7th Grade Physical Science
MIDTERM REVIEW PACKET
Observations and Inferences
I.
Observations
Observations allow you to gather information about something. There are two main
types of observations.
A. Qualitative Observation. What you can learn about an object by using your
5 senses (sight, smell, taste, touch and sound). They are usually very
general.
ex) There is a yellow, sticky substance in the kitchen.
B. Quantitative Observation. What you can learn about an object by using
numbers or measurements. They are usually exact.
ex) There are 55 pieces of candy left in the bowl.
II.
Inferences
An inference is a conclusion based on your observations. Inferences try
to explain or make sense of observations.
ex) The sticky yellow liquid on the floor is lime Kool-Aid
Steps of the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a series of steps that allows scientists to tests their questions in an
organized way.
Step #1: Ask a question
What do you want to explore? Ask a question about it.
§
Choose something that testable
§
Choose something that can be answered with an experiment
Step #2: Research your problem.
What is already known about your topic?
§
Look in books and on the internet.
§
Define key words.
Step #3: Develop your hypothesis.
What do you think the answer to your question or problem will be?
§
A hypothesis is an educated guess based on observation or prior knowledge.
§
You must be able to experimentally test your hypothesis.
Step #4: Write your procedure
Write the steps for how you will test your hypothesis.
§
List the materials you will need, including exact amounts of each item.
§
List each thing you will do. Number each step in order. Write down everything you
will do.
§
Your procedure must be so detailed that another scientist could follow it.
Step #5: Test your hypothesis
§
Get your materials, follow your procedure, and make observations.
§
While taking data, you should record all observations.
Step #6: Organize your data
§
Record as much data as possible.
§
Use your data to make graphs, charts, or tables.
Step #7: State your conclusion.
What happened? Was it what you expected? Why or why not?
§
In the conclusion, scientists answer the question that the experiment asked.
§
Look at your results and decide what it tells you about your hypothesis. Summarize
your data.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about what will happen in your experiment.
a) Your hypothesis is based on prior knowledge or prior
observation.
b) You must be able to explain the reason for your
hypothesis.
c) It Must be testable!!!!!!
HYPOTHESES CAN BE WRITTEN IN SEVERAL WAYS:
GOOD Examples:
Example 1:
I think ________because_________
I think that if someone jumps of the roof they will fall because of the force of
gravity
Example 2:
If________, then __________because _______
If somebody jumps off a roof then they will fall because of the force of gravity.
BAD Example:
If someone jumps off the roof I think they will fall.
A good HYPOTHESIS must
tell what you THINK and
WHY!!!
Good Scientific Method Questions
A good scientific method question must be specific and testable (with an experiment).
Examples of Good Scientific Method Questions
•
•
•
•
•
Does Tide or CVS detergent remove ketchup stains
better?
Do plants grow better with fertilizer or without
fertilizer?
Do your fingers wrinkle faster in hot water or cold
water?
Does water freeze faster with salt or without salt?
Will jalapeno peppers or hot cherry peppers make me cry
more?
Remember that a
good scientific
method is testable
with an experiment!!
Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent variable: The factor in an experiment that a scientist wants to test that is
changed to see how it affects a dependent variable.
Dependent variable: The factor a scientist observes or measures during an experiment.
Controlled variable: The factor that stays the same
Key Terms
Definition
1. Independent
Variable
The thing that CHANGES in the experiment.
2. Dependent Variable
What is MEASURES or OBSERVED.
3. Controlled
Variables
The thing that STAYS the SAME in an experiment.
States of Matter
Chapter 1—Student Reading
Chemistry is the study of matter
You could say that chemistry is the science that studies all the stuff in the entire world. A more
scientific term for “stuff” is “matter.” So chemistry is the study of matter. Matter is all the physical
things in the universe. All the stars in the galaxies, the sun and planets in our solar system, the
Earth, and everything on it and in it are matter.
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All human-made objects, all organisms, the gases in the atmosphere, and anything else that has
mass and takes up space, including you, are examples of matter.
Chemistry is special because it looks at matter all the way down to its smallest parts: the atoms
and molecules that matter is made of. To give you an idea about how small atoms and molecules
are, use a metric ruler to look at the length of one millimeter. It is about the size of a dash like this
one -. Try drawing a tiny line or dot that is about 1/10 as long as the dash. It might be about the
size of a period like the one at the end of this sentence. A hydrogen atom is about 1 ten millionth
of the size of the period. So it would take about 10 million hydrogen atoms lined up next to each
other to go from one side of the period to the other.
Here is another way to imagine how small atoms and molecules are. In about 1 tablespoon of
water, there are about 600 billion trillion water molecules. That’s 600,000,000,000,000,000,000
,000. This number is so huge that even if you could count one million molecules every second, it
would take you about 200 million centuries or about 20 billion years to count all the molecules in
a tablespoon of water.
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Studying chemistry can help make sense of many of the different things you see and do every day.
What you eat and drink, the weather outside, the soap and water you wash with, and the clothes
you wear, are all a result of chemistry. The sports equipment you use, the materials your house is
made of, the way you get to school, and the electronic equipment you use are all a result of the
interactions of atoms and molecules.
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Having a better idea of what atoms and molecules are and how they interact can help you better
understand the world around you.
Matter is made of atoms and molecules
We have already used the term atom and molecule a couple of times.
You will learn a lot more about atoms and molecules in later chapters.
For now, let’s say that atoms and molecules are the extremely tiny
particles that make up all the matter on Earth. An atom is the basic
building block of all matter. A molecule is made of two or more atoms
connected or bonded together.
Even though atoms and molecules are not the same, the model we are
using in Chapter 1 shows both atoms and molecules as little circles or
spheres. This model makes it easier to show some of the basic characteristics of the different states of matter on Earth.
Matter—Solid, Liquid, Gas
On Earth, matter is either found as a solid, liquid, or gas. A
particular solid, liquid, or gas might be made up of individual
atoms or molecules.
Here is a simplified model of three different substances. One is
a solid, another is a liquid and the other is a gas
©2011 American Chemical Society
Middle School Chemistry Unit 57
In the picture, the little motion lines show that the particles (atoms or molecules) that make up
the solid, liquid, and gas are moving. In later chapters, the models of atoms and molecules will be
shown with more detail.
As you look at these pictures, think about these two big ideas which are always true when talking
about matter:
ΠMatter (solid, liquid, and gas) is made up of tiny particles called atoms and molecules.
ΠThe atoms or molecules that make up matter are always in motion.
ΠThese first two ideas make up a very important theory called the Kinetic-molecular theory
of matter.
Another big idea is that:
The atoms or molecules that make up a solid, liquid or gas are attracted to one another.
In a solid, the atoms are very attracted to one another. Because of this
strong attraction, the atoms are held tightly together. The attractions
are strong enough that the atoms can only vibrate where they are.
They cannot move past one another. This is why a solid keeps its shape.
In a liquid, the molecules are also in motion. The attractions between
the molecules in liquids are strong enough to keep the molecules close
to each other but not in fixed positions. Although the molecules stay
very near one another, the attractions allow the molecules of a liquid
to move past one another. This is why a liquid can easily change its
shape.
In a gas, the molecules are also moving. The attractions between the
molecules of a gas are too weak to bring the molecules together. This
is why gas molecules barely interact with one another and are very
far apart compared to the molecules of liquids and solids. A gas will
spread out evenly to fill any container.
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When looking at the different states of matter, it’s kind of like a competition between the attractions the molecules have for each other compared to the motion of their molecules. The attractions tend to keep the atoms or molecules together while the motion tends to make the atoms or
molecules come apart.
Comparing Matter
Solids
Atoms or molecules are
very attracted to one
another.
Liquids
Atoms or molecules are
attracted to one another.
Gases
Atoms or molecules are
barely attracted to one
another.
Movement
Vibrate but do not move
past one another.
Vibrate but are able to
move past one another.
Vibrate and move freely
past each other.
Volume and Shape
Have a definite volume
and a definite shape.
Have a definite volume,
but does not have a definite shape.
Does not have a definite
volume or a definite
shape.
Attractions
Heating and cooling liquids
Heating and cooling a liquid can affect how far apart or close together the molecules are.
One example is the red alcohol inside the thin tube of a thermometer. When the thermometer
is heated, the molecules of alcohol move faster. This faster motion competes with the attraction
between the molecules which causes them to spread out a little. They have no where else to go
so they move up the tube.
When the thermometer is cooled, the molecules of alcohol slow down and the attractions bring
the molecules closer together. This attraction between the molecules brings the alcohol down in
the tube.
©2011 American Chemical Society
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Heating and cooling solids
There is a device made out of a metal ball and ring that lets you see the
effect of heating and cooling a solid. At room temperature, the ball
just barely fits through the ring.
When the ball is heated sufficiently, it will not fit through the ring.
This is because heating the metal ball increases the motion of its
atoms. This motion competes with the attractions between the
atoms and makes the atoms move slightly further apart. The
slightly larger ball no longer fits through the ring.
When the metal ball is cooled, the atoms slow down and their
attractions bring the atoms closer together. This allows the
metal ball to fit through the ring again.
Heating and cooling gases
The molecules of a gas are not very attracted to each other and are much further apart than
in liquids and solids. This is why heating a gas easily increases the
motion of the gas.
For example, if you dip the opening of a bottle in a detergent solution and then heat the bottle, a bubble will form on the bottle. This
happens because heating the bottle increases the motion of the gas
molecules inside the bottle. Since molecules of the gas are not very
attracted to each other, they spread out quickly and easily. The molecules hit the inside of the bottle and the bubble film harder and more
often. The molecules push against the inside of the film harder than
the surrounding air pushes from the outside. This pushes the bubble
film out and forms a bubble.
If you cool the bottle while the bubble is still on top, the bubble will
shrink and may go inside the bottle. This happens because cooling
the gas causes its molecules to slow down. These slower-moving molecules hit the inside of the bubble film less often and with less force.
The molecules in the outside air are moving faster and push against
the bubble from the outside. Since the outside molecules are pushing
harder, the bubble gets pushed down and in and gets smaller.
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COMPARING SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
***Two things determine the state of matter of a substance***: 1) How fast the particles move 2) How much the particles are attracted to each other The diagrams below show the particles in three different states of matter. SOLID LIQUID GAS SOLIDS
In the solid, molecules are VERY ATTRACTED to one another they
VIBRATE but do not move past one another, and molecules stay in
fixed positions because of their strong attractions for one another. A solid has a
definite volume and a definite shape (do not change shape and volume).
LIQUIDS
In the liquid, molecules are ATTRACTED to one another, molecules vibrate but
are also able to move past one another, a liquid has a definite volume but does
not have a definite shape.
GASES
In the gas, molecules are NOT ATTRACTED to each other much at all. The
molecules in gas vibrate and are also able to move freely past each other. A
gas does not have a definite volume or shape. Gas molecules will spread out
evenly to fill any container.
COMPARING SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
State of Matter
Description
Movement of particles
Examples
(Picture)
SOLID
•
•
•
LIQUID
•
•
GAS
Definite shape
•
Definite Volume
No definite shape
together, tightly
•
Desk
packed
•
Pencil
•
Water
•
Juice
•
Air
•
Nitrogen
•
Little or no movement
•
Particles are close
together
Definite volume
No definite shape
Particles are close
•
Particles move slow
•
Particles are far
apart
•
No definite volume:
•
Particles move fast
in all directions
PHASE CHANGES
1) Melting – a change from SOLID t o LIQUID • Melting point – temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid • When something melts, HEAT IS ADDED and the particles begin moving FASTER.
2) Freezing – a change from LIQUID to SOLID • Freezing point – temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to SOLID • When something freezes, HEAT IS REMOVED and the particles begin moving FASTER.
3) Vaporization – a change from LIQUID to GAS.
• There are two main types of vaporization:
1. EVAPORATION
2. BOILING
1. Evaporation – Vaporization that takes place only on the SURFACE
of the liquid.
Example: Puddle evaporating in the sun
2. Boiling – Vaporization that occurs THROUGHOUT the liquid.
Example: Boiling water
Boiling Point – The temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas
4) Condensation – a change from GAS to LIQUID.
• When something to condenses, HEAT IS REMOVED and the
particles begin moving SLOWER.
5) Sublimation – change from SOLID directly to a GAS (skipping the liquid
state).
• Sublimation causes particles to move much SLOWER.
Shifting States
Matter can transition from one state to another by going through a physical change. A physical change will occur if energy is added or taken away. Energy can be added by increasing the temperature or pressure. Energy can be taken away by decreasing temperature or pressure. Let’s use water to see how this works.
Imagine an ice cube sitting in glass bowl on your counter. The cube is actually water in a solid state. The ice cube is a solid, because its molecules are barely moving, and it is holding its shape. Now, imagine that you move the bowl outside into the sun. The heat of the sun increases the temperature of the ice cube. This added energy causes the cube to melt. Eventually, the cube completely melts and becomes a liquid. Now in a liquid state, the water takes on the shape of bowl. The molecules stick together, but are more loosely connected than before. The surface of the water in the bowl is flat. If we leave the bowl in the sun, the temperature of the water will continue to increase. As the water heats up, it turns into water vapor. Now the liquid water has transitioned into a gas. The process of liquid turning into a gas is called evaporation.
By increasing the temperature, we have been able to shift matter through all three states. We can also go backwards. Water vapor can condense under pressure and become liquid water. Then the water can be frozen into an ice Structure of an atom
n Atoms are composed of three type of particles:
1. Electron
2. Proton
3. Neutron
n Both the proton and
neutron reside in the nucleus.
n Protons have a positive charge
n Neutrons have no charge - they are neutral.
n Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a
Negative charge.
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons—How Atoms Differ
Directions: Complete the chart with the correct terms from the word bank in the space provided. Some terms
may be used more than once.
e0
The Parts of the Atom
electron cloud around the nucleus
n
nucleus
1/1,840
1-
1
p
1+
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Electron
Proton
e-
5.
1-
6.
Location
3.
Electron
cloud
around the
nucleus
7.
Relative
Mass
4.
8.
Symbol
1.
Charge
2.
1/1,840
p
1+
nucleus
1
Neutron
9.
n
10.
0
11.
12.
nucleus
1
Directions: Answer each question on the lines provided.
13. What makes an atom of one element different from an atom of another element?
14. An element has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. What is its atomic number? What is its
mass number?
15. What happens to a neutron atom if it gains or loses electrons?
Understanding the Atom
33