International Journal of Arts and Sciences
3(8): 302 - 319 (2010)
CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934
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How Socioeconomic Status, Exposure to Violence and Family
Structure Influence Depressive Symptoms in Children
Michele Small Bartley, University of the West Indies, Mona - Jamaica
Abstract: The current study attempts to examine the influence of socioeconomic status (SES),
exposure to violence and family structure on depressive symptoms in children. A stratified
sample of 160 children ages 6 to 12 attending primary school in Kingston Jamaica were selected.
SES was measured using Hollingshead’s two factor index, using parent’s highest educational
attainment and highest occupational level in the household. Items adapted from a previous study
were used to determine exposure to violence. Family structure was determined by children living
with mother alone, father alone, both parents and other relative(s). Center for Epidemiology
Studies of Depression Scale for children (CES-DC) was used to determine depressive symptoms
in children. The study found that there were significant differences in depressive symptoms score
in children from the various SES groups (F(2, 157) = 4.16, p < .05) . Exposure to violence and
children’s depressive symptoms showed a positive correlation, (r(157) = .42, p<.05). There was
no statistical significant differences in children living in single parent family structure and other
family structure types, (F(3, 153) = .970, p >.05). Hierarchical regression indicated that
exposure to violence is an effective predictor of depressive symptoms in children, (F(7,150) =
5.52, p<0.05). It is concluded that there appears to be a relationship between socioeconomic
status and depressive symptoms, such that children whose parents are of the lower SES reported
higher depressive symptoms than children whose parents are of the low and middle-high SES;
children who are more exposed to violence are more likely to experience more depressive
symptoms, than those less exposed to violence. It is apparent that exposure to violence is an
effective predictor of depressive symptoms in children. Family structure did not determine
differences in depressive symptoms in children, and was an insignificant predictor of depressive
symptoms in children.
Keywords: Socioeconomic Status (SES); Depressive Symptoms; Exposure to Violence; Family
Structure
Introduction
Various studies have examined health issues that occurred as a result of exposure to adverse
social conditions (Bartel & Taubman, 1986; Hudson, 2005; Strohschein, 2005). The relationship
between socioeconomic status (Kuruville, 2007; Hudson, 2005; Strohschein, 2005), exposure to
violence (Barbarin, Richter & deWet, 2001; Ewart & suchday, 2002; Fitzpatrick, Piko, Wright,
LaGory, 2005; Horowitz & McKay, 2005; Osofsky, 1995; Osofsky, 2004; Samms-Vaughan,
Jackson & Ashley 2004), family structure (Avison, n.d; Barrett & Turner, 2005; Parke, 2003)
and psychological well-being has been well established. Many studies have mentioned
depressive symptoms as a plausible health risk factor occurring as a result of adverse social
conditions. However, to present there is no known research that has explored the relationship
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3(8): 302 - 319 (2010)
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between socioeconomic status, exposure to violence, family structure and depressive symptoms
in Jamaican children 6 to 12 years of age.
The present study attempts to examine the influence of socioeconomic status, exposure to
violence and family structure on depressive symptoms in Jamaican children 6 to 12 years of age.
Background
Depression is a psychopathological disorder (Bahls, 2001; Hirschfield et al., as cited in Cicchetti
& Toth, 1998), influenced by three major factors, genetic, developmental, and social (Hazel,
2002; Sokolova, 2003). Depression stretches across all social boundaries, and was noted to have
affected 121 million people worldwide in 2000 (World Health Organisation, 2007). According to
the World Health Organization (2007) depression is projected as the second leading contributor
to global burden of diseases for all ages and both sexes in 2020, as calculated by the Disability
Adjusted Life Years.
Children are not immune to the ills of depression, but in former years, developmental issues
resembling that of depression inhibited the recognition of the disorder (Bahls, 2002; Rie as cited
in Cicchetti et al., 1998; Hazel, 2002.). It was not until 1975 that the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH) officially recognized the likelihood of depression in children (Bahls, 2002). The
acceptance of childhood depression by the NIMH paved the way for research in childhood
depression. Since then, studies have found that the prevalence of depression among children 6 to
12 years of age range between 0.4 to 3.0% (Balhs, 2002).
Depression is characterized by various symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Developmental challenges such as inability to adequately verbalize thoughts and feelings (Piaget,
as cited in Santrock, 2000), may cause children to exhibit depressive symptoms in slightly
different ways from symptoms exhibited in adolescents or adults (Versiani et al., as cited in
Bahls, 2002). Symptoms of anger, impaired attention, poor concentration (Bhatia & Bhatia,
2006), irritability, hyperactivity, frequent mood change, restlessness and fatigue (Bahls, 2002;
Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1991) are likely symptoms to be observed in children 6 to 12 years of
age.
Socioeconomic status
Exposure to adverse social conditions has been proven to affect the psychological health of
children (Gillman, 2003; Hudson, 2005; McLeod & Shanahan, 1996). To date, most studies have
emphasized that the limited resources and unequal distribution of wealth in a society act as a
mediating force to increase the risk of psychological effects of people living within the lower
socioeconomic groups (Evans, 2004; Hudson, 2005; McLeod & Shanahan, 1993, 1996). As a
result, the inextricable link that exists between exposure to negative conditions and mental health
substantiates the increase risk of depressive symptoms in children from the lower socioeconomic
status (McLeod et al., 1996).
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The Jamaican socioeconomic system primarily emerging from slavery and colonialism has
created an arena for segregation and social stratification of the Jamaican society (Bryan, 2000).
This stratification chiefly predetermined the privileges and benefits afforded to each social group
(Thompson, 1997). Consequently, those living within the lower socioeconomic groups have less
access to social and economic benefits. A substantial body of evidence reveals that there is a
clear demarcation between the various socioeconomic groups, such that, parents of children
with high educational attainment and prestigious occupation are at a greater advantage of
offering their children opportunities for higher education, access to wealth, use of stimulating
resources (Brooks-Gunn et al., as cited in Bradley et al., 2002; Galobardes, et al., 2007;
Strohschien, 2005), and homes in safer residential communities (Samms-Vaughan et al., 2004;
Kuruvilla & Jacob, 2007). Typically, the privileges afforded to children of higher socioeconomic
groups magnify their chances of experiencing more wholesome life styles than those of the lower
socioeconomic groups (Brook-Gunn et al., 1997), undoubtedly reducing the risk of psychological
effects in these children.
Exposure to violence
A vast number of studies have examined the relationship between exposure to violence and
children’s psychological well-being (Barbarin et al., 2001; Fitzpatrick et al., 2005, Fantuzzo et
al., 1999; Meeks Gardener & Powell, 2005; Osofsky 1995; Osofsky & Osofsky, 1999; Osofsky,
2004). Although a few studies have explored exposure to violence among Jamaican children
(Samms-Vaughan, 2006; Soyibo & Lee, 2000), no known research has specifically investigated
the direct relationship of exposure to violence and depressive symptoms in Jamaican children 6
to 12 years of age.
High crime rates and concentrated violent activities reported in Kingston Jamaica (Harriot, 2003)
are likely to affect children’s psychological well-being (Samms-Vaughan, et al., 2004), and by
extension upset their developmental pathway (Osofsky, 1995). Exposure to violence can be
traumatizing for children, resulting in reactive response that can be fairly negative (Osofsky,
1995). The effects of violence can result in lifelong issues that consequently disturb adequate
social and psychological development (Osofsy, 2004; Samms-Vaughan, et al., 2004).
Violent exposures can occur through various avenues - the community, home and school
(Fitzpatrick, et al., 2005; Meeks Gardener, et al., 2005; Osofsky, 1995). Samms-Vaughan, et al.,
(2004) alleged that the community is the primary source through which Jamaican children
witness most violent activities. A recent study investigating the types of violent exposures in a
sample of Jamaican children indicated that a significant number of children experience verbal
aggression, fights on their way to school, while two fifth experienced sexual assault and
witnessed others being stabbed, and few encountered someone being “shot at” (SammsVaughan, as cited in Samms-Vaughan, 2006, p. 51). Violence occurring at home can have great
effects on children (Fantuzzo et al, 1999; Osofsky, 1995). Both victimization and witnessing
violence within the home can be devastating (Osofsky 1995), resulting in equally similar
psychological responses in children (Richters et al., as cited in Barbarin et al., 2001).
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Another overwhelming experience of violence occurring in the lives of children may occur at
school. Many Jamaican schools are overwhelmed with violence among peers, as well as teachers
and students conflicts (Meeks Gardener, 2005). Exposure to violence in any form can potentially
harmful to children, placing them at an increased risk of experiencing depressive symptoms
during childhood (Osofsky, 1995).
Family structure
The family is the core, and most essential unit in all societies (O’Donnell. 1993). The family
essentially forms the foundation for which both positive and negative experiences are
encountered (Seaga, 2005). As children grow their perception, self-concept, values and beliefs
are cultured by the practices and norms within the family in which they are nurtured (Berk, 2001;
Santrock, 2000).
Family structure has been proven to impact psychological functioning in children (Avison, n.d;
Barrett & Turner, 2005). Studies have suggested that children from single parent households
have a greater propensity of increased psychological effects (Barrett et al., 2005; McLanahan et
al, as cited in Parke, 2003). Clearly, the limited social and economical resources available to
single parent households in some instances might act as a precursor to children’s psychological
response (Avison, n.d; Barrett et al., 2005).
The Jamaican society has throughout time shown a pattern of matrifocal households (LeoRyhnie, 1993; Smith, 1998), that is, household headed by females. Supporting this idea, the most
recent study of Jamaican Survey of Living Conditions (2007) indicated that more than half
(54.7%) of the households being surveyed were households headed by females - defined as “no
man, with children”. These female headed households were spread across all social boundaries,
indicative of the normative practices through the society. Although this practice prevails in the
Jamaican society, assessing its effect on children’s psychological health is paramount.
Summary
Because of the unique cultural norms and practices in the Jamaican society, the study proposes to
examine the influence of specific social factors and practices on depressive symptoms in
children. As such, the study will attempt to examine three (3) possible factors that may influence
depressive symptoms in children 6 to 12 years of age. Firstly, the study will examine the
relationship between socioeconomic status and childhood depressive symptoms. Secondly, the
study will investigate the relationship between exposure to violence and childhood depressive
symptoms. Fourthly, family structure and depressive symptoms will be explored, that is, to
determine if the type of family structure will influence depressive symptoms in children. Overall,
the study will also explore if socioeconomic status, exposure to violence and family structure are
predictors of childhood depressive symptoms.
The present study attempt to answer the following questions with regards to Jamaican children 6
to 12 years of age:
1. Does socioeconomic status influence depressive symptoms in children?
International Journal of Arts and Sciences
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2. Is there a relationship between exposure to violence and depressive symptoms?
3. Does the family structure influence depressive symptoms?
4. Are socioeconomic status, exposure to violence and family structure predictors of
childhood depressive symptoms?
The study will attempt to expand the knowledge and understanding of children’s psychological
well-being at three (3) specific levels, namely the community (general public), schools (teachers
and principals) and homes (parents). The study will also provide information for the
development of social interventions to ameliorate the social conditions within communities,
schools, homes and by extension the wider Jamaican population.
Hypotheses
This study examines the influence of socioeconomic status (SES), exposure to violence, family
structure on depressive symptoms in children 6 to 12 years of age. As such, the following as
been hypothesized:
Hypothesis one (1). Significant differences in depressive symptoms exist among groups of
children from different SES.
Hypothesis two (2). There is a positive relationship between exposure to violence and symptoms
of depression in children.
Hypothesis three (3). Depressive symptoms are comparatively the same in children living in
single parent households and those living with both parents households.
Hypothesis four (4). Exposure to violence, family structure and socioeconomic status are
predictors of symptoms of depression.
Method
Participants
A stratified sample of 160 children was selected from four (4) primary schools in Kingston
Jamaica. The sample consisted of children 6 to 12 years of age with a mean age of 9.11, (SD =
1.87 years), 51.2% of the sample represented male, and 48.8% represented female.
Procedure
Consent forms were obtained from each participant’s parent. A short socioeconomic status
questionnaire was completed by each participant’s parent, and returned to the school. A
questionnaire with research instructions consisting of three sections, the depression scale, a series
of questions related to exposure to violence, and a series of questions regarding demographics
were administered to children. Younger children were interviewed by the main researcher and
research assistants who were previously trained to execute the task.
Measures
Socioeconomic Status (SES). Hollingshead’s two factor index using parents’ highest educational
attainment and highest occupational level in the household was used to measure socioeconomic
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status. Scores on the SES ranged from 0 to 66 with 0 to 29 scores reflected lower SES, 30 to 39
scores reflected low SES and 40-66 scores reflecting middle to high SES.
Depression scale. The Center for Epidemiological Studies of Depression Scale for Children
(CES-DC) consisted of 20 items. Scores on the CES-DC range from 0 to 60, with higher scores
representing greater symptoms of depression. Children were asked to report how they felt during
that last two weeks. The responses were recorded using a four point response scale, 0 represented
“Not At All”, 1 represented “A Little”, 2 represented “Some” and 3 represented “A Lot”. The
CES-DC was designed to measure depressive symptoms in children ages 6 to 17 years of age
(Rey & Birmaher, 2009). The CES-DC showed good internal reliability (α = .88) in the present
study. Additionally, good internal consistency reliability and construct validity can be noted in
other studies (Dancho, 2004; Faulstich, Carey, Ruggiero, Enyart, & Gresham, 1986).
Exposure to violence. Items were adapted from a previous study done in Jamaica on exposure to
crime and violence (Samms-Vaughan, et al., 2004). The 34-item scale assessed exposure to
violence at home, school and in the community where children reside. Responses were recorded
using a two point response scale, 0 represented “no”, 1 represented “yes”. The scale showed a
good internal reliability (α = .90).
Demographic data. A series of questions related to information on children’s demographics were
requested, this included age, gender, grade, and persons with whom they live.
Statistical Analysis
Prior to the formal analyses, a series of checks were done on the quality of the data. First, an
examination was made of the extent of missing values for each question on the questionnaire. No
question was found to be missing more than 5% of responses. As such, the mean score was
entered for missing values on each variable, with the exception of nominal values such as
gender. Descriptive statistics were used to obtain the frequency distributions and scatterplots of
the independent and dependent variables in order to check the normality of the distributions, to
identify outlying scores, and to check for the linearity and heteroscedasticity of scores. Data
transformations were done where required.
Results
Socio-economic Status (SES) and Depressive Symptoms
The significant differences in depressive symptoms that exist among children from different
socioeconomic status were examined using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), with
support of a Bonferonni post-hoc tests to determine which groups differed. Consistent with
hypothesis one (1), statistical significant differences between groups of SES were found, (F(2,
157) = 4.16, p < .05). Post-hoc comparison indicated that there was a statistical significant
difference between in the depressive symptoms scores in children from lower SES and those
from low SES at the 5% level of significance. Statistical difference was noted in depressive
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symptoms for low and middle-high SES at the 10% level of significance. No statistical
difference was noted between lower and middle-high SES.
Table 1
Mean Depressive Symptoms Scores by Groups of Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Depressive Symptoms Scores
SES Groups
Mean
SD
Lower
Low
Middle-High
25.37
19.24
21.52
9.81
8.64
11.38
Note. F (2, 157) = 4.16, p < .05
Table 2
Differences in Mean Depressive Symptoms Scores Among Groups of Socioeconomic Status
(A) SES
Lower SES
Low SES
Middle-High SES
(B) SES
Low SES
Middle-High SES
Lower SES
Middle-High SES
Lower SES
Low SES
Mean
Difference
(A-B)
6.13*
3.85
-6.13*
-2.28
-3.85
2.28
Note.*p<0.05
Exposure to Violence and Depressive Symptoms
The relationship between exposure to violence and depressive symptoms was explored using
simple correlation analysis. Consistent with hypothesis two (2), exposure to violence was
significantly associated with depressive symptoms, (r(159) = .42, p < .01). Results indicated a
positive correlation between exposure to violence and depressive symptoms, such that the greater
the mean score for exposure to violence, the higher the mean scores for depressive symptoms.
(See Figure 1).
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Figure 1
Family Structure and Depressive Symptoms
The significant differences in depressive symptoms that exist among children from different
family structure were examined using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Consistent
with hypothesis three (3), children from single parent households showed comparatively the
same depressive symptoms like that of other households. No statistically significant differences
were found between the various family structures and depressive symptoms scores, (F(3, 153) =
.970, p >.05). (See Table 3)
Table 3
Mean Depressive Symptoms Scores by Family Structure
Symptoms of Depression Scores
Family Structure
Mean
SD
Mother Alone
Father Alone
Both Parents
Other Relative
21.56
23.31
23.03
26.44
8.75
12.49
12.28
5.66
Note. F(3, 153) = .970, p >.05
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Predictors of Depressive Symptoms
To investigate how well exposure to violence, family structure and socioeconomic status
predict depressive symptoms in children, when controlling for age, a hierarchical linear
regression was computed. At the first stage of the analysis the main effects of age was
added to the model. At the second stage of analysis, exposure to violence and types of
family structure – mother alone, father alone, both parents and other relative or friend were added to the model. The third stage of the analysis, the different groups of
socioeconomic status was added to model. When age was entered alone, it did not
statistically predict symptoms of depression, F(1,154) = 2.56, p>0.05, - adjusted R2 =
0.01. This indicated that only 1% of the variance in depressive symptoms was predicted
by age. When the exposure to violence and family structure was added, the prediction
was improved, R2 change = 0.18, F(5,150) = 8.34, p<0.05. No statistical significance
was noted for each type of family structure. However, when socioeconomic status was
added to the model R2 change = 0.01, F(7,150) = 1.08, p<0.05. Results of this regression
analysis indicated that exposure to violence was the only effective predictor of depressive
symptoms, F(7,150) = 5.52, p<0.05. (See Table 4)
Table 4
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Exposure to Violence, Family
Structure, Socioeconomic Status Controlling for Age, Predicting Depressive Symptoms in
Children
Predictor
B
Beta
t
0.72
0.13
1.60
Step 1
Age
Constant
Step 2
Age
Exposure to Violence
Family Structure
Mother alone
Father alone
Other
Constant
Step 3
Age
Exposure to Violence
Family Structure
Mother alone
13.25
3.38
0.18
0.59
0.03
0.41
4.20
5.45*
-2.02
0.64
2.48
15.41
-0.94
0.02
0.08
-1.81
0.22
0.97
3.67
0.15
0.56
0.03
0.39
0.34
5.05*
-2.07
-0.94
-1.18
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Father alone
Other
Socioeconomic Status
Low
Middle-High
-0.97
2.14
-0.00
0.07
-0.03
0.83
-2.32
-2.39
-0.08
-0.11
-0.98
-1.38
Note. *p<0.05.
Discussion
The main focus of the present study was to determine if socioeconomic status, exposure to
violence and family structure influence depressive symptoms in children 6 to 12 years of age.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
The present study found that socioeconomic status indexed by the highest parental education and
occupation in the household was significantly related to depressive symptoms in children. The
findings supported hypothesis one (1) that significant differences in depressive symptoms were
noted between the various SES groups. Additionally, the study also found that socioeconomic
status was not an effective predictor of depressive symptoms in children.
The findings are consistent with a growing body of research which emphasizes that there is a
relationship between socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms in children, such that
children from the lower socioeconomic status are at a greater risk of experiencing psychological
issues than those of other socioeconomic status (Hudson, 2005; Strohschein, 2005).
The mediating influences used to explain the association between socioeconomic status and
depressive symptoms in many studies are accounted for by the many adverse issues and
economic challenges present within the lower socioeconomic status (Duncan, Yeung, BrooksGunn & Smith, 1998; Hudson, 2005, Strohschien, 2005). The economic challenges and limited
benefits and privilege experienced by parents may act as a precursor to induced stress and other
stress related difficulties which ultimately affects the psychological functioning of both parents
and children in the household (Evans, 2004).
While this study cannot account for the actual cause of the association between low
socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms, studies conducted in Jamaica have suggested
adverse conditions that are likely to occur at the lower socioeconomic status. Inadequate
provision of basic necessities (Seaga, 2005), lack of mental stimulation and parental support
(Williams, Brown & Roopnarine 2006), overcrowded classrooms (Evans, 2001), teacher-student
conflicts (Evans, 2001; Meeks Gardner, et al., 2005) harsher parental practices (Rickettes et al,
as cited in Williams, et al., 2006), and poor environmental conditions (Leo-Rhynie, 1993) are
few of the challenges that are likely to be experienced by Jamaican children living with parents
of the lower socioeconomic status.
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Although, children from the lower socioeconomic status reported more depressive symptoms, it
is obvious from the findings that there are other influential forces that were predicting depressive
symptoms in the children in the sample. Additionally, further analysis indicated that a marginal
difference in depressive symptoms was noted between middle-high and lower socioeconomic
status. Although, economic challenges would be minimal given the educational level and
occupation of parents of the middle-high socioeconomic status, it should not be totally negated.
However, based on previous studies, it is probable that other negative factors were being
experienced by children in the middle-high socioeconomic status. Other research has suggested
that children from more affluent households are more likely to experience feelings of neglect and
pressure to achieve academically, which may result in depressive symptoms being exhibited by
these children (Luthar & Latendresse, 2005).
Overall, the findings presented in this study only represent a portion of the enigma between
socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms. But essentially, this portion has highlighted the
need for further research that will assess the actual conditions which may act as mediating
influences in children living in each socioeconomic status.
Exposure to violence
Consistent with past research (Barbarin et al., 2001; Osofsky, et al., 1999; Osofsky, 1995) the
current study found that higher levels of depressive symptoms are reported in children who are
exposed to more violence. In addition, exposure to violence was noted as an effective predictor
of depressive symptoms in children (see Table 4)
A plausible explanation for the relationship between exposure to violence and depressive
symptoms in children can be elucidated by Bandura’s proposition of the dynamic interplay of
person, environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1986) and complimented with Erikson
psychosocial theory of development (Osofsky, 1995). The construction of self is vital during the
development of a child and is fundamentally garnered through favourable interactions harmonious homes, positive parent-child relationship, and secure community and school
environment (National Association for the Education of Young children, as cited in Osofsky,
1995; Santrock, 2000). By simultaneously considering the exposure to violence and children’s
undeveloped emotions and metacognitive skills the sequel is clear. Children are absolutely
dependent on positive socialization in the development of the social self, as well as building
other relevant skills to cope during their existent (Santrock, 2000). Children who are exposure to
negative environmental variables are likely to experience poor mental construction of self, life
and anticipated outcomes (Cicchetti et al., 1998; Osofsky, et al., 1999) and might experience
increased vulnerability (Osofsky et al., 1993). Because of their undeveloped emotions, greater
difficulties are experienced coping and adjusting to violent behaviours (Cohen & Walthall,
2003).
Without negating the idea that children are exposed to domestic and school violence, studies
suggest that the community is the primary source through which Jamaican children witness most
violent activities (Samms-Vaughan, et al., 2004). As indicated in the findings, exposure to
violence plays an operative role in predicting depressive symptoms in children. Arguably, the
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pervasive nature of violence in Kingston Jamaica (Harriott, 2003; Samms-Vaughan, et al., 2004)
poses an increase threat to children living and attending school in Kingston Jamaica. Although,
research suggests that the Jamaican society is gradually acclimatizing to the frequent exposure of
violence (Williams as cited in Rosenthal, 2004), children are at risk. The findings suggest
important implications for children’s psychological and emotional health with regards to violent
exposures.
Family structure
Consistent with hypothesis three (3), depressive symptoms are comparatively the same in
children living in single parent household and those living with both parents. Analysis also
indicated that family structure was an insignificant predictor of depressive symptoms in children.
Contrary to most studies which suggest that children from single parent households are likely to
experience psychological issues (Lerman 2002; McLanahan, et al., as cited in Parke, 2003), this
study suggests that despite the family structure in which children are nurtured, their levels of
depressive symptoms are comparatively the same. Adaptive practices - such as female headed
households - that have evolved historically within a culture are likely to cushion the reactive
response of children (Levine, as cited in Williams, Brown & Roopnarine, 2006). Therefore,
cultural practice of nurturing children in a female headed household - which exist across
different social groups - is likely to be accepted by children as a norm. In the event where
children have accepted this practice, the coexistence of children of different family structure will
not produce feelings of isolation and worth. Essentially, how children perceive his/her self in
relation to others is largely driven by the societal norms as well as parental practices in the
household (Levine, as cite in Williams, et al., 2006).
Many studies argue that the limited supply of resources available to children, and the stress that
is likely to be experienced by the single parent will influence children’s well-being (Avison, n.d;
Parke, 2003). This study particularly suggests that whatever factors existed within each family
structure, which impacted on children, were similar - evident in the similarity in levels of
depressive symptoms reported by children in the sample. Although, the limitation of resources
and stress related incidences might be encountered within single parent household, the use
“kinship network” – defined as an extension of the family through the connection of other family
members and/or close friends - to buffer or mitigate parental burdens (Leo-Rhynie, 1993, p.6), as
well as child care programmes are channels through which parents may use to ameliorate their
economic, social and emotional conditions. Thus, children who are provided with this additional
support might not feel the actual economic, social or emotional burdens that might exist in the
absence of one parent.
Practical Implications
The findings suggest implication for development of social interventions that will assist in
ameliorating the social conditions within the Jamaican society. Based on the various levels at
which children are affected, the study proposes that interventions be implemented at multiple
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levels, namely community, schools and households – through community and/or school parental
workshops.
The findings were indicative of the need to strengthen two major forces, that is, collegiality and
cohesiveness that exist at the community level between citizens. Strengthening of these forces is
likely to minimize or eliminate the frequent occurrence of community violence. Additionally, it
is paramount that the major stakeholders, namely Jamaican citizens but more specifically
parents, teachers, and principals be sensitized to the effects of violent behaviours on children’s
development. Parents as well as teachers and principals should be made aware of children’s
emotional security and well-being, and how to adequately gauge their responses and increase
support to children. There might be need for more child care programmes that will assist parents
in providing adequate stimulation and support for children in households in the lower
socioeconomic status.
Conclusion
There is an apparent relationship between socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms in
children 6 to 12 years of age. Children whose parents of the lower and middle-high
socioeconomic status are at greater risk of experiencing depressive symptoms than those of low
socioeconomic status.
It is apparent that there is a positive relationship between exposure to violence and depressive
symptoms in children, such that children who are exposed to more violence show increased
depressive symptoms.
Children in single parent households and both parents household have comparatively the same
level of depressive symptoms. Cultural practices appear to play a role in how children respond to
the family structure in which they are nurtured.
Social interventions are necessary to ameliorate the social conditions that might affect the lives
of children.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to express appreciation to the research assistants who voluntarily participated
in this study. Also sincere gratitude is extended to the schools and parents who granted
permission to make this research a success. Thanks to all those who assisted in the completion of
this project.
International Journal of Arts and Sciences
3(8): 302 - 319 (2010)
CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934
© InternationalJournal.org
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