very important to most African families. Given that
parents want their children to become a part of the society and pass on the culture, the practice of
FGM centres the full social acceptability and integration upon females and assigns status and
value to the girl or woman, as well as to her family59.
54
Dorkeeno, Cutting the rose, p. 40 Ibid, p. 45 56
Ibid, p. 46 57
Ibid 58
Mwaipop, Law and practice relating to FGM in Tanzania, p. 47 59
ibid 55
23 One important factor behind FGM economy, the women performing FGM on girls and women
are called Excisors. They are known to receive economic gains from executing the practice, and
by which it becomes an important source of their income60. In some cases during the FGM
ceremonies the girls receive gifts from their parents and friends; in return parents also receive a
much higher “bride price” for their daughters being mutilated, than of those who have not61.
4.4 Introduction to study area In Babati District in Tanzania the government as well as local NGO’s are working to prevent
FGM. When the government addressed the issue of FGM, the state and NGO’s began to take
measures against it. According to local NGO, by reaching out to the communities with
information and education, the overall prevalence of FGM has declined in most of the affected
areas in Babati District.
AFNET
An NGO operating in Babati Town also works in eight other regions to abolish FGM, these
include; Dodoma, Siginda, Manyara, Arusha, Mongoro, Iringa, Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro.
AFNET is currently inactive in Manyara region due to financial reasons. However, since the
establishment of the organization in 2000 and 200262, it has been successful in educating the
communities on the dangerous effects FGM have on women and their health. Through
collaboration with the government, hospitals and their staff organized in order to prevent FGM
alongside HIV, reaching out to isolated villages with mobile wagons. This was taken into action
after the hospital staff reported girls and women having complications during child birth and
seven witnessing women dying from these complications. Many homeless women who had ran
away from their communities were taken in by AFNET, and through these women the
organization could gather information on how to stop FGM by reaching out to these particular
communities63.
60
Dorkeeno, Cutting the rose, p. 50 Mwaipop, Law and practice relating to FGM in Tanzania, p. 42 62
Arvanitopoulou, Georgia. Methods to prevent Female Genital Mutilation, 2010, p. 21 63
Interview with AFNET 61
24 It is through this organization I have been given the opportunity to visit villages where FGM
used to be performed.
Gallapo Village
In Gallapo village FGM used to be a part of the society and was strongly connected to the
tradition of FGM. Since the illegalisation of FGM and through education and help from AFNET,
the practice is no longer exercised in Gallapo. A woman who has grown up in this village
explained that in order to get married, you needed to get circumcised since it was the only way
for a man to get sexually satisfied. If a girl did not undergo circumcision she was shameful, not
prepared for marriage, and other people in the village would gossip about her, and consider her
disgraceful. The procedure would take place somewhere where only the girl’s mother or
grandmother and the women performing were present. Before FGM became illegal it was done
on older girls, between 5 and 15. In recent decades the woman explains that it could be done in
secrecy on infant babies up to three months. It is a common tradition in some African countries,
that when a baby is born, the mother and the baby stay in the house and do not go outside during
a period of three months. This is the speculated time where the procedure could take place
instead.
A man coming from the same village was recently affected by the issues of FGM when his
mother wanted his daughters to undergo the procedure. As the men in many households have the
final say, he refused. He feels that it is a useless practice since when it comes to girls’ health,
tradition does not matter. His mother was very keen on keeping the tradition and she felt that it
was a real shame to abandon it, because she felt that it was the only way for her granddaughters
to get married. The man also explained that it is highly important to educate men in this matter;
he believed that the only purpose of this was to keep the girls from being with many men. If the
girl is circumcised it is believed that she will only be with the man she will marry.
AFNET, who works to prevent FGM, went to this area and people were informed of the dangers
and consequences of this practice. According to this organization, the campaign in this particular
area seemed to have been successful.
AFNET operates in the affected communities by reaching out to the women performing FGM
and the men upholding it. By first learning about why this tradition is important they can find the
25 core problem and take measures from there. In this particular situation one of the problems
addressed was the women performing FGM, called Ngariba. Families would pay the Ngaribas to
circumcise their daughters, and as they had authority to do this procedure, it also became a
livelihood for them. What AFENT started with was to educate the Ngaribas and compensate for
their livelihood.
Ngariba from Sigino Village
The tradition of FGM was very important in the village of Sigino. The former Ngariba explained
that it was seen as a “declaration” for women, as well as it was an assurance for men that the
woman he would marry had not been with other men before him. According to her it was an
equally important practice for men since a circumcised girl was a marriageable girl. She became
a Ngariba through heritage, her grandmother and her mother use to be one. When she was
performing FGM the families would bring gifts and pay around 200 shilling to have their
daughters circumcised, and the procedure would take place in a distance from the village. She
stopped being a Ngariba when she got educated and do not regret this decision, but the primary
reason was that she was concerned for her daughter’s health. The pain that she suffered when she
had undergone FGM, she did not want her daughter to experience.
The education the former Ngariba got from AFNET, and the concern for her daughter’s health
was enough for her to stop, however she thinks that in order for the practice to truly disappear
the villages and the people need to be alert of what goes on in their surroundings.
Fatima, adolescent from Babati Town 64
Fatima is an orphan currently living in Babati in a Muslim orphanage in Babati Town. Fatima
was born in Babati Town but moved to Kondoa to live with her grandmother when she was a
little girl. According to AFNET, Kondoa, which is located in Dodoma region not far from
Babati, is one of the areas where AFNET operates and have to some extent succeeded. There are
however records found of girls and women that still have undergone FGM. Often it is in rural
areas that are isolated and difficult to reach where the practice of FGM occurs. Fatima was about
64
Fatima is a fictive name 26 three or four years old when her grandmother took her to Ngariba to have her undergo FGM. She
explained that when she was growing up every girl she knew had undergone some form of
female circumcision, it was a norm in the society. In Fatima case her grandmother was the one
who wanted her to be circumcised in order to be able to get married and fulfil her duties as a
woman. When Fatima was 13 her grandmother wanted her to marry a man whom she did not
know. She chose not to go through with this and she ran away to Babati, where her parents live.
However her mother is ill and her father is not present, therefore she is taken care of by the
Muslim orphanage. When asking about the health consequences, she did not have any
complications. However, what she remembered about the procedure was that she had pain for
about a month, and she could not walk or stand properly. The only discomfort she experiences
today is the she feels different from other girls that have not been circumcised in the community
she currently lives in.
After the interview I recall asking Fatima what she wanted to be when she grows up, she told me
that first she wanted to go to school to become a teacher. She felt strongly about being forced to
get married in such an early age and she wishes that women had more rights in deciding what
they want to do with their lives. She said that by having an education and given the ability to
choose when to get married and who to marry, she would never feel inferior to men.
27 5. ANALYSIS 5.1 Analysis This essay focuses on the issue of FGM, more specifically the persistence of the practice. To get
a comprehensive understanding the empirical findings will be put into an analysis with the help
of the presented theoretical framework.
Female genital mutilation existed in pre-Christian and pre-Islamic time. Since then the custom
has spread historically around the world and adjusted to different cultural relations and
traditional values. Efua Dorkenoos research on the general view of various perceptions on FGM
is categorized into four groups, psycho-sexual, religious, sociological and hygienic. These
perceptions establish certain aspects of the female genitalia, more specifically there seems to be a
certain fixation on the clitoris. The clitoris symbolizes something that is not considered female,
in other words her sexuality. It must be removed in order to preserve virginity and prevent
promiscuity, to do that various things are told in order to justify the act. This leads to different
motives behind practice of FGM. The focus centers on girls becoming women through
considering circumcision as a “rite of passage” to adulthood and being marriageable. Marriage
and producing children are in most traditional communities a very important responsibility for
women, and in this case where the tradition contains of FGM, one needs to be circumcised to get
married.
The cultural identity among ethnic groups may be surrounded among various traditions and
customs meaningful to that particular ethnic group. To belong, there may be certain obligations
to follow, and pass on such as the custom of FGM. What seemed to be a dominating factor
behind the persistence is that the custom is passed on and preserved in traditional societies where
the most of the power and resources are generally under male control. Dorkeeno refers to this as
a partilineal based societies. However FGM is an event organized and controlled by women and
the practice remains in the female sphere. The excisors performing the procedure gain economic
benefits from this practice, and the circumcised girls and their families can be assured that she
belongs in the community, and that the tradition is passed on to her. Analyzing this through a
generalized point of view, the conducted interviews tell similar stories. In Tanzania there are
28 many regions that practice/practiced FGM. In Manyara region, where the interviews took place,
most of the areas where FGM were performed, has abandoned the practice. This was possible
through government involvement and education. Some of the general perceptions and motives
presented were restated from the informants from Babati. In this particular area, FGM has had a
deep social significance. In the village of Gallapo, a girl needed to get circumcised in order to be
fully marriageable. This was before the practice became illegal and was abandoned. A girl that
did not undergo the procedure was faced with social exclusion and shame, and it meant that she
could be seen as promiscuous. The former Ngariba stated the practice as a “declaration” for
women; it had been passed down from generation to generation and kept as a tradition equally
important for men as for women.
The argument for FGM varies between countries and cultures. The line between international
law, provided by international instruments, and cultural value are sometimes very vague. The
development of human rights has established its values in the broad international arena and has
made it into a political matter. The most notable result of this change in attitude was the adoption
of the UDHR, which has resulted in acceptance of these norms and received by nearly all
states65. When human rights issues addressed women’s rights through CEDAW, the problem of
FGM was addressed by specific human rights instruments containing guarantees of freedom
from discrimination on the basis of sex. It is noted that women’s rights were not a human rights
issue until later on, partly because violence against women was seen as a private issue, and
should not be addressed in public66. However, in the 1993 CEDAW it was restated that some
traditional practices that were harmful to women, and were reconsidered from being a private
matter into public and should be eliminated67. Referring to the empirical findings FGM is a
practice imposed by communities on women, to control their sexuality for the advantage of men.
By presupposing that women are promiscuous and that their sexuality will rise above their
control, they need to be controlled. However, men’s sexuality is not addressed at all in that
manner. CEDAW requires state parties to take measures insuring women against discrimination
65
Donnelly, Human rights and Asian values, p. 65 Kvinnojouren Feminism och Jämnställdhet 66
67
CEDAW article 4 “states should condemn violence against women and should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its eliminations”. States should condemn violence against w omen and should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious 29 by implementing appropriate legislations68. The convention is against all traditional practices that
are harmful to women and state parties should seek to change attitudes towards customs and
practices that discriminate women. In addition article 5 (b) constitutes family roles, and
emphasizes the importance of family education and parental responsibility towards the child69.
Readdressing to the CRC state parties is obliged to develop and undertake all actions and polices
in the best interest of the child. Regarding FGM, governments are responsible to end the practice
in the interest of the child, through instruments implemented in educating about the dangers, and
also giving responsibility to parents and legal guardians. However, referring to data stating that
FGM is a social convention that is highly important for women’s status and social approval, the
outcome of intervening in the best interest of the child, may not always be the ultimate solution
since not having undergone FGM can result in social exclusion in the community and the child
may suffer emotionally. Also considering the parents having their best interest of their children,
may either consider having the child undergo FGM believing that it has beneficial consequences
for their child later in life, or recognizing that it is harmful for their health. The conducted
interviews in Babati with Fatima demonstrated the effects from early childhood, where she
explained the normality of the practice of FGM, having herself experienced the social
consequences of having gone through with it. Luckily she did not suffer from any complications
today, but living in a community today that does not seek to this norm; she feels the opposite of
social belonging.
The Declarations of CEDAW and CRC as a part of the human rights law suffer from barriers
when facing cultural traditions. When arguing for the rights of humans and intervening in the
name of human rights to abolish FGM, it stands against a practice that is part of a social
convention, rooting in cultural and ethical norms and values, with traditions that are likely to be
preserved and defended. Human rights laws underlie the concept that Western culture, because it
legitimizes itself behind universalistic ideology, positions itself as superior to non-western
culture, leaving every other outside the framework. These instruments and frameworks are
defined in protecting the rights of people taking part in cultural life. Although these rights are
recognized internationally, they are limited by governments’ obligation to uphold and protect
68
CEDAW art. 2 (f) CEDAW art. 5 (b) 69
30 morals and fundamental rights, public health and safety as well. The interests for the support of
the practice underlie the grounds of culture, tradition and minority right which the human rights
framework provides70. However to end FGM these measures confronts these rights through the
right of culture. International laws are also insufficient because they are not absolute. States hold
the ultimate responsibility to implement legislations and take action. As Tanzania has ratified
these conventions, and implemented laws that condemn the practice of FGM, changes could be
discovered in the study area. As AFNET were active in the 90’s and early 2000, many had seen
changes. The theory stating that cultural traditions are not static and are socially constructed;
changes have shown that the practice does not persist over time. By activities from NGOs and
the implemented legislations, many parts of the areas affected, the practice declined. An attitude
change has been positive in Babati district given the interviews conducted in the areas where
FGM used to be performed. The general public was against the practice because of the negative
consequences of the procedure and the agreement that it is an outdated custom. The man from
Gallapo agreed that it was an ineffective tradition, and from a man’s point of view considering
the male domination of the issue, this is a positive change. One of AFNET’s main goals was to
reach the Ngaribas, the women performing FGM on girls. If they chose to stop with the
procedure one core problem would be stopped. However, it does not approach the issue
undertaken that it is the system of beliefs surrounding the tradition. Changes of attitude towards
the practice do not conclude changes in behaviors. The adjustment of the custom through time
shows that attitudes and behaviors are not easy to change.
Referring back to Kevin Avruch definition of culture that takes form in emotional framework
embodied as symbols, metaphors, schemes or images, by which individuals interpret and act in
their social worlds. This can be interpreted in the social convention that is FGM and how it has
been passed on as tradition. Culture and tradition are seemed as influential forces shaping gender
roles and family relations. In many communities, culture and tradition is a way of living and
belonging to a community, which is a self-evident right. To view FGM as cultural relative,
considering its own terms and conditions, important factors constitutes that the custom has been
shaped and reshaped for hundreds of years, and has adjusted to how it is perceived in different
communities and ethnic groups. The various perceptions about FGM have created beliefs in what
70
United nations, UDHR art 2 31 a woman represents, hence the behaviors surrounding the practice. What was found to be
generalized perceptions were mainly ways to control the female sexuality. Seen as a social
convention, Gerry Mackie uses a theory on how practices like FGM, can resist for generations
even though it is harmful and dangerous; what features a social convention is the distribution and
continuity. It is something people do because it has been done under a long period of time and
finding alternatives to a particular custom may be well hidden under the laws of cultural
meaning71. A custom is not necessarily useful, however the fact that no one violates it, is a force
itself. This is exampled by how girls and women, even families, that do not chose to take part of
a custom when everybody else does, can be socially excluded and outcaste from a society. To
follow a convention from an individual point of view seems more likely. Surely the forces of
human rights implemented by the instruments and guidelines of conventions, has changed the
attitude towards FGM, but has it changed the behaviors?
71
Berggren, Franck, Kvinnlig könstympning, p. referring to Mackie, Ending foot binding and infibulations: A convention account”, American Sociological review, 61, 6:999-­‐1017. 32 5.2 Discussion FGM is internationally recognized as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. In
Africa alone, there are about three million girls at risk of FGM each year. In recent decades the
awareness of FGM has resulted in many on-going activities and projects with the purpose of
eliminating the practice. Work undertaken by various local communities, governments and
national and international organizations has contributed to a reduction in the prevalence of FGM
in some areas. However, it is still reoccurring in many parts of the world, in this particular case
in Tanzania.
Being an ancient custom practiced and preserved for decades, FGM is a current and highly
important issue that deserves a lot of concern and attention since it is a harmful practice that has
a negative impact on women’s and children’s health. It is fought against internationally and
nationally, for this reason it is vastly important to understand the meaning of the custom in a
context of FGM being a social convention preserved by various perceptions and beliefs behind it.
What can be constituted is that the practice varies in different cultures and communities. From
the interviews conducted, I could generalize the motive by stating that the most important reason
behind the practice is marriage and control of female sexuality in male dominated societies. The
attention drawn to FGM by the international community has led to decisions by governments
taking actions to abolish the practice. This has resulted in a declining of the practice, by
government control and active NGOs both internationally and locally. Even though the custom
has changed over time as well as decreased, some of the motivations for doing the procedure and
the practice still remain. The fact that the average age of the girl has changed from circumcising
young women as a rite of passage into adulthood and the ceremonial aspect of it, into
circumcising infants and children up to five is a strong sign of change. As the woman from
Gallapo village explained, if FGM would be done today, it would be done in secrecy with a
newborn baby up to three months, and would not be known to the public. In this way the
tradition has lost its meaning of it being a rite of passage into adulthood, as it is done on much
younger girls and even newborns. The modernization can even have counter-productive
consequences; not only depended on governments taking accountable measures to stop the
practice, the risk of it being such an important convention can be one reason for the practice
being led into secrecy to hide from authorities. The consequences of FGM being illegalized has
33 also made it harder to detect, especially in isolated villages. As I had the opportunity to follow
other classmates to their interviews, we met up with mid-wives on the subject about HIV. I took
the opportunity to ask a few questions about FGM. However, it was confirmed that occasionally
hospital staff would encounter women that had been circumcised and these women often origin
from distanced villages.
From an objective point of view the practice of FGM appears crucial in the context of social
belonging in the community and recognizing ones cultural identity through traditional
obligations. I do not believe that parents or mothers have the intention of hurting their child. It is
perceived in the best interest of the child and as she grows up she believes that it is a normal
process to go through in order to get married and also have children. But taking a subjective
stand there is no logic basis for the practice and its irrational claims of the various perceptions
and motives behind it. The actual ritual is never explained to a girl and it is left in mystery. As a
result girls don’t talk about it being a bad thing since they believe that all girls and women go
through it in order to get good husbands and get married. It has no medical benefits and it is
practiced on children without their consent. Even though this study is not focused on male
circumcision, it is just as important to recognize that male circumcision is widely spread also
with no medical necessities, in some perspectives as a rite of passage as well, and boys often go
through the same traumatic experience. The difference however, is that the clitoris on a female is
the direct biologically equivalent to the penis. On a boy, when getting circumcised, the tip of the
foreskin is removed and does not damage the penis or destroys his sexual pleasure; only to the
female genitalia it destroys the whole organ for sexual pleasure. In communities where
circumcision is still considered as a rite of passage, the education should be focused on how to
find a way of preserving a tradition of sociological meaning, without circumcising girls, or boys.
Refocusing on the male-dominated aspect, it was clear that men were opposing FGM in this
particular area. However, the main trace still seems to be that the practice is maintained in
communities where men are dominating. But it is important to note that FGM is not a
mechanism used by men to oppress women, considering the secondary data stating that FGM is
guarded and protected by women, their attitudes towards the custom are just as important to
address. In order for the custom to change, the situation for women has to change. The method of
reaching out and educating the Ngaribas, and compensating for their livelihood, seemed most
34 likely to have the practice stop in an immediate matter. However, addressing the Ngaribas may
not change the general attitudes towards the custom. From what was observed, the importance of
the social conventions was mainly pressured from previous generations. The man from Gallapo
village demonstrated it when explaining the conflict between his mother and him, about having
his daughters circumcised. Also Fatima’s experience and the consequences she suffered when
feeling the pressure by her grandmother to get married. Her goal in life was not to get married
and have children at a young age, even though it was a normal thing to do where she comes
from, as it is in most African communities. Fatima wanted to get an education and make her own
choices in life. In the context of underdevelopment the most vulnerable are often women and
children in rural areas where education and resources is not accessible, and in times of socioeconomic change. The rural and urban poor often hold on to tradition as a survival mechanism72,
which has then persisted by women being inferior to superstition and knowledge.
The stress for girls to get married at a young age is in my opinion one major issue to address
since it seems to be the main accomplishment from having the procedure done. Whatever reason,
perception or tradition given the justification of the act, they are all mechanisms that help
contribute and maintain the practice. But understanding the information about the underlying
reasons can help the understanding of what needs to be done in order to make the practice stop.
There are many theories suggesting the empowerment of women, and addressing the importance
of education for girls and women in Africa. The recent generation stand for changes in attitudes
and the circumstances for women around the world are improving because of awareness and
education. A change in attitudes and norms is not accomplished by laws and legislations alone.
There was recently an article in the Swedish newspaper DN73, about a women living with the
consequences of FGM in her everyday life in Kenya. Her story about her struggles has made the
front news page since it leads to a parliament vote on a new legislation forbidding the practice of
FGM. Her story took the issue of FGM into the public in Kenya as well as the government,
which before her statement was against the legislative proposal. Some men in the parliament
confessed of not knowing about what their mothers, wives, sisters or daughters had gone through
and that her story made them realize how great an issue FGM is. The change has to start from the
root of the understanding of the behavior towards FGM, and the awareness can change when
72
Dorkeeno, Cutting the Rose, p. 58 Dagens Nyheter 2011-­‐ 05-­‐27 73
35 given the opportunity for education, and in my opinion, especially the opportunities for women.
For the reason that if marriage is the only means of survival for women, and the preparation for
that means getting circumcised, the task of ending the practice will be difficult. Therefore
changing the conditions for women on how they live and how they are perceived needs to be the
major focus for change.
36 6. CONCLUSIONS Throughout this essay I have attempted to highlight FGM through a human rights perspective
and emphasize the conflict that appears when there is support for the practice that are grounded
on the rights of culture, traditions and in some cases minority rights. The reason for this is that
FGM is rooted in deep cultural meaning and is portrayed as a highly important social
convention; however it is considered a human rights violation on girls and women as it is a
harmful practice with numerous negative health consequences. The perceptions behind the
practice vary, but are often categorized behind psycho-sexual, religious, sociological and
hygienic meanings. Reason being all from preserving the female virginity, to considering that the
forms and shapes of the genitalia are ugly and needs to be removed. The motives behind the
practice vary as well, which seems to be embedded in the perceptions of FGM. The main
motivations found through primary and secondary data stating that FGM is a procedure that has
to be done in order for a girl to be considered marriageable. Community characterized by male
domination are socially constructed where women get status through marriage and baring
children, therefore the custom of FGM are justified by the way women are perceived by men.
The custom has changed through time, most likely caused by the illegalization of FGM, since the
age of the girls getting circumcised have in recent decades declined. Following implementations
of human rights laws, there has developed an extreme amount of awareness towards FGM
around the world and has changed the attitudes towards the practice. However, the activities are
highly ongoing since there is a yearly number of 3 million girls and women at risk of FGM;
therefore human rights law is crucial but not absolute. The promotion and protection needs to be
supported by the governments since it is their duty to adopt the different measurements acquired.
The focus on change lie in recognizing the condition of women and children and the
development requires for changes in attitudes towards how they are perceived in their society.
Through education and awareness the attitude changes may conclude behavioural changes
towards harmful practices.
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