Style Manual
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Style Analysis Guide THEME.............................................................................................................................. 1 TONE AND ATTITUDE .................................................................................................. 2 LIDDS ................................................................................................................................ 8 LANGUAGE (LIDDS) ....................................................................................................... 8 IMAGES (LIDDS) .............................................................................................................. 9 DETAILS (LIDDS)............................................................................................................. 9 DICTION (LIDDS) ........................................................................................................... 10 SYNTAX/SENTENCE STRUCTURE (LIDDS)...................................................................... 10 POETRY EXPLICATION CHECKLIST .................................................................... 14 TP-CASSTT .................................................................................................................. 15 NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................... 16 POINT OF VIEW ........................................................................................................... 16 FIRST-PERSON POINTS OF VIEW ...................................................................................... 16 PURPOSES OF PARTICIPANT POINTS OF VIEW .................................................................. 17 THIRD-PERSON POINTS OF VIEW ..................................................................................... 18 PURPOSES OF THE NONPARTICIPANT POINTS OF VIEW .................................................... 18 Limited Omniscient Point of View ............................................................................ 18 Omniscient Point of View ......................................................................................... 18 Objective Viewpoint ................................................................................................... 19 CHARACTERIZATION ............................................................................................... 19 DIRECT AND INDIRECT CHARACTERIZATION ................................................................... 19 FLAT AND ROUND CHARACTERS .................................................................................... 19 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERS ............................................................................. 19 ARCHETYPE DEFINITIONS ...................................................................................... 20 SITUATION ARCHETYPES ................................................................................................ 20 SYMBOLIC ARCHETYPES ................................................................................................. 21 CHARACTER ARCHETYPES .............................................................................................. 21 HOW TO ANSWER AN AP ANALYSIS QUESTION .............................................. 23 STEPS FOR ANSWERING THE QUESTION........................................................................... 23 COMMON GENRES AND SUB-GENRES ............................................................................... 24 CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES ................................................................................... 244 CLOSE READING OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 245 SAMPLE SENTENCE BEGINNINGS .................................................................................... 25 INTEGRATED QUOTATIONS.............................................................................................. 26 VOCABULARY FOR USE IN ESSAYS ................................................................................. 27 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................. 28 5 INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC ............................................................................. 30 ASSERTIONS ABOUT RHETORIC ....................................................................................... 30 ARGUMENT IN WRITING .......................................................................................... 31 EVALUATION QUESTIONS FOR ARGUMENT ..................................................................... 35 RHETORICAL DEVICES .................................................................................................... 37 GENERAL RUBRICS .................................................................................................... 41 LITERATURE ANALYSIS ESSAY RUBRIC .......................................................................... 41 PERSUASIVE ESSAY RUBRIC ........................................................................................... 42 LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES ................................................................. 43 WRITING STYLE GUIDE ............................................................................................ 52 SIX-TRAIT WRITING CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................... 52 PUNCTUATION PATTERN SHEET ...................................................................................... 53 COMMON TRANSITION EXPRESSIONS .............................................................................. 55 CONCISE WRITING .......................................................................................................... 56 VARYING SENTENCE LENGTH AND SYNTAX ................................................................... 58 CHOOSING AND USING WORDS CAREFULLY ................................................................... 59 AVOIDING COMMON ERRORS ......................................................................................... 60 STUDENT SELF-CHECK FOR METACOGNITION ................................................................. 62 2 Style Analysis Guide All writing is for the purpose of communication. When analyzing a piece of writing, consider the strategies the author uses to achieve his or her purpose with the reader. The following definitions and explanations are presented to enhance awareness of how stylistic effects are achieved by writers’ linguistic choices. What does the writing mean? How does the author make meaning? (style) Why does the author use these strategies? (rhetorical purpose) THEME Often a writer’s theme cannot be stated easily or completely. The attempt to put a theme into words can often help us understand the work more fully—it can reveal aspects that we may have ignored. It is one thing to understand what has happened, but it is quite another thing to understand what those events mean. Here are some general guidelines for discovering a story’s theme: 1. A theme may be stated in a single sentence, or a full essay may be required to do it justice. But we must use at least one complete sentence to state a theme. In other words, a theme must be a statement about the author’s subject, rather than a phrase such as “the rewards of old age.” Sometimes you can reword this type of phrase to form a sentence: “Old age can be a time of great satisfaction.” 2. A theme is not the same as a moral, which is a rule of conduct. The theme must be stated as a generalization about life. A work of serious fiction or a poem is not a sermon intended to teach us how to live better or more successful lives. One critic has said that, in getting at a theme, we should ask ourselves “What does this story or poem or essay reveal?” rather than “What does this story teach?” Thus, it is usually a mistake to reduce a theme to a familiar saying or cliché, such as “Crime doesn’t pay” or “The course of true love never runs smoothly.” A theme is usually a much more complex and original revelation about life. If the impulse arises to express the meaning of a story in a ready-made phrase, the impulse to avoid mental effort should be suppressed. When readers force every new experience into an old formula, they lose the chance for a fresh perception. Instead of letting the story expand their knowledge and awareness of the world, they fall back dully on a cliché. 3. One of the best ways to discover a theme in a work of fiction is to ask how the protagonist has changed during the course of a story. Often what this character has learned about life is the truth the writer also wants to reveal to the reader. 4. We must be careful not to make the generalization larger than is justified by the terms of the story. Terms like every, all, always should be used very cautiously; terms like some, sometimes, may are often more accurate. 1 5. Theme is the central and unifying concept of a story. Therefore (a) it must account for all the major details of the story. If we cannot explain the bearing of an important incident or character on the theme, either in exemplifying it or modifying it in some way, it is probable that our interpretation is partial and incomplete, that at best we have got hold only a subtheme. Another alternative, though it must be used with caution, is that the story itself is imperfectly constructed and lacks entire unity. (b) The theme must not be contradicted by any detail of the story. If we have to overlook or “force” the meaning of some significant detail in order to frame our statement, we may be sure that our statement is defective. (c) The theme must not rely upon supposed facts—facts not actually stated or clearly implied by the story. The theme must exist inside not outside, the story. It must be based upon the data of the story itself, not on assumptions supplied from our own experience. 6. There is no one correct way to state a theme. If there are twenty-five students in your English class, for instance, you will have twenty-five distinct ways of putting the central insight of a work of literature into words. You may also have several different ideas about what the most important theme is. “To produce a mighty book, you must choose a mighty theme.” —Melville TONE AND ATTITUDE In literary work, tone reflects the attitude the author projects. That attitude is revealed through style, through the writer’s choice of language, imagery, diction, details, and syntax (LIDDS). The writer’s style implies a tone; as a result, the reader infers an attitude. Tone is the way the author or speaker expresses an attitude toward the subject and the audience. Attitude is the actual emotion the author has toward the subject, audience(s), and him or herself. Mood is the feeling created in the reader by a literary work or passage. Writers make two decisions to determine tone: how to express feelings about the subject—e.g., ironic, light, solemn, satiric, sentimental—and how to place themselves socially, intellectually, or morally in relation to their audience(s)—e.g., formal, intimate, pompous. Tone as the expression of feeling should not be confused with the description of feeling. Tone expresses or implies the writer’s emotional state, the feeling about the subject that the writer desires to share; it will often differ markedly from the feelings expressed by characters who appear in the writing. A writer, for example, can describe the cheerfulness of the airline flight attendants in a sarcastic tone or the self-dramatizing gloom of a spoiled child in a scoffing tone or the pompous pontifications of a political candidate in a tone of good-natured joshing. 2 Very young children can sense a speaker’s attitude in tone of voice. For that matter, even a dog understands the tone of his master’s voice: “You lazy old cur, how are you today? Did anyone ever tell you that you are absolutely useless? Wish I could be as worthless as you are.” The dog wags his tail, enjoying the attention and kindness of his master’s voice despite the literal meaning of the words. But understanding tone in prose and poetry is an entirely different matter. The reader does not have voice inflection to carry or to obscure meaning. Thus, one’s knowledge and appreciation of word choice, details, imagery, and language all contribute to the understanding of tone. To misinterpret tone is to misinterpret meaning. If readers miss irony or sarcasm, they may find something serious in veiled humor and misunderstand the writer’s meaning. Clearly, writers need not say what they are feeling; tone emerges as a quality of the whole utterance, whether spoken or written. An indignant speaker might say with deep sarcasm, “I’m delighted that you show such contempt for my efforts. Nothing pleases me more than to find honesty where I least expect it.” The speaker does not need to say, “I’m indignant.” When Wordsworth says, “But yet I know, where’er I go, /That there hath past away a glory from the earth,” his sense of loss can be heard without his having to say, “I’m sad.” And it is reported that Mark Twain delivered his popular speeches that kept his audiences in stitches with a straight face and solemn voice. Tone, then, is the quality of voice that conveys feelings, whether stated directly or indirectly. Some tones caress; some tones instruct; some tones condemn. With variations of tone we can express love or hate; happiness or grief; comradeship or contempt; compassion or loathing; humor or seriousness; anger, indignation, outrage, or forgiveness. And these tones are only a beginning. Writers don’t usually present only one tone but rather a mixture of tones: anger and pity, sorrow and hope, and so on. Authors are rarely monotone, that is, monotonous. A speaker’s attitude can shift on a topic or how an author might have one attitude toward the audience and another attitude toward the subject. Clues to watch for shifts in tone: key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although) punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) stanza and paragraph divisions changes in line and stanza or in sentence length sharp contrasts in diction An analysis of tone will depend on a precise and accurate understanding of the author’s attitude toward: the subject the audience within the text him or herself the reader 3 A list of tone words is one practical method of providing a basic “tone vocabulary.” An enriched vocabulary enables more specific and subtle descriptions of an attitude discovered in a text. Use a dictionary for definitions of the following tone that you do not know. Explicit dictionary meanings are needed to establish subtle differences between tone words such as emotional, sentimental, and lugubrious to accurately comment on a work that appeals to emotions, emphasizes emotion over reason, or becomes emotional to the point of being laughable. Know and use tone words such as the following: Positive tone amused cheery compassionate complimentary confident elated enthusiastic exuberant hopeful lighthearted loving optimistic passionate proud sympathetic Negative tone accusing angry bitter condemnatory disgusted furious indignant inflammatory irritated outraged threatening wrathful Humor/Irony/Sarcasm amused disdainful bantering facetious condescending flippant contemptuous insolent critical ironic cynical irreverent mock-heroic mock-serious patronizing pompous sarcastic sardonic satiric scornful taunting whimsical Sorrow/Fear/Worry apprehensive concerned despairing disturbed elegiac fearful foreboding gloomy hopeless maudlin melancholic mournful resigned sad serious sober solemn somber staid Rational tone admonitory argumentative authoritative baffled candid ceremonial clinical coaxing condemnatory critical curious cynical detached didactic disbelieving doubting explanatory factual formal frank guileless incredulous indignant informative innocent insinuating instructive learned matter-of-fact nostalgic objective oracular persuasive pleading puzzled questioning reminiscent restrained sentimental sincere thoughtless uncertain urgent wistful 4 Pleasure bright cheerful contented elated enraptured giddy happy joyful jubilant peaceful playful pleasant satisfied sprightly Pain annoyed bitter bored cheerless crushed disappointed disgusted dismal dismal fretful irritable melancholy miserable mournful pathetic plaintive querulous regretful sad sore sorrowful sour sulky sullen tragic troubled uneasy vexed worried Passion angry desperate enraged fierce frantic greedy hungry hysterical impetuous impulsive insane jealous nervous reckless savage serious shocked wild Friendliness accommodating approving caressing comforting compassionate confiding cordial courteous forgiving gracious helpful indulgent kindly loving obliging pitying polite sociable solicitous soothing sympathetic tender tolerant trusting Unfriendliness accusing antisocial belittling boorish contemptuous cutting derisive disparaging harsh hateful impudent insolent insulting pitiless reproving sarcastic satiric scolding scornful severe sharp spiteful suspicious Comedy amused comic facetious humorous ironic mocking playful satiric uproarious 5 Tone words from past AP exams afraid cynical allusive despondent ambivalent detached angry didactic apathetic diffident apologetic disdainful audacious disinterested bantering dissembling bemused dramatic benevolent dreamy bitter effusive boring elegiac burlesque emotional candid enigmatic childish facetious clinical factual cold fanciful colloquial fawning compassionate flippant complimentary frivolous concerned giddy concrete happy condescending hollow confident horrific confused humorous conspiratorial hyperbolic contemptuous idealistic contentious impartial incisive indignant inflammatory informative insipid insolent ironic irreverent joking joyful learned lugubrious mock-heroic mocking mock-serious moralistic nostalgic objective oblique ominous patronizing peaceful pedantic perfunctory petty pitiful poignant pretentious proud provocative remorseful resigned restrained sad sanguine sarcastic sardonic satiric scornful seductive sentimental sharp shocking silly somber sweet sympathetic taunting tired upset urgent vexed vibrant whimsical wistful zealous Vocabulary of Attitudes Attitudes of logic—explanatory, didactic, admonitory, condemnatory, indignant, puzzled, curious, guileless, thoughtless, innocent, frank, sincere, questioning, uncertain, doubting, incredulous, critical, cynical, insinuating, persuading, coaxing, pleading, persuasive, argumentative, oracular. Attitudes of pleasure—peaceful, satisfied, contented, happy, cheerful, pleasant, bright, joyful, playful, jubilant, elated, enraptured. Attitudes of pain—worried, uneasy, troubled, disappointed, regretful, vexed, annoyed, bored, disgusted, miserable, cheerless, mournful, sorrowful, sad, dismal, melancholy, plaintive, fretful, querulous, irritable, sore, sulky, dismal, sullen, bitter, crushed, pathetic, tragic. 6 Attitudes of passion—nervous, hysterical, impulsive, impetuous, reckless, desperate, frantic, wild, fierce, serious, savage, enraged, angry, hungry, greedy, jealous, insane, wistful. Attitudes of friendliness—cordial, sociable, gracious, kindly, sympathetic, compassionate, forgiving, pitying, indulgent, tolerant, comforting, soothing, tender, loving, caressing, solicitous, accommodating, approving, helpful, obliging, courteous, polite, confiding, trusting. Attitudes of unfriendliness—sharp, severe, cutting, hateful, antisocial, spiteful, harsh, boorish, pitiless, disparaging, derisive, scornful, satiric sarcastic, insolent, insulting, impudent, belittling, contemptuous, accusing, reproving, scolding, suspicious. Attitudes of comedy—facetious, comic, ironic, satiric, amused, mocking, playful, humorous, uproarious. Attitudes of animation—lively, eager, excited, earnest, energetic, vigorous, hearty, ardent, passionate, rapturous, ecstatic, feverish, inspired, exalted, breathless, hasty, brisk, crisp, hopeful. Attitudes of apathy—inert, sluggish, languid, dispassionate, dull, colorless, indifferent, stoical, resigned, defeated, helpless, hopeless, dry, monotonous, vacant, feeble, dreaming, bored, blasé, sophisticated. Attitudes of self-importance—impressive, profound, proud, dignified, lofty, imperious, confident, egotistical, peremptory, bombastic, sententious, arrogant, pompous, stiff, boastful, exultant, insolent, domineering, flippant, saucy, positive, resolute, haughty, condescending, challenging, bold, defiant, contemptuous. Attitudes of submission and timidity—meek, shy, humble, docile, ashamed, modest, timid, unpretentious, respectful, apologetic, devout, reverent, servile, obsequious, groveling, contrite, obedient, willing, sycophantic, fawning, ingratiating, deprecatory, alarmed, fearful, terrified, trembling, wondering, awed, astounded, shocked, uncomprehending. 7 LIDDS Using the acronym LIDDS may help you remember the basic elements of tone to consider when evaluating prose or poetry. Language, images, diction, details, and syntax all help to create the author’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject and audience. LIDDS Language — The overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon Images — Vivid appeals to understanding through the senses Details — Facts that are included or those omitted Diction — The connotation of the word choice Syntax (Sentence structure) — The effect of structure on meaning Language (LIDDS) Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal language; whereas, a biology text would use scientific and clinical language. Different from tone, the following words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and details. These words qualify how the work is written, not the attitude of tone. Study the denotative and connotative relationships among these language descriptors: clarity: lucid, explicit, graphic obscurity: vague, convoluted, obscure plainness: unvarnished, severe, commonplace, unimaginative, sparse embellishment: ornate, flowery, turgid, bombastic, florid conciseness: brief, terse, laconic, succinct, sententious diffuseness: verbose, prolix, rambling, protracted, wordy, convoluted elegance: polished, classic, graceful, symmetrical, felicitous inelegance: graceless, vulgar, labored, ponderous, tasteless vigor: forcible, mordant, incisive, graphic, impassioned, trenchant feebleness: prosaic, unvaried, sketchy, weak, puerile, inferior, ineffective conformity: ordinary, commonplace, bromidic, exemplary unconformity: singular, bizarre, extraordinary, anomalous 8 Use a dictionary to clarify the denotative meanings of the following so you may better identify the connotative applications. artificial bombastic colloquial connotative cultured detached esoteric euphemistic exact figurative formal grotesque homespun idiomatic informal insipid jargon learned literal moralistic objective obscure obtuse ordinary pedantic picturesque plain poetic precise pretentious provincial scholarly sensuous simple slang subjective symbolic trite vulgar Images (LIDDS) The use of vivid descriptions or figures of speech that appeal to sensory experiences helps to create the author’s tone. Evaluate the author’s or speaker’s tone conveyed in the images of the following lines of poetry: My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun. (restrained) An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king. (somber, candid) He clasps the crag with crooked hands. (dramatic) If I should die, think only this of me. That there’s a corner of a foreign field that is forever England. (poignant, sentimental) If we must die, let it not be like hogs Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot. (allusive, provocative) Love sets you going like a fat gold watch. (fanciful) Smiling, the boy fell dead. (shocking) Details (LIDDS) Details are most commonly the specific pieces of information or facts used by the author or speaker to help create the meaning. The speaker’s attitude, tone, purpose, expertise, and perspective shape what details are given. 9 Diction (LIDDS) Describe diction (choice of words) by considering the following: Words can be monosyllabic (one syllable in length) or polysyllabic (more than one syllable in length). Words can be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal (literary), or old-fashioned (archaic). Words can be mainly denotative (containing an exact meaning, e.g., dress) or connotative (containing a suggested meaning, e.g., gown). Words can be concrete (specific) or abstract (general or conceptual). Words can be euphonious (pleasant sounding, e.g., languid, murmur) or cacophonous (harsh sounding, e.g.. raucous, croak). Become sensitive to word choices in your own writing and to those of others. Select an interesting word with a neutral denotation. Then use a thesaurus noting each synonym and considering the attitude implied by the varying words. For example: To laugh: to guffaw, to chuckle, to titter, to giggle, to cackle, to snicker, or roar Self-confident: proud, conceited, egotistical, stuck up, haughty, smug, complacent, arrogant, condescending House: home, hut, shack, mansion, cabin, chalet, abode, dwelling, shanty, domicile, residence King: ruler, leader, tyrant, dictator, autocrat, rex Old: mature, experienced, antique, relic, ancient, elderly, senior Fat: obese, plump, corpulent, portly, roly-poly, stout, rotund, burly, full-figured Syntax/Sentence Structure (LIDDS) How a speaker or author constructs a sentence affects what the audience understands. Syntax refers to the order of words in a sentence. The inverted order of an interrogative sentence cues the reader or listener to a question and creates a tension between speaker and listener. Similarly short sentences are often emphatic, passionate or flippant, whereas longer sentences suggest the writer’s thoughtful response. Work to enrich your understanding of how sentence structure affects tone. To discover how syntax/sentence structure affect meaning, consider the following: Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (very short in length), short, medium in length, or long and involved? Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? What variety of lengths is present? How does the sentence length affect the meaning? Examine sentence beginnings to determine if a pattern emerges. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose? Examine the arrangement of ideas in the paragraph. How does the writer’s arrangement of ideas affect the meaning? 10 Consider how these syntactical structures affect meaning: A short sentence within a group of longer sentences could emphasize the idea in the short sentence. indicate a strong emotion by the speaker for the idea in the short sentence. An interruption of thought in the middle of a sentence could indicate a change of thought by the speaker. a realization of a new idea by the speaker. an attention-getting device. Several short sentences together could show a lack of intelligence in the speaker (if the speaker uses only short sentences). heightened emotion by the speaker since the thoughts don’t flow smoothly. a determined or demanding attitude on the part of the speaker. an emphasis on clarity by the speaker. Overall use of long, complex sentences could reflect the high intelligence of the speaker. deep complex thought by the speaker. fluid thought and therefore a feeling of composure and self-control by the speaker. Several fragmented thoughts within a passage could indicate a highly emotional state by the speaker since the speaker doesn’t stay on one topic. conflicting emotions within the speaker. a conflict between two ideas that the speaker is trying to resolve. confusion within the speaker. Parallel structures could indicate a conflict between two ideas that the speaker is trying to resolve. well-reasoned thought and analysis by the speaker. a comparison or contrast between the ideas that are parallel. an emphasis on the ideas that are parallel. Narrative pace is affected by syntax. An author changes the narrative pace to achieve various purposes. One short sentence among longer ones slows the pace or causes a pause. Using several short sentences together usually speeds up the pace. Several very short sentences together can sometimes slow the pace by causing strong, distinct emphasis on the ideas in the sentences. More complex, longer sentences usually result in a slower pace. 11 A declarative (assertive) sentence makes a statement: e.g., The king is sick. An imperative sentence gives a command: e.g., Stand up. An interrogative sentence asks a question: e.g., Is the king sick? An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation: e.g., The king is dead! A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb: e.g., The singer bowed to her adoring audience. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or by a semicolon: e.g., The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses: e.g., You said that you would tell the truth. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal clauses and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses: e.g., The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores. A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences. A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached: e.g., That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.” Natural order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate: e.g., Oranges grow in California. Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject: e.g., In California grow oranges. This is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an empathic or rhythmic effect. Split order of a sentence divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle: e.g., “Oranges in California grow.” Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit: e.g., “The apparition of these faces in the crowd;/Petals on a wet, black bough” Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: e.g., “He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.” 12 Examples of parallel structure: Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas written in parallel structure. (Example: Sink or swim.) Chiasmus is a reverse parallel grammatical structure in successive phrases and clauses. (Example: He exalts his enemies; his friends he destroys.) Ellipsis is the deliberate omission of a word or words implied by the context and by the parallel structure. (Example: Susan went to Cancun; Karl, to Baja.) Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and create emphasis: e.g., “. . . government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” A rhetorical question is a question that expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: e.g., If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments? 13 POETRY EXPLICATION CHECKLIST Explication is a method designed to connect the ideas of a poem or a passage with the poetic devices that convey those ideas. A good analyst ought to be able, especially with a short passage, to account for the contribution of every line, perhaps even every significant word. The following list of suggestions is offered as a guide, not a set of iron-clad rules. It is not comprehensive, nor is every recommendation invariably helpful. 1. Read the poem for meaning. Pay attention to the sentence, not the line, as the principal unit of organization. Forget, for the moment, about the poetry. Examine the title for how it affects the meaning. 2. Try to summarize the main idea or ideas. Do this in writing since having to commit conclusions to paper forces you to decide what you think. 3. Outline the progression of ideas, identifying major sections. Is there a clear system of organization? Are there contrasts? repetitions? shifts? 4. How do speaker, occasion, attitude/audience, and purpose (SOAP) contribute to the meaning of the poem? 5. Is irony a factor? Is there a discrepancy between the speaker’s words and meaning? Might this irony be unconscious? 6. Identify the major and minor themes of the poem. How do these modify or support the poem’s general themes? 7. How does the passage elucidate the character of the speaker? 8. What is the speaker’s attitude toward the subject? toward the audience? toward himself or herself? 9. Examine the diction of the poem. After reading for denotation, think about connotation. Look up important words in the dictionary to determine all possible meanings. Notice connections among roots of words and alternative or archaic, but still applicable, meanings. 10. Think about wordplay, remembering that puns need not be funny. Consider multiple senses of words. 11. Notice the imagery. Is it particularly abundant? noticeably sparse? Do the images suggest patterns or form clusters? How do the images promote or clarify the meaning? 14 12. Consider the figurative language: similes, metaphors, and symbols. Analyze metaphors with an eye on both tenor (the thing being described) and vehicle (the thing used to describe it) and ponder the connotations of the comparison. 13. Are there classical, Biblical, or historical allusions? What do they contribute? 14. Do you find understatement, hyperbole, personification, paradox? How do these affect the meaning? 15. Study the syntax, the arrangement of words into sentences. Is word order normal or inverted? What effect does the syntax have on the meaning of the poem? 16. Does punctuation affect meaning? 17. Determine whether the poem has a pattern of meter. Scan the poem for the meter. Is it regular? Look for run-on lines or important changes in meter or pace. How does the meter affect the meaning? 18. Pay attention to musical devices such as alliteration, rhyme, assonance, consonance, euphony, cacophony, onomatopoeia. Don’t belabor these unless they are meaningful. 19. Disregard any of the above as you see fit, but do not disregard Number 20. 20. For every device, the essential question is “How does it affect meaning?” TP-CASSTT Title—Ponder the title before reading the poem. Paraphrase—Translate the poem into your own words. Connotation—Contemplate the poem for meaning beyond the literal. Attitude—Observe both the speaker’s and the poet’s attitude. Shifts—Note shifts in speakers and in tones. Structure—Determine the structure and how it affects meaning. Title—Examine the title again, this time on an interpretative level. Theme—Determine what the poet is saying. 15 NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES Writers of narratives—whether short stories, narrative poems, biographies, anecdotes, or other types of narrative prose—use specific techniques to present their stories to the readers. Some of the most common techniques to consider when analyzing narrative writing are listed below. Characterization Descriptive passages Deus ex machina Dialogue En medias res (Beginning in the middle of the action—Macbeth begins en medias res with an account of the final battle of the war between Scotland and Norway.) Epiphany Epistolary form (The Color Purple is written in letters to God.) Flashback Flash forward Foils Foreshadowing Frame story (or envelope) technique Internal monologues Journaling Juxtaposition Narrative pace Point of view (including an understanding of the personality of the narrator) Plot Shifts in character's beliefs Shifts in tone Stream of consciousness POINT OF VIEW Point of view is the vantage point from which the writer tells a story. In broad terms, there are four main points of view: first-person, third-person limited, omniscient, and objective. An author may choose to use more than one point of view in a given work. First-person Points of View The first-person point of view is also called the participant point of view because firstperson pronouns (I, me, my, we, us, our) are used to tell the story. The participant point of view can be further divided into two types: The narrator as a major character in the story (the story is told by the narrator and is chiefly about him). 16 The narrator as a minor character (the narrator tells a story that focuses on someone other than herself, but she is still a character in the story) A special type of participant narrator is called the innocent-eye narrator. The character telling the story may be a child or a developmentally disabled individual; the narrator is thus naive. The contrast between what the innocent-eye narrator perceives and what the reader understands may produce an ironic effect. Stream of consciousness (interior monologue) is a narrative method in modern fiction in which the author tells the story through an unbroken flow of thought and awareness. The technique attempts to capture exactly what is going on in the mind of a character. Another special type of first-person or participant narrator involves different times in a character’s life (e.g., Scout in To Kill a Mockingbird or Marguerite in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings). Purposes of Participant Points of View The first-person point of view offers immediacy. The reader sees what is perceived by the individual “I.” The first-person narrator can approach other fictional characters as closely as one human being can approach another. The first-person narrator can be an eye-witness, observing what the other characters say and do. The first-person narrator can summarize events and retreat from a scene to mediate on its significance. The first-person point of view allows the reader to be discerning; the reader must determine whether the narrator is trustworthy. The first-person narrator understands other characters only by observing what they say and do. This narrator cannot enter the minds of the other characters and is unable to grasp their inner thoughts. The first-person narrator outlines what a character observes and feels, and thus the narrator’s conclusions may be inaccurate. The reader may question the validity and accuracy of the narrator’s opinions. The first-person point of view may contribute to dramatic irony; there is a discrepancy between what the narrator knows and what the reader understands. 17 Third-person Points of View The third-person point of view, also called the nonparticipant point of view because third person pronouns—he, him, she, her, they, them—are used to tell the story, can be subdivided into three types: Selective (limited) omniscient narrator. The author limits his or her omniscience to the minds of a few of the characters or to the mind of a single character. Omniscient narrator. The author can enter the mind of all the characters. Objective narrator. The author does not enter a single mind, but instead records what can be seen and heard. This type of narrator is like a camera or fly on the wall. NOTE: A rarely used point of view in literature is the second-person point of view. This narrative technique uses second-person pronouns: e.g., you, your, yourself etc. Use of the second-person point of view is uncommon because it directly involves the reader in the story, and the reader may be unwilling or unable to identify with the “you” in the story. Purposes of the Non-participant Points of View Limited Omniscient Point of View The author knows everything about a particular character. The story is portrayed through the eyes of one character, and there is a sense of distance from the other characters. The limited omniscient point of view approximates conditions of life in that only one character’s thoughts are known. The story is more unified through the use of this point of view. Omniscient Point of View The omniscient point of view allows great freedom in that the narrator knows all there is to know about the characters, externally and internally. The third-person narrator describes what characters are feeling and thinking. The third-person narrator describes what characters do. The narrator may shift focus from the close view to the larger prospective. The narrator may comment on events and characters, thus explaining their significance to the reader. 18 Objective Viewpoint An objective viewpoint allows inferences to be made by readers through their observance of dialogue and external action. Readers are not directly influenced by the author’s statements. Readers’ perceptions are influenced more subtly by the author’s selection of diction and detail. CHARACTERIZATION Direct and Indirect Characterization Authors use direct characterization when they make direct statements about their characters’ personalities. We can accept as the truth an author’s direct statement that a character is gentle or intelligent. In addition, authors frequently use the technique of indirect characterization to reveal their characters’ personalities through their thoughts, words, and actions, or through the comments of other characters. Indirect characterization requires us to interpret a character’s behavior to decide what that character is like. Flat and Round Characters Depending on how much information we are given about them, characters can be either flat or round. Flat characters seem very simple, as if they could be summed up with only one or two personality traits. On the other hand, round characters have many different and sometimes even contradictory personality traits. Because they are complex, or many-sided, round characters are capable of doing and saying surprising things. In this sense they are like people in real life. Static and Dynamic Characters Besides being either flat or round, characters can be either static or dynamic. Static characters remain the same throughout the story. Dynamic characters, in contrast, change and develop, often because of something that happens to them in the course of the story. Such a change, in fact, can be the most important event in the story. 19 ARCHETYPE DEFINITIONS Situation Archetypes 1. The Quest: This motif describes the search for someone or some talisman which, when found and brought back, will restore fertility to a wasted land, the desolation of which is mirrored by a leader’s illness and disability. 2. The Task: This refers to what possibly superhuman feat must be accomplished in order to fulfill the ultimate goal. 3. The Journey: The journey sends the hero in search for some truth or information necessary to restore fertility, justice, and/or harmony to the kingdom. The journey includes the series of trials and tribulations the hero faces along the way. Usually the hero descends into a real or psychological hell and is forced to discover the blackest truths, quite often concerning his faults. Once the hero is at this lowest level, he must accept personal responsibility to return to the world of the living. 4. The Initiation: This situation refers to a moment, usually psychological, in which an individual comes into maturity. He or she gains a new awareness into the nature of circumstances and problems and understands his or her responsibility for trying to resolve the dilemma. Typically, a hero receives a “calling,” a message or signal that he or she must make sacrifices and become responsible for becoming involved in the problem. Often a hero will deny and question the calling and ultimately, in The Initiation, will accept responsibility. 5. The Ritual: Not to be confused with The Initiation, the Ritual refers to an organized ceremony which involves honored members of a given community and an Initiate. This situation officially brings the young man or woman into the realm of the community’s adult world. 6. The Fall: Not to be confused with the awareness in The Initiation, this archetype describes a descent in action from a higher to a lower state of being, an experience which might involve defilement, moral imperfection, and/or loss of innocence. This fall is often accompanied by expulsion from a kind of paradise as penalty for disobedience and/or moral transgression. 7. Death and Rebirth: The most common of all situational archetypes, this motif grows out of the parallel between the cycle of nature and the cycle of life. It refers to those situations in which someone or something, concrete and/or metaphysical dies, yet is accompanied by some sign of birth or rebirth. 8. Nature vs. Mechanistic World: Expressed in its simplest form, this refers to situations which suggest that nature is good whereas the forces of technology are bad. 9. Battle Between Good and Evil: These situations pit obvious forces that represent good and evil against one another. Good ultimately triumphs over evil despite great odds. 10. The Unhealable Wound: This wound, physical or psychological, cannot be healed fully. This would also indicate a loss of innocence or purity. Often these wounds’ pain drives the sufferer to desperate measures of madness. 11. The Magic Weapon: Sometimes connected with the Task, this refers to a skilled individual hero’s ability to use a piece of technology in order to combat evil, continue a journey, or to prove his or her identity as a chosen individual. 20 Symbolic Archetypes 1. Light vs. Darkness: Light usually suggests hope, renewal, OR intellectual illumination; darkness implies the unknown, ignorance, or despair. 2. Water vs. Desert: Because water is necessary to life and growth, it commonly appears as a birth or rebirth symbol. Water is used in baptism services, which solemnizes spiritual births. Similarly, the appearance of rain in a work of literature can suggest a character’s spiritual birth. 3. Heaven vs. Hell: Humanity has traditionally associated parts of the universe not accessible to it with the dwelling places of the primordial forces that govern its world. The skies and mountain tops house its gods; the bowels of the earth contain the diabolic forces that inhabit its universe. 4. Haven vs. Wilderness: Places of safety contrast sharply against the dangerous wilderness. Heroes are often sheltered for a time to regain health and resources. 5. Supernatural Intervention: The gods intervene on the side of the hero or sometimes against him. 6. Fire vs. Ice: Fire represents knowledge, light, life, and rebirth while ice represents ignorance, darkness, sterility, and death. Character Archetypes 1. The Hero: In its simplest form, this character is the one ultimately who may fulfill a necessary task and who will restore fertility, harmony, and/or justice to a community. The hero character is the one who typically experiences an initiation, who goes the community’s ritual(s), et cetera. Often he or she will embody characteristics of young person from the provinces, initiate, innate wisdom, pupil, and son. 2. Young Person From The Provinces: This hero is taken away as an infant or youth and raised by strangers. He or she later returns home as a stranger and able to recognize new problems and new solutions. 3. The Initiates: These are young heroes who, prior to the quest, must endure some training and ritual. They are usually innocent at this stage. 4. Mentors: These individuals serve as teachers or counselors to the initiates. Sometimes they work as role models and often serve as father or mother figure. They teach by example the skills necessary to survive the journey and quest. 5. Father-Son Conflict: tension often results from separation during childhood or from an external source when the individuals meet as men and where the mentor often has a higher place in the affections of the hero than the natural parent. Sometimes the conflict is resolved in an atonement. 6. Hunting Group of Companions: These loyal companions are willing to face any number of perils in order to be together. 7. Loyal Retainers: These individuals are like the noble sidekicks to the hero. Their duty is to protect the hero. Often the retainer reflects the hero’s nobility. 8. Friendly Beast: These animals assist the hero and reflect that nature is on the hero’s side. 21 9. The Devil Figure: This character represents evil incarnate. He or she may offer worldly goods, fame, or knowledge to the protagonist in exchange for possession of the soul or integrity. This figure’s main aim is to oppose the hero in his or her quest. 10. The Evil Figure with the Ultimately Good Heart: This redeemable devil figure (or servant to the devil figure) is saved by the hero’s nobility or good heart. 11. The Scapegoat: An animal or more usually a human whose death, often in a public ceremony, expiates some taint or sin that has been visited upon the community. This death often makes theme more powerful force to the hero. 12. Innate Wisdom vs. Educated Stupidity: Some characters exhibit wisdom and understanding intuitively as opposed to those supposedly in charge. 13. The Outcast: This figure is banished from a community for some crime (real or imagined). The outcast is usually destined to become a wanderer. 14. The Earth Mother: This character is symbolic of fruition, abundance, and fertility; offers spiritual and emotional nourishment to those whom she contacts; often depicted in earth colors, with large breasts and hips. 15. The Temptress: Characterized by sensuous beauty, she is one whose physical attraction may bring about the hero’s downfall. 16. The Platonic Ideal: This source of inspiration often is a physical and spiritual ideal for whom the hero has an intellectual rather than physical attraction. 17. The Unfaithful Wife: This woman, married to a man she sees as dull or distant, is attracted to a more virile or interesting man. 18. The Damsel in Distress: This vulnerable woman must be rescued by the hero. She also may be used as a trap, by an evil figure, to ensnare the hero. 19. The Star-Crossed Lovers: These two character are engaged in a love affair that is fated to end in tragedy for one or both due to the disapproval of society, friends, family, or the gods. 20. The Creature of Nightmare: This monster, physical or abstract, is summoned from the deepest, darkest parts of the human psyche to threaten the lives of the hero/heroine. Often it is a perversion or desecration of the human body. 22 HOW TO ANSWER AN AP ANALYSIS QUESTION Steps for Answering the Question 1. Read the question. Determine what the question is asking. Mark up the question by underlining the elements to be covered in the answer. 2. Apply the appropriate method(s) of analysis (LIDDS, SOAP, SMELL, TP-CASSTT, etc.) 3. Determine how all elements relate to and affect meaning. 4. Using close-reading techniques, mark the passage, and do prewriting. 5. The brief introduction for the essay should include the following: A. Title(s) of work(s) B. Author(s) of work(s) (if known) C. Genre (and sub-genre if available) of work or passage *(See p. 23 for a list of common sub-genres.) D. Tight plot summary of a major work or paraphrase of a poem or passage E. Thematic idea/universal meaning F. Specific answer to the question in the thesis statement: Remember that if it’s not complex, it’s not AP. 6. Organize the essay around ideas, not elements of style. Each body paragraph should include the following: A. Assertion/topic sentence B. First sentence of concrete detail (Many of these should include embedded quotations.) C. One or two statements of commentary about the first concrete detail D. Second sentence of concrete detail E. One or two statements of commentary about the second concrete detail The pattern of embedded evidence followed by commentary should be repeated until the assertion/topic sentence is fully illustrated or proved. F. Concluding sentence 7. Use the conclusion to clarify the validity of the argument. Try to leave a lasting impression on the reader. The concluding paragraph should not summarize the information already stated in the essay. Consider using one of the following: A. A clarifying statement about the most significant concept in the essay B. A discussion of the essay’s broader implications C. An anecdote, quotation, or witticism that sums up the point of the essay D. A reference to an attention-getter used in the introduction E. An explanation of the emotion the work evokes in the reader F. A restatement of the universal meaning 23 Common genres and sub-genres novel bildungsroman/coming-of-age novel historical novel magical realism realism semi-autobiographical novel science fiction short story drama comedy historical play tragedy nonfiction work autobiography biography essay historical document letter speech poem lyric poem elegy epic narrative poem ode sonnet Critical Reading Strategies Critical reading is a demanding process. To be literate, one must have the ability to make critical judgments, to analyze, and to evaluate. More specifically, as a critical reader, you will: preview, annotate, outline, and summarize complex material; critically examine a text’s meaning; analyze the way a text achieves its effects, especially through stylistic choice; evaluate a text, deciding whether it is accurate, authoritative, and convincing; determine a text’s significance; compare and contrast different texts; synthesize information from one or more related texts, and apply concepts in one text to other texts. Fundamental to each of the following strategies is annotating—whenever possible— directly on the page: underlining key words, phrases, or sentences; writing comments or questions in the margins; bracketing important sections of the text; constructing ideas with lines or arrows; numbering related points in sequence; and making note of anything that strikes you as interesting, important, or questionable. Most readers annotate in layers, adding further annotations on second and third readings. Annotations can be light or heavy, depending on the reader's purpose and the difficulty of the material. 24 Close Reading Objectives Locate and recall information through a text’s structure, such as chronology and cause and effect techniques. Paraphrase and summarize text to recall, inform, and organize ideas. Distinguish between fact and opinion. Answer types/levels of questions such as open-ended, literal, interpretative, multiplechoice, true/false and short answer. Represent text information in various ways, such as timelines, graphic organizers, and outlines. Find similarities and differences across texts. Describe mental images that text descriptions evoke. Identify an author’s bias and purpose in challenging texts. Infer the tone of a complex piece of writing through an analysis of its author’s use of rhetorical strategies and stylistic devices. Perceive narrative structure, themes, and underlying archetypes in a piece of complex writing. Interpret literary symbols credibly. Determine the connotative qualities of images, details, and figurative language in complex texts. Determine speaker and situation in prose and poetry. Follow pronoun and antecedent relationships in a multi-layered and digressive sentence. Recognize the persuasive effect of different sentence constructions such as chiasmus, anaphora, epistrophe, asyndeton, polysyndeton, or ellipsis. Note and apply the effective use of rhetorical fragments and deliberate run-on sentences. Notice how declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences affect tone. Analyze the effects of elements such as natural vs. inverted order, juxtaposition, repetition, parallelism, rhetorical questions, contrasts, transitions, shifts in subject and focus, comparisons, sound devices, punctuation, figurative language, direct address, paradox, irony, or sarcasm. Sample Sentence Beginnings Below are some possible sentence stems for discussing stylistic and narrative elements. Note how each stem relates the use of a literary element with its affect on meaning. The tone shifts, intensifies, reverts to, dramatically/subtly changes, continues. . . . The tone is reinforced by, is created by . . . The word choice connotes . . . The patterns of images appeal to/the contrasting images imply . . . The collective impact of details creates associations, creates a mood, creates tone, generates emotional appeal, presents a realistic/romantic/grotesque picture of . . . The euphonic/alliterative/ironic nature of the words reinforces . . . 25 The archaic level of diction creates a formal serious tone . . . The arrangement/organization of details reinforces theme . . . The complex/inverted syntax focuses the reader’s attention on . . . The author skillfully uses repetition of details to reinforce/contrasting details to . . . The use of figurative language creates associations of/extends the meaning so that . . . The character’s diction reveals his background/ his feeling toward other characters . . . In his dialogue, the character reveals his romantic/sardonic/ironic/attitude toward . . . Integrated Quotations Much of your evidence should be supported by quotations from the work of literature. Here are some general rules for using quotations: 1. All quotations should be tied to your sentences. Don’t use a quotation as a complete sentence by itself. Incorrect: Scout describes Walter Cunningham. “Walter looked as if he had been raised on fish food: his eyes, as blue as Dill Harris’s, were red-rimmed and watery” (23). Correct: Scout says, “Walter looked as if he had been raised on fish food: his eyes, as blue as Dill Harris’s, were red-rimmed and watery” (23). 2. A more effective use of quotations is to integrate a part of the sentence into your writing. Effective: Scout recognizes Walter’s hunger in his “red-rimmed and watery eyes” and in his looking like a boy “raised on fish food” (23). 3. Use an ellipsis (three periods with spaces between them) within a quotation to show that part of the original text is left out. An ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quotation is unnecessary. 4. Use single quotation marks around material that is already in quotations in the source you are quoting. Single quotation marks are used only inside normal (double) quotation marks. Example: Harper Lee’s use of dialect adds to the character development. Jem’s age and almost brotherly concern show when he says to Dill, “‘she ain’t gonna get you. He’ll talk her out of it. That was fast thinkin’, son’” (55). Example: Scout feels Jem’s emotion as she sees that his “shoulders jerked as if each ‘guilty’ was a separate stab between them” (211). 5. For AP exam essays the parenthetical citation should be left out to save time. The raters have copies of the works, so the citations are unnecessary. 26 Vocabulary for Use in Essays Practice using a variety of words to phrase “said” and “symbolize” in different ways. Avoid overusing “symbolize.” Do not use the following words: it, this, these, there, something, someone, says, tells, seem. show symbolize relay signify develop characterize evoke introduce detail minimize parallel weaken promote write contribute testify affirm entail direct support define add validate dismiss propose reaffirm render paint tint simplify juxtapose epitomize suggest portray allude describe involve view convey portend maximize corroborate display produce continue cause verify deter explain compare legitimize enforce detract invalidate justify mislead state comprehend build understand complicate combine illustrate imply relate reveal reflect diminish enable establish foreshadow identify refer amplify conclude point affect certifies presents traces contrast deny enhance resemble hint translate guide specify link balance envelop express connect demonstrate infer represent discover use draw transmit magnify reiterate correlate strengthen exemplify consider stem effect vouch marks lead confuse defy reinforce contradict create indicate address complement communicate ascertain evolve elucidate show 27 Conclusions Conclusions represent the writer's last chance to convince readers of the significance of the subject and, possibly, of taking some action. A good conclusion reminds readers of the writer's thesis and main points, expressed succinctly and using fresh language. It then goes on to answer the question, so what? Assuming that the writer has made his or her case, why is it important? What are its implications? Why should the reader care? The main job of a conclusion is to bring a sense of closure to the essay and to leave a lasting impression on the reader. Closure can be achieved in a number of ways: Asking a Pertinent Question: Will anything sensible be done? Of course not. The American people are as devoted to the idea of sin and its punishment as they are to making money—and fighting drugs is nearly as big a business as pushing them. Since the combination of sin and money is irresistible—particularly to the professional politician—the situation will only grow worse. —Gore Vidal "Drugs" in Homage to Daniel Shays: Collected Essays 1952-1972. Illustrating the Central Point with a Quotation: History was part of the baggage we threw overboard when we launched ourselves into the New World. We threw it away because it recalled old tyrannies, old limitations, galling obligations, bloody memories. Plunging into the future through a landscape that had no history, we did both the country and ourselves some harm along with some good. Neither the country nor the society we built out of it can be healthy until we stop raiding and running, and learn to be quiet part of the time, and acquire the sense not of ownership but of belonging. "The land was ours before we were the land's," says Robert Frost's poem. Only in the act of submission is the sense of place realized and a sustainable relationship between people and earth established. —Wallace Stegner, The Sense of Place Presenting a Vivid Image: And on late-evening constitutionals along streets less traveled by, I employ what has proved to be an excellent tension-reducing measure. I whistle melodies from Beethoven and Vivaldi and the more popular classical composers. Even steely New Yorkers hunching toward nighttime destinations seem to relax, and occasionally they even join in the tune. Virtually everybody seems to sense that a mugger wouldn't be warbling bright, sunny selections from Vivaldi's Four Seasons. It is my equivalent of the cowbell that hikers wear when they know they are in bear country. —Brent Staples, "Just Walk on By" Predicting Future Consequences: The ads should be rejected. If one group advertises that the Holocaust never happened, another can buy space to insist that American blacks were never enslaved. The stakes are high because college newspapers may soon be flooded with ads that present 28 discredited assertions as if they were part of normal historical debate. If the Holocaust is not a fact, then nothing is a fact, and truth itself will be diminished. —David Oshinsky & Michael Curtios, "Freedom of Speech and Holocaust Revisionism" Recommending a Course of Action: The major criticism of not teaching values is very simple: There are some values that teachers should affirm. Not all values are the same. My daughter is the only girl on her soccer team, and recently some of the boys on the team spit at her. The coach shouldn't have the boys justify their actions. He should have them stop. He should make sure they know they were wrong. That's what he should do. What he actually did tells you a lot about the schools today. He did nothing. —Kathleen Kennedy Townsend, "Not Just Read and Write, but Right and Wrong" Returning to an Anecdote, Image, or Scene Presented in the Introduction: [Introduction] If survival is an art, then mangroves are artists of the beautiful: not only that they exist at all—smooth-barked, glossy-leaved, thickets of lapped mystery— but that they can and do exist as floating islands, as trees upright and loose, alive and homeless on the water. [Conclusion] The planet is less like an enclosed spaceship—spaceship earth— than it is like an exposed mangrove island beautiful and loose. We the people started small and have since accumulated a great and solacing muck of soil, of human culture. We are rooted in it; we are bearing it with us across nowhere. The word "nowhere" is our cue: the consort of musicians strikes up, and we in the chorus stir and move and start twirling our hats. A mangrove island turns drift to dance. It creates its own soil as it goes, rocking over the salt sea at random, rocking day and night and round the sun, rocking round the sun and out toward east of Hercules. —Annie Dillard, "Sojourner" Some Strategies to Avoid: General comments that diffuse the energy of the essay Assertions that your solution or stance is the only valid one Introducing new issues In conclusion, conclusions should do the following: Remind reader of the central point(s) of the essay Convey the significance or implications of the thesis Bring closure to the essay 29 Introduction to Rhetoric Simply defined rhetoric is the use of language to attain a purpose with an audience. We are bombarded with rhetoric every day: by advertisers, by politicians, by our family and friends, by anyone and everyone who uses language to affect our thinking or actions. Consequently, understanding rhetoric is about obtaining power, the power to recognize language being used to manipulate us and the power to use language to affect others. Assertions about Rhetoric Rhetoric is pervasive. Argument is essential to the advancement of knowledge and society. Argument naturally arises over significant issues or questions that are open to sharply differing points of view. If one side or the other could prove the validity of their argument, there would be no controversy. Arguments arise over questions of fact and how to interpret the facts. Inartistic evidence: facts Artistic evidence: assertions and interpretations of fact based upon ethical appeals, logical appeals, and emotional appeals As readers of argumentative writing we should weigh all the evidence logic, claims, and appeals for each viewpoint before arriving at a decision about which one we find most convincing; however, differing viewpoints ultimately reflect differing beliefs and values. As writers of argument we should assume that readers are not likely to be persuaded by one-sided view of a complex situation; thus we must respond to the crucial challenges of views that differ from our own through anticipation, rebuttal or refutation, antithesis, and/or concession. A writer who aims to be persuasive cannot simply assert that something is or is not the case; the writer must persuade using evidence, logic, and eloquence. Unethical writer will resort to fallacious arguments such as reduction to the absurd, overgeneralization, false dilemma, or ad hominem attacks. (See fallacy definitions on Page 36.) 30 ARGUMENT IN WRITING Rhetorical Triangle Purpose(s) LIDDS1 Tones/Attitudes2 TEXT Rhetorical Devices3 and Strategies4 Ethical, Emotional, Logical Appeals 5 Writer Speaker Structure of Argument Audience(s) ReaderEvaluation of Argument’s Effectiveness Listener 1LIDDS is an acronym referring to the Language, Imagery, Diction, Detail, and Syntax an author uses. LIDDS combines to create a tone and reveal an attitude. 2 See Pages 4-7 for lists. 3 A rhetorical devices are any use of language that causes the reader to agree with the writer: analogy, analysis of cause, anticipation, antithesis, appeals (ethical, pathetic, logical), concession, direct address, deduction, definition, extended metaphor, rebuttal or refutation, reduction to the absurd, overstatement, understatement. (See Pages 37-40.) 4Rhetorical strategies are methods of organizing ideas for more persuasive communication. Strategies may include Description of people, places, things, or ideas Narration of events, situations, relationships Classification or comparison/contrast Evaluation Stating a thesis, then refuting it Suggesting possibilities, then dismissing all but one Posing a problem, then resolving it 31 Forming a hypothesis and testing its implications Expressing an opinion, then contradicting it with facts Narrating several apparently unrelated episodes, then linking them in a surprising way Reporting appreciatively Recollecting dispassionately Presenting a series of convincing arguments for or against an idea Examining the implications while leaving a conclusion unresolved Condemning as illogical those of one or several opinions different from the writer’s Progressively narrowing focus from a universal, accepted concept to a specific personal understanding Digressing to divert attention from major issues 5 Rhetorical structures provide organizational patterns: Induction (specific to general) or deduction (general to specific) Problemsolution Illustration: the citing of specific examples Description and narration Compare and contrast Analogy and extended metaphor Process analysis Causal analysis Definition Classification The Parts of an Argument Thesis: The thesis is the central idea the writer is trying to persuade the reader to believe. Assertions: An assertion is a main argument that supports the thesis. Evidence: Evidence is the data, information, and knowledge which a historian, social scientist, or any communicator uses to support an argument. It is only when we know the sources of the evidence that we can judge how valid the evidence actually is. Commentary: Commentary is the explanation of the evidence’s relevancy to the assertions. 32 Evaluation Questions for Argument Ask the following questions of any selection with argumentative elements: 1. Audience Analysis/Identification (You may want to answer one or more of the following questions as you analyze the target audience.) Who is the intended audience of this essay? What assumptions can the author make about its background? What are its beliefs and values? What hierarchies does it believe in? What are its political beliefs and orientations? What is its socio-economic status? Does the author assume the audience will be friendly or hostile to his or her claim? Logical Reasoning: Logos 1. What is the assertion or proposition made by the author? Will the audience find this claim reasonable? 2. What logical arguments are made? Can the facts used for the argument withstand the following STAR test? S—Sufficiency of grounds: Is there enough evidence to warrant the claim drawn? T—Typicality: Are the data representative of the group of data being argued about? A—Accuracy: Is the information used as data true? R—Relevance: Is the claim asserted relevant to the information about the sample? 3. Sources are indicated and, where practically feasible, quoted so that they may be checked in contexts where this is sufficiently important. 4. Does the author use specific examples, detailed description, quotations from authorities, facts, statistics that pass the STAR test? 5. Does the writer acknowledge where expert opinion is cited and whether relevant experts differ from each other? Either the case developed does not depend entirely on citing expert opinion or good reasons for selecting particular experts are given. Those experts whose views are not accepted are not attacked on irrelevant grounds. Controversial interpretations of events or texts, explanations from which there are plausible alternatives, disputable predictions, estimations, or value judgments are acknowledged as such. Reasons for them are given and, where appropriate, the impact on the analysis of making another such judgment is recognized. 6. Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly? Facts that would tend to support an interpretation or evaluation different from that of the speaker or writer are acknowledged. Their apparent impact is either recognized or argued against or qualified. Are there any omissions? Reasons are given as to why opposing positions are seen to be less satisfactory than the one advocated. Alternative positions are fairly and accurately represented and described in non-prejudicial language. People holding opposing views are described accurately, politely, and respectfully. 7. Does the author’s use of amplification—widening of perspectives through analogies, comparisons, or other aspects of experience—meet the STAR test? 8. Are concessions made? The point is acknowledged where evidence and reasons offered are less than rationally compelling. An explanation is given as to why the position taken nevertheless seems the most nearly correct or appropriate in the context. Facts that would tend to support an interpretation or evaluation different 33 from that of the speaker or writer are acknowledged. Their apparent impact is either recognized or argued against or qualified. 9. Does the writer make valid assumptions? An assumption is something that is not stated but is taken for granted in an argument. Some assumptions are not warranted and should not be accepted. Others are reasonable. 10. Does the author develop a logical structure/stance/pattern which will be effective with this audience? What is that structure/stance/pattern? Why is it effective? Or why not? 11. Are any logical fallacies present? Does the author have reason to distort, cover up, give false impressions, lie, sensationalize, and manipulate? Arguments are careful and well reasoned, not fallacious. Emotional Appeals: Pathos 12. What emotional appeals are made? Is the language relatively neutral or not? Does the author arouse desires useful to the persuader’s purpose and demonstrate how these desires can be satisfied by acceptance of the persuader’s assertions or proposition? 13. Does the author’s summary include an arousal of indignation for the opponent’s view, and an arousal of sympathy for the speaker/writer’s view? Ethical Appeals: Ethos 14. What attempts are made to establish the writer’s credentials? 15. Does the writer use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent with respect by avoiding such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language? 16. Does the writer seem to have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes? 17. Does the writer make an attempt to embody some evidence of personal knowledge of the subject, good evidence of personal knowledge of the subject, good will toward the reader/audience, good sense, perspective, taste in judgment, or disinterest in personal benefit? 18. Does the author make unwarranted value judgments? Values are conditions that a communicator of an argument believes are intrinsically good, or thinks are important or worthwhile. Sentences containing words such as “good,” “bad,” “right,” “justified” usually indicate that a value judgment is being made. Style Note the features of the writer’s style: LIDDS. 19. Was the diction choice relatively neutral or does it reveal bias? Is needless jargon, weasel words, or cliches present? Evaluation 20. Was the language and rhetoric effective or ineffective for the intended audience? 21. Is the author’s solution or call to action good in all cases? 22. How did the article change or modify your initial position on the subject? 34 Rhetorical Devices Affiliations: the author’s stated or implied membership of or allegiance with a group. Allusions: references to other people or works Analogy: an explanation based upon a comparison that explains or describes one subject by pointing out its similarities to another subject Analysis of cause: the determination of why something happened Anaphora – One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated for effect at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.(e.g., “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.” Churchill.) Anecdote: A short, often autobiographical, narrative told to achieve a purpose such as to provide an example, an illustration, or a thematic truth Anticipation: anticipating opposing arguments or a reader’s reactions Antithesis: a direct contrast of structurally parallel word groupings Authority: subject matter expert Asyndeton — Lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. Asyndeton takes the form of X, Y, Z as opposed to X, Y, and Z. (e.g., “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty” J.F. Kennedy, Inaugural. “But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground” Lincoln, Gettysburg Address. (e.g., “An empty stream, a great silence, an impenetrable forest. The air was thick, warm, heavy, sluggish.” Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness.) Concession: to accept an opposing argument as true, valid, or accurate Connotation – The set of associations that occur to people when they hear or read a word. (Some connotations of lamb are innocence, sacrifice, purity. Some connotations of Hollywood are the glamour, success, excitement. Some connotations of dawn are beginnings, hope, new life.) Contrast: compare or appraise in respect to differences Deductive logical structure: a general to specific logical structure; the conclusion about particulars follows necessarily from general or universal premises Definition: a statement expressing the essential nature of something Diction: word choice; denotation is the dictionary definition; connotation includes the emotional associations created by a word Direct address: to speak directly to the audience; may be revealed by the use of second person Extended metaphor: the use of a comparison throughout a work to create unity or to illustrate or intensify an argument 35 Ethical appeals (ethos): the credibility or trustworthiness that the author establishes in his/her writing. Ethos is one of the three types of persuasion along with logos and pathos. Ethos, a Greek term from which the word ethics derives, refers to ethical appeal in rhetoric. The author's attitude and character toward his audience forms the basis of his/her ethical appeal. Character is what gives value to the ideas in the argument and thus provides support for the arguments since the audience trusts the speaker. Fallacies: often plausible arguments but based on false or invalid inferences The following should be recognized as a small sample of rhetorical fallacies: Hasty generalization A logical leap is taken from a particular instance to a generalization Poor analogy A false analogy is one that breaks down easily, for example, baseball is like ballet. (Baseball and ballet don’t have enough in common for the analogy to hold.) Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (After the fact, therefore because of the fact) Just because something follows does not mean it was caused by what preceded it. For example, an athlete who wins twice wearing the same socks should not attribute that to being the cause of the result. False authority (Argument ad verecundiam) This often occurs when a celebrity sells a product, such as an athlete selling cars. Accident (Using generalities as argument without accounting for possible counter arguments) An example would be if we accuse someone of being in a car wreck because of his or her driving habits when it may indeed have been an unavoidable accident in this instance. Majority (Argumentum ad populum) Appeal to Belief is a fallacy that has this general pattern: Most people believe that a claim, X, is true. Therefore X is true. This line of "reasoning" is fallacious because the fact that many people believe a claim does not, in general, serve as evidence that the claim is true. Name calling (Argumentum ad hominem)Arguing against the presenter of the argument rather than the subject of the argument. Straw man is to purposely create a simplistic argument in order to easily refute It. Glittering generalities involves the use of words and phrases which have deep emotional values attached to them, but do not mean anything specific. These allow the speaker to gain support for or against a policy, without specifically showing what is wrong with the policy: “Justice,” “Motherhood,” “The American Way,” “Our Constitutional Rights,” and “Our Christian Heritage.” Transfer An Appeal to Emotion is a fallacy with the following structure: Favorable emotions are associated with X. Therefore, X is true. More formally, this sort of "reasoning" involves the substitution of various means of producing strong emotions in place of evidence for a claim. If the favorable 36 emotions associated with X influence the person to accept X as true because they "feel good about X," then he has fallen prey to the fallacy. Testimonial An Appeal to Authority is a fallacy with the following form: Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S. Person A makes claim C about subject S. Therefore, C is true. If person A is not qualified to make reliable claims in subject S, then the argument will be fallacious Red Herring involves creating a distraction from the real issue. The speaker brings up an irrelevant topic in an attempt to win an argument by diverting attention away from the argument. This is a fallacy because changing the topic hardly counts as an argument against a claim. “We agree that the government must promote education. Nevertheless, do note that the country is at war right now.” Plain folks is the verbal stratagem by which a speaker tries to win confidence and support by appearing to be “just one of the plain folks.” Card stacking means “selecting only those facts–or falsehoods–which support the propagandist’s point of view, ignoring all others.” The speaker need not be lying, but need not be telling the whole truth either. Band wagon means to convince someone to do something just because that thing is popular. More specifically, it plays on people’s desire to be on the winning side, and tries to argue that they should support or oppose a particular issue as it is on the winning or losing side, respectively. Often, it capitalizes on people’s urge to merge with the crowd. Appeal to pity and sympathy (Argumentum ad misericordiam) An example would be students’ assertions that they are too busy to do homework. Figurative language: the use of metaphors or similes or personification to express one thing in terms normally denoting another with which it may be regarded as analogous Humor: the use of levity to appeal to an audience or attack the opposition Imagery: the use of language to create mental images Implied thesis: the central idea of the writer that is NOT stated directly Inductive argument structure: a specific to general logical structure; specific observations or experiences lead to general understandings. Language: Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal language; whereas, a biology text would use scientific and clinical language. Listing: to record a series of phrases, ideas, or things for the purpose of overwhelming the opposition’s stated or anticipated argument(s) Logical appeals (logos): A logical appeal is exactly what it sounds like—an attempt to argue based in logical relationships a reader will find hard to refute. In academic argumentation, logical appeals are made primarily through the use of acceptable proof; however, a writer can also argue from a logical relationship (e.g., cause/effect, deductive reasoning) to demonstrate how various forms of proof should be interpreted or to make a commonsense argument by logically extending what a reader already believes to the topic at hand. When we appeal to a readers' sense of logic, we often 37 rely on long-established relationships between events and facts. If we can show that one event leads to another, for instance, we are establishing a logical relationship. Logic markers (transitional words): the use of words to show the logical relationships between ideas: however, nevertheless, thus, consequently, moreover, and so forth. Narrative pace: the speed and intensity created by syntactical structures Parallelism – The repetition of a grammatical structure in which ideas or parts of an idea are similarly developed or arranged Pathetic appeals (pathos): Pathos is related to the words pathetic, sympathy and empathy. Whenever you accept a claim based on how it makes you feel without fully analyzing the rationale behind the claim, you are acting on pathos. Pathetic appeal can be related to any emotion: love, fear, patriotism, guilt, hate or joy. Although the pathetic appeal can be manipulative, it is the cornerstone of moving people to action. Many arguments are able to persuade people logically, but the apathetic audience may not follow through on the call to action. Appeals to pathos touch a nerve and compel people to not only listen, but to also take the next step and act in the world. Point of view: Whether first, second, third, or omniscient, an author’s stance affects his or her relationship with the topic and audience Polysyndeton – The repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses. (e.g., “I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said, ‘I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right,’ and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she was full of water.” Hemingway, After the Storm) Rapport: the relationship an author tries to develop with his or her audience relation marked by harmony, conformity, accord, or affinity Refutation: to prove wrong by argument or evidence; show to be false or erroneous Repetition: the purposeful repetition of a word, phrase, or idea to create intensity Syntax: sentence structure can affect pace and intensity Tone: Manner of expression in speaking or writing created by LIDDS; conciliatory, outraged, exuberant, authoritative, deliberative, didactic, and so forth. Us vs. them: the creation of a allegiance with the audience and against the opposition 38 GENERAL RUBRICS Literature Analysis Essay Rubric Essays should be graded holistically; however, an essay that is full of grammatical or mechanical errors should not be scored higher than a 2. Essays on the Advanced Placement Test are scored on a system of 1 to 9, with 9 being the highest possible score. 9 These essays are extraordinarily well written in a mature style and answer the question fully with specific examples from the work. They show exemplary insight into the topic and demonstrate a complete understanding of the complexities of the material. They remain focused on all aspects of the topic and present a unique writer's voice. 8 These essays are exceedingly well written and answer the question completely with specific examples from the work. They demonstrate an understanding of the complexities of the work, remain focused on all aspects of the topic, and present a writer's voice. They may have a few mechanical errors, but only very minor ones. 7-6 These essays are well written and accurately answer all parts of the question, but do so less fully or effectively than essays in the top ranges. Some discussion may lack specific examples from the work, but the argument is clearly made. The writer's voice is somewhat less mature than that of an 8-9 essay, but it is still evident. There may be a few errors in mechanics, but only minor ones. 5 These essays usually remain focused on answering the question, but they fail to deal with all aspects. The assertions that are made are vague and superficial, and supporting examples from the work may be missing or not well related. There seems to be some evidence of the writer's voice, but not one of a unique nature. These essays are usually characterized by some minor errors in mechanics. 4-3 These essays have some problems with organization and coherence, tend to wander from the topic of the question, and deal only with one or two aspects, or with all aspects in only a superficial manner. The assertions that are made are too general in nature and are often unsupported by relevant examples from the work. The writing demonstrates weak control of mechanics, and a writer's voice is lacking or inconsistent. 2 These essays fail to respond adequately to the question, stray repeatedly from the topic, or simply restate the idea of the question without any analysis. There is poor organization and focus in the writing, and the few assertions are generally unsupported by examples from the work. The writing is characterized by errors in mechanics and grammar. Often, these essays are unacceptably brief. 1 These essays fail to answer the question, lack organization and coherence, and/or contain many distracting mechanical and grammatical errors. Often, these essays are unacceptably brief. 39 Persuasive Essay Rubric The score assigned each essay will reflect its quality as a whole. All essays, even those scored 8 or 9, are likely to exhibit occasional flaws in argument or in prose style and mechanics; such lapses should enter into your holistic judgment of the essay's quality. In no case, however, may an essay with many distracting errors in grammar and mechanics be scored higher than a 2. 9 Essays earning the score of 9 meet all the criteria for 8 papers and, in addition, are extraordinarily persuasive or carefully reasoned or demonstrate particular stylistic command. 8 Essays earning a score of 8 persuasively defend, challenge, or qualify the topic defined in the question. They present carefully reasoned arguments using evidence well chosen and presented to develop their positions. Their prose demonstrates their writers’ ability to control a wide range of elements of effective writing, but need not be without flaws. 7 Essays earning the score of 7 fit the description of 6 essays but are distinguished from them by more purposeful argument or stronger prose style. 6 Essays earning the score of 6 coherently defend, challenge, or qualify the topic presented by the question. They present generally sound arguments using adequate and appropriate evidence. A few lapses in diction or syntax may be present, but for the most part the prose of 6 essays conveys their writers’ ideas clearly. 5 Essays earning the score of 5 defend, challenge, or qualify the topic presented by the question by presenting generally sound arguments, but the evidence cited is insufficiently developed. A few lapses in diction or syntax may be present, but for the most part the prose of 5 essays conveys their writers’ ideas clearly. 4 Essays earning the score of 4 respond inadequately to the question’s tasks. They may misrepresent the views presented in the question or fail to define a clear position of their own; they may attempt to defend, challenge, or qualify the topic of the question with evidence that is not well chosen, well used, or sufficient for the purpose. The prose of 4 essays usually conveys their writers; ideas adequately, but may suggest inconsistent control over such elements of writing as organization, diction, and syntax. 3 Essays earning the score of 3 are described by the criteria for the score of 4 but are particularly unpersuasive in their attempts to state or develop a position or particularly inconsistent in their control of the elements of writing. 2 These essays demonstrate little or no success in defending, challenging, or qualifying the topic presented by the question. Some may substitute another task, such as merely explaining the topic or writing a wholly unrelated essay. They may reveal consistent weaknesses in grammar or another of the basic elements of composition. 1 Essays earning the score of 1 are described by the criteria for the score of 2 but are particularly simplistic or particularly weak in their control of language. 40 LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES You will be expected to learn the following terminology. The study of terminology is a threestep process: 1. Learn the definition of the device. 2. Identify the device when it appears in literature. 3. Be able to discuss the effect or purpose of the device. For pronunciations see merriam-webster.com. absolute – A term applied to anything that cannot be modified, qualified, or limited. (e.g. unique, never, always, perfect) abstract language – Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places. The observable or “physical” is usually described in concrete language. (e.g., love, honor, liberty) allegory – A story with a hidden or symbolic meaning (e.g., Animal Farm) alliteration – The purposeful repetition of initial consonant sounds. (e.g., “Let us go forth to lead the land we love.” J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural; “Veni, vidi, vici.” Julius Caesar) allusion – A reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art. (Allusions sometimes refer to Biblical or mythological people, places, etc.) ambiguity – An event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way. Also, the manner of expression of such an event or situation may be ambiguous. Unintentional ambiguity is usually vagueness. anachronism – Something out of its normal time. (Performances of Shakespeare’s plays in modern dress are deliberate anachronisms, but many fictional works based on history include unintentional examples, the most famous being the clock in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.) anadiplosis:—("doubling back") The rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next. (e.g., “Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business.” Francis Bacon) analogy – An explanation based upon a comparison that explains or describes one subject by pointing out its similarities to another subject. (Analogies are often presented in the form of an extended simile as in Blake’s aphorism, “As the caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lays his curse on the fairest joys.”) anaphora – One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated for effect at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.(e.g., “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.” Churchill.) anecdote – A short, often autobiographical, narrative told to achieve a purpose such as to provide an example, an illustration, or a thematic truth. annotation – Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographical data. 41 antagonist – The character or force that is in conflict with the protagonist in a narrative. anticlimactic – A descent, as in a series of events, which is a disappointing contrast to prior expectations—the effect of disappointed expectation or deflated suspense. anti-hero or anti-heroine – A central character in a dramatic or narrative work who lacks the qualities of nobility and magnanimity expected of traditional heroes and heroines. antithesis – A direct contrast of structurally parallel word groupings, generally for the purpose of contrast. (e.g., sink or swim; “Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” Shakespeare, Julius Caesar; “Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.” Barry Goldwater) In argumentation, an antithesis is a second argument or principle brought forward to oppose a first proposition or thesis. aphorism – A statement of some general principle, expressed memorably by condensing much wisdom into few words. (“Without pain there is no gain.” Benjamin Franklin) apostrophe – A figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an inanimate object or an absent person or a personified quality. (e.g., “Death be not proud, though some have callèd thee/Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so” John Donne) archaism — Use of an older or obsolete diction. (e.g., “Pipit sate upright in her chair/ Some distance from where I was sitting;” T. S. Eliot, "A Cooking Egg") archetype – A term applied to an image, a descriptive detail, a plot pattern, or a character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, or folklore and is, therefore, believed to evoke profound emotion because it touches the unconscious memory and thus calls into play illogical but strong responses. assonance – The repetition of vowel sounds followed by different consonants in two or more stressed syllables. (e.g., The words cry and side have the same vowel sound and so are said to be in assonance.) asyndeton — Lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. Asyndeton takes the form of X, Y, Z as opposed to X, Y, and Z. (e.g., “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty” J.F. Kennedy, Inaugural. “But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground” Lincoln, Gettysburg Address. (e.g., “An empty stream, a great silence, an impenetrable forest. The air was thick, warm, heavy, sluggish.” Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness.) authority – Arguments that draw on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience are said to rest on authoritative backing or authority. Readers are expected to accept claims if they are in agreement with an authority’s view. author’s purpose – The author’s goal in writing a selection. Common purposes include to entertain, to instruct, to persuade, or to describe. A selection may have more than on author’s purpose, but on purpose is often the most important. blank verse – Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. cacophony — Harsh joining of sounds. (e.g., “We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will.” Churchill) catharsis – A moral and spiritual cleansing; an empathic identification with others (e.g., watching a protagonist overcome great odds to survive can create catharsis; confession purges the soul) 42 causal relationship – In causal relationships, a writer asserts that one thing results from another. To show how one thing produces or brings about another is often relevant in establishing a logical argument. characterization – The act of creating and developing a character. chiasmus – Parallel structure in inverted/mirror form—two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted order (a-b-b-a); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X). (e.g., “Not all readers become leaders, but all leaders must become readers” Harry Truman; “The truth is the light and the light is the truth” Invisible Man) colloquialism – An expression used in informal conversation but not accepted universally in formal speech or writing. A colloquialism lies between the upper level of dignified, formal, academic, or “literary” language, and the lower level of slang. comedy – A work of literature, especially a play, that has a happy conclusion. common knowledge – Shared beliefs or assumptions are often called common knowledge. A writer may argue that if something is widely believed, then readers should accept it. concrete language – Language that describes specific, observable things, people or places, rather than ideas or qualities. conflict – The struggle that grows out of the interplay of two opposing forces, providing interest, suspense, and tension. Conflict is often complex, involving internal and external elements. conceit – An elaborate, complex metaphor or simile comparing two extremely dissimilar things. concrete detail – Any of the small parts that make up the whole connotation – The set of associations that occur to people when they hear or read a word. (Some connotations of lamb are innocence, sacrifice, purity. Some connotations of Hollywood are the glamour, success, excitement. Some connotations of dawn are beginnings, hope, new life.) consonance – The repetition of consonant sounds in two or more words. (e.g., And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds. The d sound is in consonance. As well, the s sound is also in consonance.) controlling image – An image or metaphor which runs throughout the work. couplet – Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme and have the same meter. (A little learning is a dangerous thing;/Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. Pope) cumulative sentence – Same as loose sentence, this sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before its actual ending. A cumulative or loose sentence begins with the main ideas and then expands on that idea with a series of details or other particulars. (e.g., “He lay for a quarter of an hour without thinking, lips parted, legs and arms extended, breathing quietly as he gazed at the figures in the wallpaper until they were hidden in darkness.” Saul Bellow “She draws a cigarette from the turquoise pack of Newports and hangs it between her orange lips and frowns at the sulphur tip as she strikes a match, with curious feminine clumsiness, away from her, holding the paper match sideways and thus bending it.” John Updike) denotation – The dictionary meaning of a word. (The denotation of lamb is a young sheep. The denotation of Hollywood is a section of the city of Los Angeles, California. The denotation of dawn is the time of sunrise.) description – A portrait in words of a person, place, or object. 43 descriptive essay – An essay which seeks to convey an impression about a person, place, or object. details – The specific pieces of information or facts used by the author or speaker to help create the meaning. The speaker’s attitude, tone, purpose, expertise, and perspective shape what details are given. deux ex machina – The intervention into a work of literature of an outside force that solves a problem. The term is used for any means that an author uses to resolve a complicated issue by a means that seems unlikely or unnatural. dialect – The form of a language spoken by people in a particular region or group. Pronunciation, vocabulary, and sentence structure are affected by dialect. (The following lines by Robert Burns are written in Scots dialect: But Mousie, thou are no thy-lane,/In proving foresight may be vain:/The best laid schemes o' Mice an' Men, Gang aft agley. The following lines by Zora Neale Hurston are written in a Southern Black dialect:“’Janie, you’se yo’ own woman, and Ah hope you know whut you doin’. Ah sho hope you ain’t lak uh possum—de older you gits, de less sense yuh got.’”) dialogue – A conversation between characters. diction – Word choice. To discuss a writer’s diction is to consider the vocabulary used, the appropriateness of the words, and the vividness of the language. didactic – A term used to describe fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking. A tone intended to instruct or moralize. digression – To stray from the main subject in writing or speaking. direct characterization – Direct statement by the author of a character’s traits. drama – A story written to be performed by actors. dramatic irony – A contradiction between what a character thinks and what the reader or audience knows to be true. dramatic monologue – A narrative poem in which one character speaks of one or more others who do not reply. The one character's speech will reveal all the elements of a story. elegy – A lyric poem that mourns the death of a person or laments something lost. ellipsis – The deliberate omission of a word or words implied by the context and by the parallel structure. (“To err is human; to forgive, divine” is an elliptical sentence because the reader understands that the word is is omitted from the second clause.) emotional appeal – A rhetorical/persuasive technique used to evoke compassion, anger, or any other emotion to achieve an intended purpose. epic – A long narrative poem about a central hero who embodies the values of a particular society. (The Odyssey, Beowulf, and Paradise Lost are epics.) epigraph – A quotation or aphorism at the beginning of a literary work suggestive of theme. epiphany – A sudden understanding or realization which prior to this time was not thought of or understood. epistrophe — Repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. (e.g., “In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo — without warning. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia — without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria — without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia — without warning. Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland — without warning. And now Japan has attacked Malaya and Thailand — and the United States —without warning.” Franklin D. Roosevelt ) 44 essay – A short, nonfiction work stating the author’s personal views about a particular subject. ethical appeal – When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeals, but in al cases the aim is to gain the audience’ confidence. euphemism – A device where being indirect replaces directness to avoid embarrassment or unpleasantness. (e.g., passed away for died, rest room for toilet, declared redundant for fired) example – An individual instance taken to be representative of a general pattern. Arguing by example is considered reliable if examples are demonstrably true or factual as well as relevant. explication – The act of interpreting the meaning of a text. Explication usually involves close reading a special attention to style. exposition – Writing or speech that explains, informs, or presents information. In the plot of a story or drama, the exposition is the part of the work that introduces the characters, the setting, and the basic situation. expository essay – An essay which gives information, discusses ideas, or explains a process. extended metaphor – A metaphor in which several connected comparisons are made. fantasy – A highly imaginative writing that contains elements not found in real life. farce – An exaggerated comedy, one that relies on improbable situations, physical humor, and broad wit rather an on in-depth characters and believable plots. fiction – Prose writing that tells about imaginary characters and events. figurative language – Writing or speech not meant to be interpreted literally. (simile, metaphor, personification, etc.) first-person narrator – A character in a story who is telling the story. Readers see only what this character sees, hears, etc. flashback – A section of a literary work that interrupts the sequence of events to relate an event from an earlier time. foil – A character who, through contrast, emphasizes the characteristics of another character. foreshadowing – The use in a literary work of clues that suggest events that have yet to occur. framework story – A story that contains a story within another story. free verse – Poetry that has no rhyme scheme or regular pattern of meter. genre – A division or type of literature. heroic couplet – A couplet written in iambic pentameter. hyperbole – A deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. idiom — A use of words, a construction peculiar to a given language or an expression that cannot be translated literally into a second language. (e.g., How do you do?) image – A word or phrase that appeals to one or more of the five senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell. imagery – The descriptive or figurative language used in literature appeal to one or more of the five senses. indirect characterization – A method of characterization in which an author tells what a character looks like, does, and says and how other characters react to him or her. It is up to the reader to draw conclusions about the character based on this indirect information. inversion – A change in the normal word order. 45 irony – The general name give to literary techniques that involve differences between appearance and reality, expectation and result, or meaning and intention. (See dramatic, situational, and verbal irony.) juxtaposition – A poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another. language – The entire body of words used in a text. Language is abstract in that it describes the force or quality of the diction, images, and details the author uses. It qualifies how the work is written. literal language – Uses words in their ordinary senses. The opposite of figurative language. litotes – A form of understatement in which a thing is affirmed by stating the negative of its opposite. (e.g., It was not a pretty picture. A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable. War is not healthy for children and other living things. Not bad!) loose sentence – The same as a cumulative sentence, this sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before its actual ending. (See cumulative sentence for examples.) lyric poetry – Poetry written to express an emotion. metaphor – A figure of speech in which one thing is spoken of as though it were something else. (e.g., Life is a broken-winged bird. “Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player, that struts and frets his hour upon the stage.” Shakespeare, Macbeth) meter – A repeated pattern of rhythm in poetry. metonymy – A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. (e.g., I love Shakespeare. He is a man of the cloth. The pen is mightier than the sword. By the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread.) mock epic – A narrative poem that parodies the epic form and is usually used for satire. monologue – A speech by one character in a play, story, or poem. mood – The feeling created in the reader by a literary work or passage. motif – A motif is a recurring feature in the work. motivation – A reason that explains or partially explains a character’s thoughts, feelings, actions, or behavior. narration – Writing that tells a story. The act of telling a story is also called narration. narrative – A story told in fiction, nonfiction, poetry, or drama. narrative essay – An essay which tells a true story. narrator – A speaker or character who tells a story. The narrator may be either a character in the story or an outside observer. nonfiction – Prose writing that presents and explains ideas or that tells about real people, places, object, or events. non sequitur – Besides being a very funny cartoon strip, it is a Latin term which refers to a conclusion or inference that does not logically follow. novel – A long work of fiction. ode – A complex, generally long lyric poem that celebrates or commemorates an object, person, or idea. omniscient narrator – An all-knowing third-person narrator. This type of narrator can reveal to readers what the characters think and feel. onomatopoeia – The use of words that imitate sounds. (e.g., crack, jingle, clang) oxymoron – A two-word figure of speech that combines two opposing or contradictory ideas. (e.g., freezing fire, wolfish lamb) 46 paradox – An assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it. (“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” Shaw) parallelism – The repetition of a grammatical structure. parody – A work done in imitation of another, usually in order to mock it. pastoral – A poem that depicts rural, rustic life in idyllic, idealized terms. pathetic fallacy – The excessive attribution of human feelings to nature. Usually the pathetic fallacy gives a sense of overdone emotionalism. pathos – That quality in a real situation or in a literary work which evokes sympathy and feelings of sorrow/pity, usually indicating a helpless suffering caused by outside forces. pedantic – A tone that manifests reliance on book learning and formal rules over understanding or experience of practical affairs. periodic sentence – A sentence that places the main idea or central complete thought at the end of the sentence, after all introductory elements. The effect is a kind of suspense, as the reader’s attention is propelled toward the end, as in this sentence from Ann Radcliffe’s Romance of the Forest (1791), describing the heroine’s response to an unwelcome sexual advance: “While he was declaring the ardour of his passion in such terms, as but too often make vehemence pass for sincerity, Adeline, to whom this declaration, interrupted him and thanked him for the offer of a distinction, which, with a modest, but determined air, she said she much refuse.” personification – A type of figurative language in which a nonhuman subject is given human characteristics. persuasion – Writing or speech that attempts to convince the reader to adopt a particular opinion or course of action. poetry – Any writing in line form. point of view – The perspective from which a story is told. polysyndeton – The repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses. (e.g., “I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said, ‘I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right,’ and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she was full of water.” Hemingway, After the Storm) prose – Any writing in paragraph form. protagonist – The main character in a narrative or drama. pun – A play on words based on different meanings of words that sound alike. quatrain – A group of four lines of poetry. refute – To argue against. rhetoric – The art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse—when a writer achieves his or her purpose with his or her audience through the skillful manipulation of text or speech. repetition – The use, more than once, of any element of language—a sound, a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. rhetorical question – A question used for persuasion, to which the answer is obvious and usually only one answer is possible. A rhetorical question is not intended to induce a reply. 47 rhetorical shift – A change from one tone, attitude, etc. Look for key words like but, however, even though, although, yet, etc. rhyme scheme – The pattern of end rhyme in a poem. sarcasm – A type of irony in which a person appears to be praising something but is actually insulting it. Sarcasm is personal, jeering, and intended to hurt.e.g. achievement, n.— The death of endeavor and the birth of disgust. The Devil’s Dictionary by Ambrose Bierce satire – A style of writing that uses humor—sometimes gentle and sometimes biting—to criticize people, ideas, or institutions in hopes of improving them. Satire doesn’t simply abuse or get personal, as in sarcasm. science fiction – Writing that tells about imaginary events that involve science or technology. (e.g. Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury) sensory language – Writing or speech that appeals to one or more of the senses. (e.g. “My skin gleamed like the morning star and I felt as hot as the centre of the sun and I smelled God knows like what. After embalming me, she headed to the bedroom.” Kaffir Boy by Mark Mathabane) setting – The time and place of the action of a literary work. shift – A change from one tone, attitude, etc., to another. Look for key words like but, however, even though, although, yet, etc. short story – A brief work of fiction. simile – A figure of speech in which like, as, or than is used to make a comparison between two basically unlike subjects. (e.g., She is as flighty as a sparrow.) situational irony – In this type of irony an event occurs that directly contrasts the expectations of the characters, the reader, or the audience. (A pickpocket gets his wallet stolen.) soliloquy – A speech by one character who is on stage alone, which is used to show the character’s thoughts. sonnet – A fourteen line lyric poem, written in iambic pentameter and having one of several set rhyme schemes. stanza – A group of lines of poetry. style – Combines two elements: the idea to be expressed and the individuality of the author. The study of style for the purpose of analysis will include diction, sentence structure, and variety, imagery, rhythm, repetition, coherence, emphasis, and arrangement of ideas. In combination these stylistic elements create a work’s manner of expression. Style is thought to be conscious and unconscious and may be altered to suit specific occasions. subplot – A second, less important plot within a story. (Gem and Scout’s relationship with Boo Radley in To Kill a Mockingbird) surprise ending – A conclusion that violates the expectations of the reader but in a way that is both logical and believable. suspense – A feeling of curiosity or uncertainty about the outcome of events in a literary work. syllepsis – A construction in which one word seems to be in the same grammatical relation to two or more words but, in fact, is not. (e.g., He lost both his coat and his temper; “stain her honor, or her new brocade” Pope) 48 symbol – An object that has its own meaning, but also represents an abstract idea. (e.g., the flag representing our country; a wedding ring representing marriage or commitment; a dove representing peace; red symbolizing anger, blood, or guilt) syllogism – A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. (All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.) synecdoche – A form of metaphor in which a part of something is used to stand for the whole thing. (e.g., All hands on deck. If I had some wheels, I’d put on my best threads and ask Jane for a date.) synesthesia – The concurrent response of two or more of the senses to the stimulation of one. (e.g., a loud shirt or a blue note) syntax – The physical arrangement of words in a sentence. tautology – Unnecessary repetition of words or restating an idea in different words without adding information, force, or clarity. (e.g. connect together, free gift, future plans, pair of twins) theme – A central message or universal meaning revealed through the literary work. It is not a condensed summary, but rather a generalization about human beings or about life that the literary work communicates. third-person limited narrator – An observer narrator who tells only what one character sees and knows. This narrator is not a character in the work of literature and does not use first-person pronouns in the narration. tone – The writer’s attitude toward the audience and subject. Tone can often be described by a single adjective and is sometimes referred to as attitude. See pages 1-5. tragedy – A work of literature, especially a play, that results in a catastrophe for the main character. tricolon –Three parallel elements of the same length occurring together in a series. understatement (meiosis) – Saying less than is actually meant, generally in an ironic way. (e.g. saying “pretty fair” but meaning “splendid”) verbal irony – A type of irony in which words are used to suggest the opposite of what is meant. (When an injured farmer’s wife leaves him when he is at his lowest point, he responds, “You picked a fine time to leave me, Lucille.”) zeitgeist (German "Time-ghost" or "Spirit of the Age"): The preferences, fashions, and trends that characterize the intangible essence of a specific historical period. zeugma (Greek "yoking" or "bonding"): Artfully using a single verb to refer to two different objects grammatically, or artfully using an adjective to refer to two separate nouns, even though the adjective would logically only be appropriate for one of the two. For instance, in Shakespeare's Henry V, Fluellen cries, "Kill the boys and the luggage." (The verb kill normally wouldn't be applied to luggage.) If the resulting grammatical construction changes the verb's intial meaning, the zeugma is sometimes called syllepsis. Examples of these syllepses abound—particulary in seventeenth-century literature: "If we don't hang together, we shall hang separately!" (Ben Franklin). "The queen of England sometimes takes advice in that chamber, and sometimes tea." ". . . losing her heart or her necklace at the ball." (Alexander Pope). "She looked at the object with suspicion and a magnifying glass." (Charles Dickens) "Miss Bolo went home in a flood of tears and a sedan chair." (Charles Dickens) 49 WRITING STYLE GUIDE Who can confidently say what ignites a certain combination of words, causing them to explode in the mind? Who knows why certain notes in music are capable of stirring the listener deeply, though the same notes slightly rearranged are impotent? These are high mysteries. There is no satisfactory explanation of style, no infallible guide to good writing, no assurance, that a person who thinks clearly will be able to write clearly, no key that unlocks the door, no inflexible rule by which the young writer may shapes his course. He will often find himself steering by stars that are disturbingly in motion. –E.B. White Elements of Style Six-Trait Writing Considerations Ideas Have I used original ideas? Are all my points well explained and well supported with strong evidence? Have I used good details and specifics? Have I fully discussed all ideas mentioned? In personal writing have I made my main idea clear? Organization Does the paper have a clear beginning, middle, and end? Have I spent most of the paper discussing my main point? Do the ideas move smoothly from one to the next? Have I used clear transition devices? Voice Have I used an appropriate voice for the purpose of my paper? Does the paper show my interest in the subject? Have I used original, appealing language and sentence structures? Word choice Have I used vivid verbs and few be verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been)? Is all wording clear? Is the level of language appropriate to the purpose of the paper? Have I used slang and colloquialisms only for dialogue, very informal letters and notes, or casual e-mail? Sentence fluency Does the paper have a variety of sentence types—simple, compound, complex, compoundcomplex—and patterns? Have I varied the sentence beginnings? Conventions Is the paper free of errors in spelling and punctuation? Have I checked carefully for my common mistakes? 50 Punctuation Pattern Sheet Independent Clause . Independent Clause . Independent Clause ; Independent Clause . Independent Clause , and Independent Clause . Independent Clause . , for , and , nor , but , or , yet , so Independent Clause ; however, ; therefore, ; consequently, ; likewise, ; moreover, ; then, ; still, ; also, ; otherwise, ; nevertheless, ; in fact, ; for example, ; furthermore, ; instead, 51 dependent clause When Independent Clause after although as as if as long as because before how how if in order that , when Independent Clause dependent clause provided that since so that that though unless until what whatever when . . whenever where whereas wherever whether which while who whom whose why Independent . . . , nonessential information, , on the other hand, , I believe, . . . Clause . Independent . . . essential information . . . Clause . People who have diabetes are often thirsty. The woman running the time clock teaches at my school. Independent Clause , afterthought. The child cried at bedtime, the way he always does. Independent Clause : word, word, word. : phrase, phrase, phrase. : clause, clause, clause. 52 Common Transition Expressions To compare also as in the same way like likewise similarly To contrast although as opposed to but conversely counter to even so even though however in the meantime nevertheless on the contrary on the other hand otherwise still yet To conclude accordingly all in all as a result consequently due to finally in conclusion in short in summary therefore thus to sum up To add information additionally again along with also and another as well besides equally important finally for example for instance further furthermore in addition likewise moreover next together with To clarify for instance in other words put another way stated differently that is to clarify To show a time relationship after during afterward finally as soon as first at immediately at the same time in the meantime before later meanwhile next prior to second soon then third today tomorrow until when yesterday 53 Concise Writing Make your writing concise. Make writing concise. Write concisely. Write in active voice. Make the subject perform the action. Passive: The test was taken by the students. Active: The students took the test. Passive: College students were recruited by the bank and a new training program was begun. Active: The bank recruited and trained college students.) Eliminate ineffective intensifiers—very, a lot, really, rather, extremely, somewhat. Use single strong words to indicate degree. One of the first large-scale disaster movies is The Very Tall, Very Hot Building. (The Towering Inferno) Consider substitutes for very: intensely, unusually, immeasurable, slightly, exceedingly, truly, infinitely, incredible, especially, and so forth. Use active verbs. Count the number of to be verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been). Find several that can be better expressed as action verbs. A Farewell to Arms was the novel which really first made Hemingway a commercial success. Revised: Hemingway first succeeded commercially with A Farewell to Arms. She was aware of the fact that he had not returned her paper. Revised: She knew he still had her paper. There was a car moving in circles around the speedway. Revised: A car circled the speedway. Recast several subordinate who, which, and that clauses to eliminate words. Reduce clauses to phrases and adjectives. An agnostic is one who holds that he has no knowledge of God, indeed that the human mind is incapable of knowing whether there is or is not a God. Revised: An agnostic maintains that humanity cannot know whether God exists. He purchased a boat that was made of fiberglass. Revised: He purchased a fiberglass boat. The test, which was our first examination of the year, was difficult. Revised: The year’s first examination was difficult. He brought up considerations which had nothing to do with the case. Revised: He introduced extraneous considerations. Sanjay Aggarwal, who is our star student, won a scholarship to Yale. Revised: Sanjay Aggarwal, our star student, won a Yale scholarship. The runner, who was exhausted by the pace, slowed down so that she could conserve her energy. Revised: The runner, exhausted by the pace, slowed down so that she could conserve her energy. 54 Eliminate prepositional phrases when possible. The decision of the administration supported the wishes of the students. Revised: The administrative decision supported the students’ wishes. The visitor in the black cape startled the boys from the college. Revised: The black-caped visitor startled the college boys. Avoid negative phrasing. I do not have very much faith in his honesty. Revised: I distrust him. I do not expect to be misunderstood. Revised: I expect to be understood. He did not think that telling her would hurt her feelings. Revised: He thought that telling her would be harmless. Eliminate or revise “deadwood”—words and phrases that carry little meaning. Abbreviate expressions that pad rather than add: it may be assumed thatsupposedly at that timethen was of the opinion that believed owing to the fact thatbecause in the event thatif is likely tomay Avoid redundancy. Eliminate words and phrases that should be assumed. We watched the big, massive black cloud rising up from the level prairie and covering up the sun. Revised: We watched the massive, black cloud rise from the prairie and cover the sun. The material was pink in color and soft to the touch. Revised: The pink material was soft. Avoid anticipatory phrases such as “It is,” “There are,” and “The reason that.” The reason that he voted for the independent candidate was that she had a record of voting for environmental concerns. Revised: Because she was pro environment, he voted for the independent candidate. Combine sentences to eliminate words. The majority of high schools offer advanced placement courses. These are college-level courses, and the students in them have to be able to do college work. Revised: For able students, the majority of high schools offer college-level, advanced placement courses. 55 Varying Sentence Length and Syntax To improve rhythm, vary sentence length and structure. Are long sentences followed by short sentences? Read your writing out loud and listen to the rhythm. To give important ideas emphatic positions, present them in simple sentences for punch or in main clauses of complex sentences. Vary normal word order to emphasize ideas. A winding stream flowed through the middle of the valley. Revised: Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream. Put the main idea of a sentence in the main clause. I was walking in the park when I saw a murder. Revised: When walking in the park, I saw a murder. Vary sentence beginnings. How often does your sentence begin with the subject? Begin sentences with grammatical units like subordinate clauses, infinitive phrases, participial phrases, prepositional phrases, adjective, and adverbs. Combine sentences to create more complex structures with varied syntax. The horse was proud and golden. The horse raced across the meadow. The horse raced frantically to avoid an approaching storm. Revisions: To avoid an approaching storm, the proud, golden horse raced frantically through the meadow. Through the meadow, the horse, proud and golden, raced frantically to avoid an approaching storm. Frantically through the meadow, the proud, golden horse raced to avoid an approaching storm. To improve rhythm, use parallel structures. “. . . that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” Abraham Lincoln “No fact, however interesting, no image, however vivid, no phrase, however striking, no combination of sounds, however resonant, is of any use to a poet unless it fits unless it appears to spring inevitably out of its context.” Northrop Frye “The only advice . . . that one person can give another about reading is to take no advice, to follow your own instinct, to use your own reason, to come to your own conclusions.” Virginia Woolf Use balanced antithesis to repeat key words, phrases, and ideas in an opposite context. “To be or not to be.” William Shakespeare “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” John F. Kennedy “The tragedy of life is not that man loses but that he almost wins.” Heywood Broun “Talent, Mr. Macawber has; money, Mr. Macawber has not.” Charles Dickens 56 Using Specific Details and Images Include specific details and examples to help readers know exactly what you mean. Select details and images to make writing concrete and vivid. My father and I argue about everything. Revised: My father and I argue about everything from politics and civil rights to the relationship between parents and children. She looks sensational. Revised: She looks sensational in her purple knit suit, dangling earrings, and brown leather sandals. The room was a mess. Revised: Dirty clothes littered an unmade bed, and mold grew in gray dishes stacked carelessly in the corner. The car began to make noise. Revised: The rear axle began to make a noise—a grinding, chattering, teeth-gritting rasp. Choosing and Using Words Carefully Choose words that are literally and grammatically correct. A loud radio does not detract (distract) me when I am reading. The jogger was able to allude (elude) the mugger. The chef divided the cake between (among) her three friends. My new school is not much different than (from) my previous school. Alice followed the rabbit further (farther) into the woods. Use words that are appropriate in tone and level of usage. Plato’s writings stuff (fill) the student’s mind with new ideas. The Canadian diplomats cut themselves off (detached themselves) from the main group. Be aware of the connotations of words. In their simple-mindedness/innocence, children are free of racial and religious prejudice. Nan’s stubbornness/persistence/resoluteness surprised her best friend. The President’s ideas are idealistic/ visionary/science fiction. He recognized the aged/venerable/senior senator. Jane wouldn’t reveal/divulge/ betray her brother’s whereabouts. Avoid cliches and trite expressions. bury the hatchet at loose ends at death’s door on speaking terms clear as crystal last but not least in this day and age busy as a bee add insult to injury Avoid ill-sounding and trite expressions. Explanation of his motivation can be found in his observations that...(too many –tion endings). Those who lean toward leniency...(awkward repetition of lean sound). It must be clear that the fear of ...(inadvertent rhyme). 57 Use appropriate, original figures of speech. Sensitizing yourself to the figurative language of other writers will help you create original, fresh examples that leave an imaginative, emotional expression. Metaphor: “No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.” John Donne Simile: “Their prose—Tolstoy’s sentences, heavy as blocks of granite; Chekhov’s rhythms, soft as autumn leaves; Dostoevsky’s moaning and quivering like telegraph wires at night—revealed itself to me in all its beauty of language and depth and richness of meaning.” Yevgeny Yevtushenko Personification: “Wit is a lean creature with a sharp inquiring nose; whereas, humor has a kindly eye and comfortable girth.” Charles Brooks Avoid mixing figures of speech. Flailing both arms, Mr. McCall flew to the platform and barked (screeched) for silence. Ellen dived into her studies, afraid that she’d never reach the top of the heap (bottom of the pile. Unless the governor sets a new course, our city is likely to be buried beneath a mound of debt (lost in a maze of debt). Avoiding Common Errors Learn to use your white notebook and other available resources during revision. Find examples that parallel the elements of your sentence to resolve the problem. Use correct agreement. Be sure verbs agree in number with their subjects; be sure pronouns agree in number with their antecedents. (Each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone, and no one are singular pronouns.) The repetition of the drumbeats help (Correct: helps) to stir emotion. The bittersweet flavor of youth—its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges – are (Correct: is) not soon forgotten. Hardest hit by the hurricane was (Correct: were) those who lived on the coast. His problem were (Correct: was) headaches. Every one of the children are (Correct: is) invited. Neither of the girls achieved their (Correct: her) purpose. Each student was asked to sign their (Correct: his) name. Avoid shifts in verb tense. Romeo and Juliet fall in love at first sight, marry secretly, and died (Correct: die) within one week’s time. Avoid shifts in person and point of view. A man has to expect criticism when you (Correct: he) succeed(s). You must work hard if one expects (Correct: you expect) to graduate. 58 Avoid ambiguous pronoun references. Lisa wrote to Jennifer every day when she was in the hospital. Revised: When Jennifer was in the hospital, Lisa wrote to her every day. Clarify pronoun reference. Make sure that the word to which a pronoun refers is actually in the writing. Do not refer to words or ideas that are merely implied. When Johnson’s club was organized, he asked Goldsmith to become a member. Revised: When Johnson organized his club, he asked Goldsmith to become a member. At the restaurant, the Smiths had a difficult time eating with chopsticks, but that is their favorite food. Revised: At the restaurant, the Smiths had a difficult time eating with chopsticks, but Chinese is their favorite food. Avoid misplaced and dangling modifiers. Normally, the modifier should be placed as near the word modified as idiomatic English will permit. Be sure that the word a phrase modifies is actually in the sentence. The doctor said that there is nothing wrong with a smile. Revised: With a smile, the doctor said that nothing was wrong. Newspapers carried the story of the quarterback’s fumble in every state. Revised: Newspapers in every state carried the story of the quarterback’s fumble. When testing for creativity, a person’s ability to finish a pun is examined. Revised: When testing for creativity, psychologists examine a person’s ability to finish a pun. Avoid sentence fragments. Fragments: My father always planting a spring garden. Because he likes to eat vegetables. That help the body to combat infection. For example, yellow and green vegetables. Revised: My father always plants a spring garden because he likes to eat yellow and green vegetables that help the body combat infection. Avoid comma splices and run-on sentences. Comma splice: The current was swift, he could not swim to shore. Run-on: The current was swift he would not swim to shore. Revised: He could not swim to shore, for the current was swift. Because the current was swift, he could not swim to shore. The current was so swift that he could not swim to shore. Because of the swift current, he could not swim to shore. The current was swift. He could not swim to shore. The current was swift; he could not swim to shore. The current was swift; therefore, he could not swim to shore. 59 Student Self-check for Metacognition Frequently Some of the time Never Frequently Some of the time Never Frequently Some of the time Never Before I read, I . . . Know my purpose Determine what I already know about the topic Make predictions about the content Preview the entire text Use text supports such as pondering the title, looking at any cover art given, checking the copyright, etc. to provide information While I read, I . . . Note what I don't understand Note what is most important Take notes Make predictions and/or inferences Summarize Question Clarify Reread when I'm confused Note new words Make comparisons to what I already know Form pictures in my head Draw pictures relating to the text Make analogies Identify problems Adjust my reading rate Create a graphic organizer Turn bold headings into questions Read aloud/vocalize unfamiliar words Use context clues/word analysis to determine meaning of unfamiliar words Look up unfamiliar key words Access schemas (background information, prior knowledge) Summarize the content of visuals and state relationship to text If narrative fiction, think about elements of literature that govern text After I read, I... Make flash cards of key concepts Create mnemonic (memory) devices Create analogies Rewrite notes, clarifying information Discuss the text, including asking for clarification of any areas of confusion 60
