What about "Female Genital Mutilation"? And Why Understanding Culture Matters in the First Place Author(s): Richard A. Shweder Source: Daedalus, Vol. 129, No. 4, The End of Tolerance: Engaging Cultural Differences (Fall, 2000), pp. 209-232 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027671 . Accessed: 10/01/2011 10:58 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=mitpress. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. The MIT Press and American Academy of Arts & Sciences are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Daedalus. http://www.jstor.org Richard A. Shweder What About "Female Genital Mutilation55? And Why Understanding Culture Matters in the First Place Female mutilation genital (FGM, also as known female circumcision) has been practiced in sub-Saharan for centuries traditionally Africa. and taboos have Customs, rituals, myths, even the practice it has perpetuated though maimed or killed untold numbers of women and FGM's girls.... combined with disastrous a serious constitute health effects, the social injustices it perpetuates, to overall barrier African development. ?Susan Rich and Stephanie Joyce1 On the basis of the vast literature on the harmful effects of genital one might surgeries, have anticipated finding a wealth of studies that document morbidity. considerable increases incontrovertible rate of medical are the exception evidence on mortality, suggests the rule. complications rather than ?Carla Richard A. in mortality and This review could find no Shweder is professor of human M. and the that they Obermeyer2 development at the University of Chi cago. The essay is part of a forthcoming volume, and H. Markus. ? Russell Shweder, M. Minow, This 209 Free Exercise Sage of Culture, edited by R. All rights reserved. Foundation. 210 Richard A. Shweder societies Early over controls and devised curb in Africa the sexual female desire and response. Koso-Thomas3 ?Olayinka ... studies sexual that feelings strong of their women to circumcision of behavior means the brutal sexual established the systematically investigate women men in and societies of where surgeries genital the scant information question the assertion surgeries women's are are found are that is available rare, and to with incompatible into calls that female genital antithetical fundamentally sexuality and sexual enjoyment. M. ?Carla some of the most practice of such customs?clitoridectomy, who Those controversial polygamy, that are or marriages the marriage of children otherwise coerced?sometimes explicitly women them as necessary for controlling defend and openly at men's acknowledge insistence. the customs that ?Susan It is difficult for me?considering I have ceremonies observed, to accept that what appear celebrations joy and ecstatic actuality Obermeyer4 disguise hidden M. persist Okin5 the number of including my own? to be expressions of in of womanhood experiences of coercion and subjugation. Indeed, I offer that the bulk of Kono because women who uphold these rituals do so they want supernatural against men relish the to?they their ritual leaders powers of in society, and they brace the over and, particularly, authority legitimacy of female the authority their mothers and of grandmothers. ?Fuambai Ahmadu6 "Female Genital Mutilation What About BY RITES A WOMAN: MULTICULTURAL TO THE LISTENING VOICES OF FEMINISM November 18, 1999, Fuambai Ahmadu, scholar who grew up in the United a paper at the American Anthropological ON can cultural Ahmadu Association and pluralism care about the accuracy and who in our public-policy debates. these words: paper with who people of "differences" freethinking toleration a young Afri delivered States, that should be deeply troubling to all liberal in Chicago meeting 211 "? representations her began value democratic the of scholars and activists campaigning a concern for women's female circumcision] [of against as well as for the and sexual well-being, psychological physical, status and for women's of these traditional rituals implications an of in from ethnic group power [the Kono society. Coming I also share with feminist the practice in which initiation and Eastern Sierra Leone] female (and male) are institutionalized "circumcision" and a central feature of cul ture and society and having myself this traditional undergone a I it find of "woman," process becoming challenging increasingly to reconcile my own experiences with prevailing global discourses on "circumcision."7 female ceremonies Coming-of-age and alterations genital involving in the lives of, many bedded but in Europe and the United number these and of States African contemporary vary widely practices two hundred million. secrets ceremonies gender-identity em embraced and by, deeply not only in Africa African women, are as well. women Estimates of the in participate between eighty million their these women keep who and wildly In general, not been inclined to expose have the most They to their of bodies examination and parts public they not been in the habit of making their case on the op-ed or at in the halls of Congress, of American newspapers, secret. intimate have pages academic Fuambai and state meetings. So it was Ahmadu, that the an initiate an extraordinary event an and anthropologist, claims to witness stand adverse up ef oft-repeated "regarding on women's do not tally circumcision] [of female sexuality most with the experiences Kono of her women," including was own.8 Ahmadu twenty-two years old and sexually experi fects 212 Richard A. Shweder enced at when Most she in her least case women Kono to Sierra returned own to be circumcised, so she is talking about. Leone she knows what the practice of female (and male) its evaluate for their consequences positively and Ahmadu social, psychological, spiritual, physical well-being. on to suggest went that Kono feel empowered girls and women and she de ceremony (see quotation, above) by the initiation some of the reasons why. scribed circumcision uphold and Ahmadu's observations ethnographic seem to readers may intellectual astonishing in which circles most so "politically to deplore correct" claims and representations alarming of African groups parents (images and of Dcedalus. personal In the Americans travel female of testimony social and it has circumcision anti-"FGM" routinely and been that the advocacy for hundreds of years disfiguring, and murdering their female chil maiming, dren and depriving them of their capacity for a sexual response) not to reliable have been scrutinized with carefully regard Nor have evidence. they been cross-examined by freethinking minds through the facts trary; a process of systematic rebuttal. the con Quite the ground and the correct moral attitude for on to be so self-evident have been taken that merely guys" FGM?" is "what about the rhetorical posing question presumed as an obvious to function to cultural counterargument plural "good alternative case there than sided bad, a clear to define ism and that ways is good Six months before Fuambai Ahmadu the prevailing about cision, readers of the Medical cally) gist an extraordinary sort. Carla different and epidemiologist review comprehensive female genital that of tolerance for in this is far less one because the case are not really all that that the "bad guys" be upheld, of pluralism should and that the an awful to have rushed and gotten judgment doubts served to any feelings is unfortunate, life. This reason to believe of supposed, the values "good guys" may lot rather wrong. limit surgeries discourse global event publicly on Anthropology of a Obermeyer, at Harvard similar yet a medical expressed her female circum Quarterly ob (methodologi anthropolo University, published of the existing medical literature in which in Africa, she concluded a on that the of claims ated are movement anti-"FGM" the reality. her essay by pointing began Obermeyer on which of the literature review haustive by what the mobilization motivated tween research on the medical, from in the Medline, were made about no evidence was Popline, or "female be the she 435 and avail genital statements in which publications the devastating effects of at all. When presented is based article and Sociofile databases), in most that discovered ex "The demographic, article published topic mutilation" she this that a potential disparity activism toward and as every literatures, including circumcision" of "female the out such efforts."9 When support of "research base" (a total ought at that reviewed science social able look were articles appeared of resources to that base a closer took exagger highly not match and may was 213 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About circumcision female she examined evidence she research discovered reports containing actually original numerous flaws (e.g., small or unrepresentative methodological no control and quality-control (e.g., groups) problems samples, in some of the of medical vague complications) descriptions most cited widely ficiencies, an aura some She documents. of the published of dependability remarks: "Despite have come reports and repeated through their de to acquire cita uncritical tions."10 about even some to draw In order realistic, of consequences the health some introduced then female if tentative, circumcision conclusions in Africa, standard epidemiological For example, criteria for evaluating evidence.11 quality-control a research if its be excluded methods sampling study would on a single case or if its claims were were not described based the basis of the relatively rather than a population sample. On Obermeyer small of number mum available standards scientific that studies (for example, actually eight mini passed on studies the topic of medical complications), Obermeyer reported that the widely publicized medical complications of African genital op erations are are alterations that the been killed supported the claim not exception, not incompatible that by the that female rule; genital with sexual and enjoyment; numbers of girls and women have untold as a result of this evidence.12 the "traditional practice" is not well 214 Richard A. Shweder Many and anthropologists other researchers who on work this topic in various field settings in Africa have been aware of on female the global discourse circumci of maiming, sexual murder, dysfunction, and oppression) and their own ethno between discrepancies sion (with its images coercion, mutilation, with experiences graphic realities.13 the Perhaps discourse first came in discourses indigenous and physical the global protest against anthropological to 1938 from Jomo Kenyatta, who, prior a wrote of Kenya, president postcolonial the first becoming in anthropology Ph.D. thesis at the London School of Econom thesis was published as a book entitled Facing Mount The Tribal Life of the Gikuyu, in which he described Kenya: ics. His both the customary sexual premarital practices (lots of fondling and rather liberal attitudes and petting and arousal) the the Gikuyu toward adolescent of practice female (and circumcision. male) words, ring and Kenyatta's temporary a conference the European 'barbarous other Save 'heathen' was children the an uncanny con us that "In 1931 in 1938, have First he informs published relevance. on African of auspices several this sexual of Children held Fund. in Geneva under In this time was that the delegates urged custom' should be abolished, and it should be abolished customs, the conference ripe when like all that, at once by law."14 a genital that among the Gikuyu alter goes on to argue is a bodily is re "like Jewish that ation, circumcision," sign non sine "as the of conditio the whole of qua garded teaching no man that tribal and proper Gikuyu law, religion morality," He or woman would circumcised, that sible adulthood "there defense have sex with the practice for many or marry someone who was not is an essential step into respon African is a strong community of this custom."15 later sixty years Nearly can be found in the writings of echoes account in Kenya, the Okiek. The Okiek, female educated of of Corinne a detailed of girls and boys, initiation Gikuyu and that opinion in message Kenyatta's has written Kratz, who in another ethnic group Jomo she tells us, do not talk about in terms circumcision of but rather desire, speak and adulthood." According view modification "genital during displayed Okiek personhood."16 Many tween the the dampening of it "in terms to Kratz, the and as operation circumcised sion sexual of cleanliness, women Okiek bravery constitutive and beauty and men self-control of experiences be women appear field to the global regard or as a disfigurement Robert Rubinstein me to be orgasmic," continue in other East other reports.17 discourse a have offered that "mutilation," field enjoy "Kikuyu men African societies that remarks assured or pleasure of discrepancies could be cited examples and of many discourse the experience global to in Africa. With issue the of sexual regard for example, Robert ment, Edgerton like those of several and women, female that practice circumcision, With of other the researchers marks 215 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About in 1961-62 and represents Sandra the following that re similar circumci Lane and caution: An is that many members of societies important caveat, however, that practice traditional female genital surgeries do not view the in fact, the resulting these groups, result as mutilation. Among an over in is considered female genitalia appearance improvement or to their natural state. Indeed, to call a woman uncircumcised, a is call a man the son of an uncircumcised terrible insult mother, are often considered and noncircumcised adult female genitalia we in In interviews conducted rural and urban Egypt disgusting. by faculty of the High Institute of Nurs of the overwhelming University, ing, Zagazig Egypt, majority women to on circumcised have the planned procedure performed some fifty women we found In discussions their daughters. with resent and are angry at having been circumcised. only two who Even these women is one of do not think that female circumcision women the most critical problems and facing Egyptian girls. In the some rural Egyptian hamlet where we have conducted fieldwork women were not familiar with groups that did not circumcise their was not learned cir When that the female researcher they girls. their response was disgust mixed with cumcised joking laughter. and in studies conducted how she could have thus gotten married and They wondered an could how her mother have such questioned neglected important for womanhood.18 part of her preparation Richard A. Shweder 216 These suggest beauty dental real and we are reports ethnographic that instead of disfigurement want to consider the possibility that divide around the world might cultural astonishing reactions and aesthetic emotional, no There of doubt that course, is, and anxiety and aroused easily they of perceptions and must be transcen assuming are universal and disgust because noteworthy that our own about this to female own our powerful either manipulated rhetorically surgeries. with or "torture" the activity (for example, labeling to understand But if we want the true character tion"). cultural divide our own and to save initial "savages," it may make good emotional/visceral automatic) conclusive powerful (and any rather argument, objective in sensibilities have than Perhaps, analysis. we might develop People other feelings or color them of instead a better PLURALISM AND THE "MUTUAL for sense "mutila of alterations, larly intense or horror. "mutual however, even approach and may From a purely descriptive this to bracket reactions the end of the short-circuit all deploring the simply understanding of the inside of the of for YUCK RESPONSE" at each other's and recoil practices it comes all over the world. When the be pic a synoptic account point subject by constructing women of from the those African many view, perspective seem both normal and desirable. whom such practices MORAL of feelings and can surgical implements) or with tures (for example, of Third World words is a in moral, genital personal are topic there say "yuck" to female at each genital is response particu yuck" a sense of mutual outrage that particu point of view, is routine of modification of the "natural" and body in many For example, national ethnic groups. preva rates of 80-98 for Egypt, have been lence percent reported Sierra and the the Leone, Somalia, Gambia, Mali, Ethiopia, rate is In African nations where the overall Sudan.19 prevalence lar type normal lower?for example, 30 50 percent in Ghana?this percent d'Ivoire, in those countries ethnic groups circumcision while other ethnic within Ghana the ethnic in Kenya, in Cote 43 percent some is typically because a tradition have of female do not. groups in the north groups For and example, the east in the south groups In general, for both circumcision the (versus the ethnic (and boys), while girls circumcision. tradition of female circumcise no have 217 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About of and girls the best predictor boys or cultural For ex affiliation. absence of it) is ethnicity group Kono of Sierra is for the circumcision Leone, customary ample, it is not. For women within these of Senegal but for the Wolof one other cultural key factor?their affiliation?trumps or as socioeco educational level of such behavior, predictors a secondary even women status. Among with nomic the Kono, groups, or school Wolof There one that argue their religion, heritage practice typically or their for the that argue are custom it is not conducted permitted and by their cultural endorse their the cultural groups for whom female heritage approval ratings to the rather and Health circumci female part important women who do not generally in northern about endorse of religion.20 of ethnic among members is part of their cultural Sudan Demographic was while think who it is an For practice. circumcision this cultural do not terms. Women or Second, circumcision about facts women African in human-rights sion typically heritage while circumcised, Senegalese not. illiterate and unschooled?are the women?including are other notable thing, most are education college high. According Survey of 1989-1990, out central which of 3,805 Sudan, 89 percent were circumcised. Of the women or 96 percent said they had circumcised who were circumcised, When circumcise their daughters. asked whether would they women favored women interviewed continuation said In Sierra majority they Leone 90 percent the practice, its continuation.21 favored of of circumcised is much the same, and the vast the picture are sympathetic to the practice. Even Olayinka an anti-"FGM" note of the high makes activist, of women Koso-Thomas, of support degree for genital a rather herself with "Most African operations, voice patronizing women," Koso-Thomas she expresses although tones. and in imperial not "still have observes, or to see in many to feel deprived sensitivity developed a cultural of their human violation practices rights. The conse women most in the mid-80s, in of this is that, when quence can Africa and have influence decisions voting political rights the against practices harmful to their health, they continue to up Richard A. Shweder 218 hold and mores the dictates seem live; they late."22 When of to in fact the in which communities traditional regard it comes to maintaining their Koso-Thomas ceremonies, they invio as beliefs and coming-of-age not does like the gender-identity women vote. African She thinks she is enlightened way many in the about human and health and that rights they remain most But dark. she does her censure, that, despite recognize women in Sierra Leone the practice endorse of circumcision. ethnic group affiliation Third, although of who circumcises are the and who operation enormous variability not does the not, across consistent is the best predictor in the form and timing groups. at which the of is there Thus, is nor age surgery years). (any time from birth to the late teenage performed in is also enormous the traditional variability style and a cut in of the the surgery prepuce (from covering degree area to the complete out" of the clitoris by "smoothing genital mally There removing all visible parts of the clitoris and most labia). In some Sudan) the "smoothing the aim of enhancing closed the vaginal opening, with the womb.23 The protecting or Pharaonic to as "infibulation" and most good mated latter it occurs that where in about the practice 15 percent of female lar, including Somalia and the Sudan, women that these them more make genital beautiful, is not it has groups, although in the anti-"FGM" circumcising deal of attention referred typical received a cases. all African is popu circumcision it is widely in It is esti literature. of fertility often procedure, circumcision, ethnic In places if not all of the in Somalia and the groups (for example, out" operation is concluded by stitching ethnic believed by their bodies and alterations improve more more more civilized, feminine, honorable. More trusion because the body beautiful or "fleshy encumbrance" be and aesthetics an of ideal refined, women pealing to odious ugly cultural both is made is removed sight and and a pro to is thought is a There touch.24 smooth that in play among circumcising as smooth, sexual region the human ethnic groups, and cleansed, of genitals the view that the which supports are unsightly, and and men misshapen, state. if left in their "natural" rather both unap "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About More feminine because unmodified females) are perspective the male organ, several induction seen the as clitoris and the female network to empower an unbidden themselves and a genital about because that as they perceive male anatomy. rid of what of unwanted ac is a symbolic to exercise willingness alteration says something over feelings of lust and for sexual desire pleasure. restraint cial identity, group of powerful support and motherhood.25 Many of female initiation seek marriage traditions by getting trace and dispensable civilized one's over self-control the antiso the surgery announces because one's to perpetuate the lineage and value the womb source of social reproduction.26 More female's of vestige associated with is positively attainment of full and ultimately these uphold tion a its removal adult women, who More (in both males and genitals From sexually ambiguous. as an unwelcome is viewed good things: into a social women 219 honorable commit ment As hard as it may circumcision female fashionable. be "us" for is commonplace As hard as it may that recognize women many for some in places of "us" such to believe, it is not as in places only where but popular be for "us" to believe this is really as Mali, Somalia, (and I to believe), hard Egypt, and Chad are repulsed by the idea of unmodified the Kenya, female geni as ugly, and unrefined, genitals not un and hence associate undignified, fully human. They or at with modified life outside of the civi bottom of genitals lized society. "what kind of "Yuck," they think to themselves; are these who barbarians don't circumcise their genitals?" tals. They view unmodified The Female is, of course, mutual. "yuck" are not routine and normal for members in Europe, the United majority populations other and of the pan, parts world, including members of those cultures the very thought surgery should produces be noted of any kind change of operation, an that unpleasant for many alterations genital or of mainstream States, South of China, Africa. female Ja For genital visceral it reaction; although the detailed visualization an abortion, a sex operation, of us surgery?a bypass a breast implantation, a face lift, or even a 220 Richard A. Shweder decorative ant eyebrow reaction. visceral or on tongue In other a words, merely contemplating or the genitals, can be quite seems when the surgery jus fully the face surgery, especially or revolting, even upsetting tified from our own "native In the United has gery described been some brutal States an unpleas piercing?produces of view." point and the practice Europe as "mutilation."27 disparaged as rape or torture and of genital It has been associated with about the health sur re the nightmare a Victorian (or perhaps gyne patriarchal a young woman or girl, pulling her into the cologist) grabbing room a knife or razor back and kicking, and using screaming to deprive blade her of her sexuality. Various dramatic and of disturbing harmful loss of male claims side have effects a capacity been made of African operations, genital sexual pleasure. to experience to the practice Saying "yuck" sition to the oppression around emancipation has of women hazards and including the a symbol become and of one's of oppo for their support the practice the world. has Eliminating a high-priority mission Western for many feminists in Africa, activists under (and for some human-rights who, not come from often, enough, standably although invariably, become ethnic noncircumcising and human-rights and groups) for some international the World health Health (for example, organizations and Equality Now). International, Organization, Amnesty in Outside of Africa, States and Europe, the United especially to female so "politically circumcision has become opposition most correct" criti that until ?mi/-anti-"FGM" very recently or sympathetic. been defensive, The sym superficial, are criticisms of pathetic critiques mainly counterproductive on how to be more tactics. They "eradication" advice provide cism has effective There as have an anti-"FGM" also been attention campaigns activist.28 occasional and that complaints resources divert displace in the United social States and injustice against concern about there have been of expressions state are own ous of mind told by mother to them of African the media is "mutilated" too.30 from battles And Europe.29 the anguished States who living in the United social-service that their by agencies is and that she potentially danger children and anti-"FGM" 221 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About In general, do not go very deep. But these types of criticisms female circumcision facts about the purported go unquestioned, to be obvious, of the case are thought the moral implications to func is presumed "what about FGM?" and the mere query tion in and of a knock-down as itself pluralism and SO WHAT ABOUT FGM? So what about "FGM"? cultural inclination any I shall treat as this a real question rhetorical as a rather than response to terminate For starters, all debate. a considered deserving both argument against tolerance.31 toward the prac intended query a of is rather alteration tice of genital poor example gender on women. or the of world, Surveying society picking inequality one finds very in which if any, few cultures, surgeries genital on girls but not boys, are performed there are many although in which cultures only on boys or on both they are performed sexes. The male cence and they in which incision, Considering evant initiation wide scale, instance of trary; alterations often take genital can involve major modifications sub (including line of the urethra). along the and of the rel timing, intensity is split the penis the in adoles place prevalence, on a world alteration genital to argue that it is an obvious the con disfavoring girls. Quite rites, and viewing one is hard pressed a gender inequity of the ritual transformation of recognition a as more mature status into empowered girls both social and boys and women In other in Africa, a major of the ceremony. point infrequently it occurs female when and where circumcision, is not words, is much before equally sible adulthood The more a case of society treating boys and girls law and inducting them into respon the common practice domination. Many in parallel a is also ways. rather poor cultures of patriarchal example in Europe do and Asia patriarchal at all or (as in the case in genital alterations engage and many African ethnic non-African many Muslims, in from this valued exclude practice participation girls to boys. Moreover, it only the African ethnic groups not cumcise in kinship, men females (and males) religion, economy, are very family different life, from ceremonial of Jews, groups) and do that each cir other practice, 222 and Richard A. Shweder so forth. archal, Some are Islamic, as the Kono, initiations Some some (such formal have some organizations, sexual purity, do some are patri are not. society) women's well-established into care Some not.32 restraint are not. Some a matrilineal a lot about female outside of marriage, and the social are more of desire, but others (such as the Gikuyu) regulation are not relaxed about sexual and premarital play puritanical. to female it comes And when initiation and genital alterations is almost the practice always controlled, and most performed, although male kin often do provide strongly upheld by women, men have however, Typically, not rather little female know may operations, it is not about and may feel their very much them, really or to try to tell their wives, to interfere business aunts, mothers, to do. It is the women and grandmothers what of the society are the cultural in this intimate who feminine experts domain, material and moral support. these to do with and share they are not particularly secrets. their cases In those most familiar of practice who undergo ordeal and without an event own view female (I have is routine genital the ritual it can be ethnic initiation up alteration their with or powers I am which in Kenya, where lived and taught some for to give inclined the the adolescent groups), look forward to girls it.33 It is an if done (especially "naturally" painful as a test of courage. It is but it is viewed and controlled who have their women, by anesthesia), organized of the aesthetics view of the body?a different from is about what and beautiful. The girl's civilized, dignified, are not to their daughter?African to be cruel parents trying one too. No is raped or tortured. love their children parents ours There What is a celebration about surrounding the on health effects and negative in anti-"FGM" the litera portrayed the devastating that are vividly sexuality to hard-nosed ture? When it comes the consequences there are health, of female relatively As scientific of investigations on sexuality and sound studies. surgeries genital few methodologically in her medical review, discovered Obermeyer is "data-free" literature published testimonials, basic against event. or else relies most on or inadequate reports, samples. research much standards, epidemiological secondhand of the sensational Judged of the 223 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About published empirical evidence, including some of the most widely cited in the publications cluding Nevertheless, ing about clude anti-"FGM" in think science worth considering to con which leads Obermeyer circumcision, discourse about the health and sexual global female the of consequences evidence. credible The anti-"FGM" lists of short-term the practice is not sufficiently literature advocacy and long-term medical blood loss, shock, including supplied with features typically complications acute infection, cumcision, strual problems, incontinence, difficulties, childbearing These lists read like the warning pamphlets enumerate which many prescription drugs, ity, and (in is some there that literature advocacy Report34), are fatally flawed.35 the influential Hosken death. of long cir men steril that every accompany ever effect of the medicine has been claimed side that negative are matter how very scary to (no infrequently). They reported are and stomach very misleading. read, they Scary-looking, lists of possible churning, anxiety-provoking tions aside, Obermeyer's ture on the actual medical review comprehensive and risk of medical plications frequency do not die because they have been circumcised malnutrition, ceremonies); with patible not and war, and that because disease, the experience aesthetics genital the of the remarks, Edgerton anesthesia and hence was and few suffered Circumcised women relations, Nevertheless In other of nor operation coming-of-age is com pleasure of related practices with Robert Edgerton's in the the Gikuyu missionaries first among Western and 1930s, when of the 1920s Kenya version launched their own of "FGM As (they die from of sexual and groups. circumcising are basically Her consistent findings comments circumcision female about ture complica the litera complications com in Africa that medical surgery suggests genital are the exception, not the rule; that African children following bravely of eradication programs." without performed most "yet girls bore was very painful, serious infection or injury did not lose their ability to enjoy sexual was their diminished. capacity child-bearing the practice offended Christian sensibilities."36 claims that are a standard the alarmist fea words, the anti-"FGM" it as a result. advocacy literature that African tradi 224 Richard A. Shweder tions of circumcision women not be have or killed "maimed and and them girls"37 deprived Given the most reliable, true. of even untold numbers of their may sexuality if limited, scientific viewed with skepti at hand, be those claims should as fact, no matter not accepted times they how many on are uncritically the editorial of the New pages recapitulated or a on in York Times invoked essay journalistic poignantly PBS. evidence cism and If genital in Africa alteration really were a long-standing to intolerably high inwhich parents, oblivious cultural practice their pr?adolescent and adoles disabled and murdered risks, reason to wish cent children, be good for its quick there would review that this characterization end. Obermeyer's of suggests as be may is dubious the practice in liberal it is time for the anti-"FGM" democracies, seem to have taken the place of yesterday's groups, who to revise the "factoids" either missionaries, they dis diversity advocacy Christian to rigorously The real to regard the evidence ful female Leone it is nightmarish, or, at the Given the importance of debates about cultural and misleading. in public-policy very least, accurate information tribute as fanciful or the public, collected else to such they have been the ceremonial by spiritually) the (including claims as Mali, improved ordeal Kenya, and (physically, and symbolic initiation. The associated with pain) most initiates manage that of these youthful indicates without disastrous their own estimation) "improved" major This mented short-term is not 4-16 these with are quite otherwise. With suggest, of genital the of surgeries, weight of the overwhelming majority youth that suggests in countries initiates and their data. I would facts, the consequences believe substantiate Sierra socially, process evidence to be or (in even or for their health. consequences long-term we not should about the docu that worry rate infection associated with percent urinary or the 7-13 cases in is of which there percent to say surgeries, or the 1 percent rate of septicemia.38 The excessive bleeding, to unsafe is not to reaction of many abortions, however, people some be of antiabortion rid abortions. groups might get Perhaps some are that because abortions the argument by tempted unsafe, there should be no abortions at all. However, a far What About more not safe. Why alterations? arise be to unsafe reaction reasonable the same and unsanitary corrected without other surgical depriving of central system meaning sense and their overall identities and case medical of their of female complications or malpractice procedures "others" to is to make abortions in the reaction Infections from 225 "Female Genital Mutilation"? a rite cultural of well-being. sense current the of and What them genital that can passage personal I do want to suggest, is that of shock, however, horror, and righteous "Western" directed the mothers indignation against of Mali, Sierra Leone, the Gambia, Somalia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and the is misguided, Sudan and rather disturbingly misin formed. CONCLUSION: UNFAMILIAR I can think quoting legal ON THE VIRTUES OF BEING SLOW TO JUDGE THE A HARD SECOND LOOK AND HAVING of no better way Lawrence scholar to conclude Sager, who this essay writes: than by concerns and the principle of equal liberty counsel that Epistemic we be slow to judge the unfamiliar, that we take a hard second look at our own factual beliefs and normative judgments before we condemn endorsed So, too, they counsel that practices. culturally extant legal categories not be closed to of excuse and mitigation the distinct experience of cultural minorities. And finally, of course, they require that our robust tradition of constitutional liberty? the rights of speech and belief, the right of parents to including the of their to and the of guide children, development right people be free from governmental intrusion into decisions that ought to be theirs alone?be available on full and fair terms to cultural minori ties.39 as a matter I have tried to of epistemic essay, concern, we that should be skeptical of the anti-"FGM" advo suggest literature and the global discourse that portrays African cacy as "mutilators," or "torturers" mothers of their "murderers," In this children. that We African mothers mother. have We should be dubious a better should of representations that suggest or that First World mothers, to be a good idea of what it means slow to judge the unfamiliar of practice are mothers be bad Richard A. Shweder 226 in part because asser the horrifying alterations, genital tions by anti-"FGM" activists the consequences of concerning the practice out about health (claims mortality, devastating female the and comes, loss a capacity scientific of to are sex) enjoy evidence. not well with credible supported Of course, the anti-"FGM" of preemptive overheated genre terms in too claims moral is itself all familiar. It is the expressed kind of discourse employed some by tize liberal men privacy nancy. hesitate "you murderer who activists, (for example, antiabortion and women who believe of life") it to stigma use the right to family a right to choice in cases of unwanted preg implies one more reason to is just That take a second look and before the using to describe "FGM" epithet and gender-identity practices ing-of-age women. women millions of African African and personal family to guide privacy, of excessive and an African Imagine the embraced too com by many have the development children in light of their own ideals of the good free innocent to rights of their life, and to be unreasonable intrusion. government in the United States living mother holds the following convictions. who She believes that her daughters as well as her sons should be able to improve their looks and enter a covenant into their marriage with and prospects, God, as be honored via circumci adult members of the community sion. that her (for ex Imagine proposed surgical procedure a cut covers more in no the is that the prepuce clitoris) ample, substantial American extend to the male that option of view operation. to the Kono of parents due process Jewish imagine in Seattle who point circumcision gender equity, tural freedom, option. Or a medical from and family than the customary we not should Why as well as of daughters parents for example?40 sons, Principles before the law, religious and privacy would seem to support the cul the a sixteen-year-old female Somali teenager living believes that a genital alteration would be "some thing very great." She likes the look of her mother's her of circumcised recently look of her own. cousin's She wants far better body to be a mature than and body and she likes beautiful a Somali man or at to marry Somali woman, style. She wants an least a man who the of initiated appearance appreciates to show solidarity with other African She wants body. sense and feminine of who their express civility, beauty, sense in this way, of aesthetics and and she shares their woman's women dignity seemliness. that 211 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About reviews She can the surgery on effect great the medical be done her literature and safely, hygienically, sex. After to enjoy capacity discovers consultation with her parents and the full support of other members to carry on the tradition. What that her cultural should heritage an to end? she elects community, of justice demands and brought cated" I have With also that merely FGM?" suggested is not accurate scientific about an argument information where tolerance the ideal for whom and getting cluding very much each other's if all powerfully negative principle be "eradi the scientific ideals un cultural (not unreasonable) they are meaningful. Our cherished begins. of being "pro-choice") of her "What the question cultural pluralism. against and sufficient to see the it is possible derstanding such practices for those the cultural point posing no and with point Seeing facts straight of would tolerance not of amount is (in to our willingness to was to eat they amounted to enter foods and to grant each other permission on the week for a couple different houses of worship of hours means our readily end. Tolerance aside and aroused setting groups "other" minority gage the more justify The of of life is not over controversy are step versus tolerance open-and-shut is a responsibility to about than overheated rhetoric a cultural "eradication" question ued ways who the practices of immigrant to the facts and en get long enough straight in a serious moral It should take far dialogue. feelings case. practice. of modesty, offended campaign. eradication sensibilities to say, Needless to the of other peoples' val a women's issue. just in Africa is not an female circumcision Given the high stakes of cultural knowledgeable pluralists?both about African and speak out, are many African or privacy, loyalty, forward, There and educate women I believe involved, men and women? circumcision the public out who, a well-founded it practices this about of a sense sense of fear, to speak And it is a responsibility hesitate for themselves. may of everyone, anti-"FGM" activists and cultural alike, pluralists to insist on evenhandedness and the highest standards of reason Richard A. Shweder 228 and in any evidence public on debate policy this and voices fully at topic?or least to insist that there is a public policy debate, with all sides represented. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A longer and far more comprehensive version of this essay will be published in The Free Exercise of Culture: How Free Is Jif How Free Ought It to Be? ed. Ri chard A. Shweder, Martha Minow, and Hazel R. Markus (New York: Russell Sage Foundation cause of space That Press). limitations, treats essay cannot be several and questions addressed here, including that, be topics varia cultural tions in conceptions of the "normal" body, the lack of a tight link between edu cation toward and attitudes of longer ought and moral traditions of a politically It examines States. evaluates critically African ethnic groups friends, version should be and colleagues, of spective Fuambai this on this essay. Without controversial Ahmadu, Margaret of how the female between and implications "eradication pro of much toleration scientific, medical, and male circumcision, this particular as a form viewed on African experts this topic with me and/or critiqued the longer in any way them responsible holding to express I wish issue my deepest David Chambers, Beck, Janice Boddy, for my Sudhir Krieger, Maiv?n Kakar, Frank Kaplan, Corinne Kessel, Peller, Jane Lawrence Rabe, Sager, Lauren to Cohen, Jane Albrecht Dennis Kratz, L?m, Heather Lindkvist, Hazel Markus, Martha Minow, Anni Obermeyer, Jane per gratitude Elizabeth Dunn, Robert Edgerton, Arthur Eisenberg, Ylva Hernlund, Hofheinz, legal, such as the democracy of many customary practice of "political persecution." initiation ceremonies have gen that (and tolerantly) discussed erously the character anti-"FGM" liberal pluralistic the connection the claim and Many of the question essay also addresses to be reasonable in the context of the practice United and surgeries, genital and various types liberalism" "imperial That grams." Carla Gerd Shweder, Spittler, and Leti Volpp. ENDNOTES xSusan Rich and Stephanie Joyce, Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation: Les sons for Donors, Wallace Global Fund for a Sustainable Future, 1990 M Street, NW, anti-"FGM" D.C. Suite 250, Washington, who activist developed "FGM n.d., 20036, eradication for the Special Projects Fund of Population Joyce 2Carla M. is an "Female and the Unknowable," Carla is an Obermeyer of population and programs" International. Rich is an in Africa Stephanie consultant. independent Obermeyer, Action 1, 3. Susan Genital Medical Surgeries: Anthropology anthropologist international health The Known, Quarterly the Unknown, 13 (1999): 92. in the department epidemiologist at Harvard University. and of Women: A Strategy for Eradica The Circumcision 301ayinka Koso-Thomas, 37. Olayinka Zed Books, (London: 1987), Ltd., in Sierra Leone activist. and an anti-"FGM" cologist tion Genital "Female 4Obermeyer, Matthew Cohen, Joshua IsMulticulturalism and Martha Howard, in Africa: and Ylva Shell-Duncan Culture, (Princeton, is a FirstWorld femi who contends that An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power "Rites andWrongs: in Bettina and Excision," cumcision" Bad for Women? C. Nussbaum N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 14. Susan Okin nist and a political scientist at Stanford University, is bad for women. multiculturalism 6Fuambai Ahmadu, is a gyne Koso-Thomas 95. Surgeries," 5See Susan Moller Okin with respondents, ed. 229 "Female Genital Mutilation"? What About Hernlund, and Change Controversy, "Cir Female eds., Colo.: (Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 2000), 301; also presented in the panel on "Female Genital 1999, 98th An Cutting: Local Dynamics of a Global Debate," 18 November nual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Chicago, Illinois. Fuambai is a Kono Ahmadu woman At of Economics. into initiated customs the the the age "women's of her ethnic of Leone. Sierra from United States and is a Ph.D. candidate in anthropology she twenty-two secret society" grew to Sierra returned and She up in the at the London School to be circumcised Leone to be to according group. 7Ibid., 283. 8Ibid., 308, 305. "Female 9Obermeyer, 10Ibid., 80. Surgeries," n. 24. "Ibid., 12See quotations 13See, Genital 81. for also above; Janice example, ibid., Boddy, 79. Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Boddy, "Violence Embodied? Circumcision, Gender Politics, and Cul tural in R. Aesthetics," Emerson Dobash and P. Dobash, Russell eds., Re (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publica thinking Violence Against Women tions, 1996), 77-110; Ellen Gruenbaum, "The Cultural Debate Over Female Circumcision: The Sudanese Are Arguing This One Out For Themselves," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 10 (1996): 455-475; Corinne Kratz, Af in Okiek and Experience Women's Movement, Performance: fecting Meaning, Institution Initiation D.C.: Smithsonian Press, Kratz, 1994); (Washington, in Misty Dilemmas: "Contexts, Controversies, Circumcision," Teaching Bastian and Millenium "Bridges paign Jane Parpart, eds., Africa: Teaching (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, and Against Barricades: Female Rethinking Circumcision," and Polemics Case African Studies in the New 1994, 1999); L. Amede Obiora, Western Intransigence Reserve Law in the Cam Review 47 ;Melissa Parker, "Rethinking Female Circumcision," Af (1997): 275-378 rica 65 (1995): 506-524; Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, eds., Female "Circum cision" in Africa; Christine J. Walley, "Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, An Richard A. Shweder 230 the Global and thropology, over Debate Genital Female Cul Operations," 12 (1997): 405-438. tural Anthropology 14JomoKenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Gikuyu Seeker and Warburg, 1938), 131. (London: 15Ibid., 133, 132. 16Kratz,Affecting 346. Performance, 17Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible (New York: The Free "The Sexual and Press, 1989), 254, n. 22; also see Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in the Sudan," Journal of Sex Research 26 (1989): 375-392. 18SandraD. Lane and Robert A. Rubinstein, "Judging the Other: Responding to Traditional Female Genital Surgeries," Hastings Center Report 26 (1996): 35. 19Bettina of Asma e.g., Ylva Practice the "Circumcision" Female eds., 20See, and Shell-Duncan Dimensions El Dareer, Hernlund, and Debates," in Africa. in Shell-Duncan of "Epidemiology in Africa: 'Circumcision' "Female Female and Hernlund, in Circumcision the 13 (1983): 43. Sudan," Tropical Doctor 21LindyWilliams and Teresa Sobieszyzyk, "Attitudes Surrounding the Continu ation of Female Circumcision in the Sudan: Passing the Tradition to the Next Generation," Journal ofMarriage and the Family 59 (1997): 966-981, Table 1. The 22Koso-Thomas, Circumcision in Rural Northern for logical, Koso-Thomas, the Other," example, Rubinstein, "Judging and Historical, American Sudan," The 9 682 (1982): "Violence Embodied?" and 7; Lane of Women, Otto Meinardus, above; "Mytho of Female Circum of the Practice Circumcision quoted Sociological of Pharaonic Cir Ethnologist and Alien Spirits; Boddy, 698; Boddy, Wombs 24See, 2. "Womb as Oasis: The Symbolic Context 23See Janice Boddy, cumcision of Women, Aspects cision Among the Egyptians," Acta Ethnographica: Academiae Scientiarum 16 (1967): 394; Asma El Dareer, Woman, Why Do You Weep? Hungaricae Circumcision and Its Consequences (London: Zed Press, 1982), 73. "Rites 25Ahmadu, and Wrongs"; ciological Aspects tians," Meinardus, Historical "Mythological, of the Practice of Female Circumcision Among The Hosken 27Fran P. Hosken, (Lexington, Mass.: Abraham M. Rosenthal, 1995, A25. 28Rich and So 389. 26See, for example, Boddy, "Womb as Oasis"; Boddy, Wombs Boddy, "Violence Embodied?" males and the Egyp Joyce, 29For example, Eradicating Yael ber/November Tamir, 1996). Report: Genital Women's and Sexual Mutilation International Network "The Possible Dream," New Female "Hands Genital Off and Alien Spirits; Mutilation: Clitoridectomy," News, York Times, Lessons Boston of Fe 1993); 13 June 4. for Donors, Review (Octo What About Tewoubdar can Families Circumcision: 231 "Female Genital Mutilation"? on Afri Politics The and Moral Impact Beyene, "Body Advocacy: on in the panel in the U.S.," Female oral presentation "Revisiting Feminism Current 20 and November Discourse," Beyond of the American Anthropological 1999, 98th Annual Meeting Association, Chicago. recent The are more that exceptions?essays and/or nondefensive, formed, incisive, profoundly in ethnographically of the current skeptical anti "FGM" global discourse?include Ahmadu, "Rites and Wrongs"; Boddy, "The Seattle Compromise: "Violence Embodied?"; Doriane L. Coleman, Multicultural Sensitivity and Americanization," Duke Law Review 47 (1998): L. Sander 717-783; "'Barbaric' Gilman, in Okin, Rituals," Is Multi culturalism Bad For Women?; Ellen Gruenbaum, "Reproductive Ritual and Social Reproduction: Female Circumcision and the Subordination ofWomen in Norman in Sudan," O'Neill and Jay O'Brian, eds., and Economy in Class (Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, cl988); Kratz, Affecting Performance: and Experience in Okiek Women's Initiation; Kratz, Meaning, Movement Sudan Controversies, Genital Surgeries: "Contexts, "Female Dilemmas: The Circumcision"; Teaching the Unknown, and Known, Obermeyer, the Unknow able"; Obiora, "Rethinking Polemics and Intransigence in the Campaign Against Female Circumcision"; Parker, "Rethinking Female Circumcision"; and some cision" and of in Shell-Duncan the essays in Africa: and Hernlund, and Change. Culture, Controversy female concerning representations initiation eds., Female For a sample and "Circum of views see circumcision, also Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits; Mary H. Cooper, "Women and Human Inc.) 9 Quarterly, Rights," CQ Researcher (published by Congressional (1999): 353-376; El Dareer, Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and Its Consequences; Isabelle tion"; Gruenbaum, R. Ritual "Reproductive "Arrogant Gunning, and Perception, Social Reproduc and World-Travelling Feminism: The Case of Female Genital Surgeries," Columbia Multicultural Human Rights Law Review 23 (1991-1992): 189-248; Ylva Hernlund, Without Ritual and Ritual Without Cutting: Female 'Circumcision' "Cutting and the Re-Ritualization Hernlund, Carey eds., Jackson, Medicine," of "Circumcision" "Female 'Circumcision': of General Journal Mount Facing to Traditional Kenyatta, Responding for "Searching the Continuation Human Concerning Kenya Performance; 4See note Obermeyer, between circumcision Walley, also Leone, for 27. "Female Genital and Surgeries." the Other: "Judging "Rites Mount Facing 'Voices.'" into powerful and Wrongs." Kenya; Kratz, "Mytho Circum A Criti Circumcision: 10 (1988): 437-486; entrance and 12 (1997): 491-499; Meinardus, Surgeries"; of the Practice of Female "Female and American Confront "Attitudes Sobieszyzyk, in the Sudan." see Ahmadu, see Kenyatta, "Searching Rubinstein, Aspects T. Slack, Rights Quarterly in Sierra societies" Women Internal Medicine Williams and 'Voices'"; Circumcision of Female *On the connection secret African and Lane Kenya; Genital Female and Sociological logical, Historical, Alison the Egyptians"; cision Among cal Appraisal," in the Gambia," in Shell-Duncan in Africa; R. Horowitz Carol Initiation Female Walley, Surrounding "women's Affecting Richard A. Shweder 232 'Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Genital "Female 'See Lawrence G. Sager, "The Free Exercise in this issue of Dcedalus. This attle, Surgeries," is basically what was proposed until U.S. Patricia Representative constitutional status of the law Some of Culture: at the Harborview Schroeder sibility of a violation of federal law (see Coleman, The 1. 93. ^Obermeyer, tinctions," 40. Crucible, Female Genital Mutilation, 7Rich and Joyce, Eradicating in question Doubts Medical objected and and Dis Center raised in Se the pos "The Seattle Compromise"). has yet to be tested.