Leadership
01
theory
– past and present
I
n order to forecast how successful leaders will flourish in an increasingly
uncertain future, it is necessary to understand how the theory and application of leadership has developed since the concept was first seriously
considered around the end of the 19th century. I therefore begin this book
by reviewing how leadership theory has developed over the past 100 years
or so into approaches designed to meet the challenges facing leaders in this
culturally diverse, communication-driven age, where change is a constant
and only those organizations that are able to adapt and innovate will
succeed.
That is not to say that academics and, in particular, philosophers long
before our modern age did not have an appreciation of how wise leaders
get the best out of their followers. As I mention in the Introduction, Lao
Tzu, for example, in his book Tao Te Ching, written for Chinese political
leaders in the 5th century bc, emphasized the importance of leader–follower
relationships. However, recent decades have seen an exponential increase
in the study of leadership.
Before we review past leadership theories let us understand what we
mean by the term leadership. In 1966 the Smith Richardson Foundation
commissioned Ralph M Stogdill to undertake a systematic analysis and
review of the literature on leadership, which culminated in him publishing
the book Handbook on Leadership in 1974. In it, he sought to group the
various definitions of leadership into 11 classifications, namely:
●
●
●
●
●
●
a focus of group process;
personality and its effects;
the art of inducing compliance;
the exercise of influence;
act or behaviour;
a form of persuasion;
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Leadership Psychology
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
a power relation;
an instrument of goal achievement;
an effect of interaction;
a differentiated role;
the initiation of structure.
Whilst there are many different definitions of leadership, it is generally
agreed that the act of leading people involves influencing them to undertake
a course of action that contributes to an objective defined by the leader: his
or her vision. The word ‘lead’ derives from the Anglo-Saxon for a journey,
a road, a way. Thus, leading is concerned with moving from one place to
another; from one situation to another. It therefore involves change and it
is, indeed, in periods of great change that exceptional leaders emerge. Perhaps
one of the best definitions of leadership is from Charles Handy (1992): ‘A leader
shapes and shares a vision which gives point to the work of others.’
We will now consider the following theories, which encapsulate the
progression of leadership thinking up to the modern day:
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
great man theory;
trait theory;
behavioural theory;
situational leadership;
functional leadership;
relationship theory.
Great man theory
It was only in the 19th century that historians and philosophers began to
consider the concept of leadership and those who displayed it, mainly in a
military and political context. Indeed, it was entirely through consideration
of recognized, historical heroes that the first leadership theory was conceived. The great man theory proposes that at times of need leaders will rise,
almost mystically, to control events and lead people to safety or success.
Hence, history can be explained to a large extent by the emergence of these
highly influential men – the great man theory does not mention women –
of their times.
It was the Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle in the 1840s who developed
the great man theory, saying: ‘The history of the world is but the biography
of great men’, using the example of figures such as Muhammad, Luther and
Napoleon to make his case. Moreover, he proposed that by studying such
heroes one could not help but develop one’s own potential heroic nature.
Implicit to Carlyle’s theory is that these great men are born to lead: they
have inbred qualities that come to the fore when their leadership destiny
unfolds. Of course, his examples were largely political, religious or military
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Leadership Theory – Past and Present
7
men from the aristocracy and upper classes, hence the theory dismisses the
potential of those of lower social status (and the entire female gender!) to
rise to positions of leadership. Great leaders were born, not made.
Trait theory
The trait theory followed from the great man theory as a means of categorizing the qualities displayed by successful leaders. By identifying these traits
it was believed that people having them could be identified, recruited and
placed in positions of authority. This practice was applied in particular for
officer selection within military organizations and, indeed, still is to some
extent.
Table 1.1 sets out the main leadership traits (genetically determined characteristics) and skills identified by Stogdill (1974). More recent authors have
proposed different sets of qualities required by leaders, as shown in Table 1.2.
It is interesting to note how the required leadership qualities change
through time, according to the challenges that leaders face. Bennis (1998),
ta B L e 1.1
Stogdill’s leadership traits and skills
Traits
Skills
Adaptable to situations
Clever (intelligent)
Alert to social environment
Conceptually skilled
Ambitious and achievement­
orientated
Creative
Assertive
Co­operative
Decisive
Dependable
Dominant (desire to influence
others)
Diplomatic and tactful
Fluent in speaking
Knowledgeable about group task
Organized (administrative ability)
Persuasive
Socially skilled
Energetic (high activity level)
Persistent
Self­confident
Tolerant of stress
Willing to assume responsibility
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Leadership Psychology
ta B L e 1.2
Authors
Various authors’ proposed leadership qualities
Leadership Qualities
Lord, De­Vader
Dominance, masculinity, conservativeness
and Alliger (1986)
Kirkpatrick
and Locke
(1991)
Drive (achievement, ambition, energy, tenacity and
initiative); leadership motivation (personalized or socialized);
honesty/integrity (trusting relationship between leaders
and followers); self­confidence (emotional stability);
cognitive ability (able to process large amounts of
information and develop strategies); knowledge of
business (to enable well­informed decisions to be made
and understand consequences).
Bennis (1998)
Building teamwork (committed to organizational goals);
understands the business; conceptual thinking (select
innovative strategies); customer­driven (create value for the
customer); focused drive (goal­focused); drives profitability
(cost­effective and efficient operations); systems thinking
(connects processes, events and structures); global
perspective (addresses cultural and geographic differences);
emotional intelligence (understands own emotions).
Daft (1999)
Alertness, originality, creativity, personal integrity and
self­confidence.
Adair (2009)
Enthusiasm, integrity, toughness, fairness, warmth, humility.
for example, proposes that leaders should be customer-driven and have a
global perspective, reflecting the service-driven, international nature of business
in the 21st century.
Note also that the earlier review by Lord, De-Vader and Alliger identified
masculinity as a trait. This is due to the relatively recent involvement of
women in prominent roles (Collinson and Hearn, 2003) and the adoption
of leadership styles by women that tend to promote more interactions with
employees, information-sharing, and employee participation in decisionmaking (Meyerson and Fletcher, 2000). However, research by Welte (2004)
found that women hold 51 per cent of management and professional positions
and therefore traditional stereotypes should be challenged. Any beneficial
gender-specific traits do not, however, appear to be readily translated in more
senior positions, as female participation still tends to be more prevalent in
junior management posts.
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Leadership Theory – Past and Present
9
BEST leadership quote
‘Lots of women enter the workforce:
69 per cent of junior managers are women.
But by the time it’s middle management the
number is 40 per cent; by the time it’s
director level it’s 25 per cent; and for CEOs
it’s single digits.’
Ann Francke
Chief Executive
Chartered Management Institute
Whilst it is generally accepted that leaders, male or female, require a certain
set of traits if they are to be effective, there is no consensus as to a definitive
list of those required. Surely, each situation faced by the leader will call for
a different combination of qualities, as will the environment within which
the leader operates – military, business or charity, for example. Yet even
within one sector, opinions are divided as to the most desirable leadership
qualities.
A further limitation of the trait theory is that it assumes that leadership
qualities are inherent, stable characteristics that leaders are born with.
Zaccaro, Kemp and Bader (2004) define them as ‘stable and coherent integrations of personal characteristics that foster a consistent pattern of leadership
performance across a variety of group and organizational situations’. That
being so, leaders will be selected according to the qualities they possess, set
against those required of the position they are being considered for. Such an
approach implies that the required qualities cannot be developed by means
of training or the benefit of experience. Yet it is difficult to imagine a personal
characteristic that cannot at least be enhanced as a leader becomes more
experienced or knowledgeable.
Hence, whilst the trait theory adds to the question of what makes a great
leader, it cannot be the complete answer, as was generally accepted during
the first half of the 20th century. Stogdill (1975) quoted Carter (1953) and
Startle (1956) in maintaining that the trait theory had reached a dead end,
and suggested that attention be directed towards the behaviour of the leader.
Behavioural theory
Behavioural theories emerged in response to the criticisms of the trait
approach, in particular the lack of consensus as to the necessary, measured
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Leadership Psychology
qualities required by leaders and also the assumption that they are inborn.
Hence, the focus of leadership thinking turned towards the behaviour of
leaders and how it related to their followers. The view now was that leaders
are made not born, with the behaviour of leaders (what they do) being more
important than their physical, emotional or mental traits. Moreover, effective
leadership, it was now believed, could be developed through the teaching of
relevant skills and the observation of others.
Early work on the concept of leaders’ behaviour was undertaken by the
German-American psychologist Kurt Lewin and colleagues (1939) who
identified three different leadership styles that were applied, in particular,
when making decisions, namely:
●●
●●
●●
Autocratic: here the leader takes decisions without any consultation
with other team members. This style is considered most appropriate
when speedy decisions are required and there is no need for team
input or agreement, for example in a crisis situation where safety
considerations are paramount. In Lewin et al’s experiments, however,
it was found that the application of the autocratic style caused the
greatest level of discontent amongst team members.
Democratic: democratic leaders sought team input, to a greater or
lesser extent, in the decision-making process. This style is important
when team consensus is required, and will be appreciated by
members who value their views being sought. It can, however, be
difficult to manage when there is a wide range of opinions.
Laissez-faire: the laissez-faire style requires leaders to take a back step
and allow people a high degree of decision-making. It does, though,
necessitate both capable and motivated team members, and no
requirement for central co-ordination of resources, for example.
Adoption of the laissez-faire approach is a conscious decision by the
leader, rather than an excuse from one who is lazy or otherwise occupied.
Lewin, Lippit and White (1939) discovered that the democratic style was
most effective in producing effective decision-making. Conversely, excessive
autocratic styles tended to lead to revolution, whilst some team members –
those less able and capable of self-regulation – responded less well to the
laissez-faire approach than when they were being actively led.
Although Lewin et al’s research may now be seen as limited, it was highly
influential for its time and was a precursor for further thinking about the
impact of a leader’s behaviour. For example, a study was undertaken at
Michigan University, aimed to determine the methods and principles of
leadership that lead to higher levels of satisfaction and productivity in staff.
Two general leadership behaviours were identified: an employee-orientation
and a product-orientation. The former represents leaders showing concern
for members of the organization, whilst product-orientation leaders focus
primarily on the task to be completed. The study found that productivity
was increased most by the application of the employee-orientation style of
leadership.
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INDEX
NB: page numbers in italics indicate figures or tables
10 key leadership traits 19
360o feedback: benefits for leaders
117
Adair, J
113–15,
18–19, 18, 20, 49, 77, 78, 94,
106–07, 215, 223, 236–37
and action-centred leadership model 236
Adams, J S 138–40 see also equity theory
and the psychological contract
adaptability 83, 84, 86, 92, 163, 218
Aditya, R 187
Ahlstrand, B W 169
Aldehayyat, J S 182
Alliger, G M 8
Amundsen, R 200
Anchor, J R 182
Arthashastra 242
articles/papers
on charisma (Patricia Sellars in Fortune,
1996) 206
‘The Engaged Employee’ (Mind Gym:
White Paper, 2011) 228, 229,
235, 258
‘Leaders in Antarctica’ (Lovegrove) 202
see also studies
‘Leadership & Management in the
UK – The Key to Sustainable
Growth’ 103–04
‘One more time: how do you motivate
employees?’ (Herzberg, HBR,
1968) 66
Arvey, R 12, 108
Aspire to Inspire 166
Aung San Suu Kyi 242
Authentic Happiness: Using the New
Positive Psychology to Realise
your Potential for Lasting
Fulfilment 69
authentic leadership (and) 244–51, 245
see also case studies
China’s interpretation of 250–51, 250
components of 246–48
adaptive self-reflection 247–48
balanced processing 248
internal morality 247
relationship transparency 246
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current prevalent personality traits/
disorders 249
David Fairhurst; Henry Engelhardt;
Simon Cupples; William Rogers
see Leadership BEST practice
differences from concept of traditional
leaders 245–46
Authentic Leadership: Rediscovering the
Secrets of Creating Lasting Value
244
Average to A+ 72
Avey, B 229
Avolio, B 22, 246
Axelrod, B 33
Bader, P 9
Bal, P M 160
Bar-On, R 82, 92, 100 see also model(s)
Bass, B M 21–22, 205
Bassett-Jones, N 66
Beddoes-Jones, F 244
Bellou, V 159, 161
Bennis, W G 7, 108
Bersin, J 163, 165
BEST leadership quotes
Austin, Jonathan (Best Companies)
146, 172, 254
Cupples, Captain Simon (British Army)
247
Engelhardt, Harry (Admiral Group)
34, 40, 64, 88, 97, 249
Fairhurst, David (McDonald’s
Restaurants) 37, 45, 62, 149,
165–66, 175, 181
Forrester, Karen (TGI Friday’s) 27, 39,
87, 147, 173, 228, 260
Francke, Ann (CMI) 9, 108, 159, 177,
225, 232
Gold, Kevin (Mishcon de Reya)
60, 70, 154
Loach, Phil (West Midlands Fire Service)
32, 92, 184, 201, 203, 207, 221, 237
Munro, Ian (New Charter Housing) 61,
94, 120, 126, 131, 133, 183
Rogers, William (UKRD) 30, 61, 95,
105, 135, 230, 247
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274
Index
BEST leadership quotes Continued
Schofield, Will (PwC) 42, 210, 226
Smith, Antony (Bourne Leisure) 26,
138, 145, 213
Thain, Gregor (InterContinental Hotels) 104, 179, 194
Watson, Carmen (Pertemps) 60, 200
Wood, Mark (explorer) 93, 203, 211,
242
Biswas-Diener, R 70
Blake, R 11–12
Blake Mouton Managerial Grid 11, 11–12
country club – high people/low
production 11
impoverished – low people/low
production 11
middle-of-the-road – medium
people/medium production 12
task management – high production/low
people 11
team management – high people/high
production 12
Blanchard, K 15–17, 17, 234–35, 254
Bloch Snyderman, B 58
blogs 40
‘Dell Hell’ and Direct2Dell 31
Boal, K B 175, 185
Bonn, I 173
Book, H 85, 92, 98, 100
Bowers, R 213
Boyatzis, R 83, 88, 91, 92, 93, 97, 126,
127, 132, 202 Branson, R 22, 171
Briggs, K C 110
Brown, M E 251
Brown, S L 173
Burns, J M 21, 206
Bush, President G W 198
Cameron, D 70, 226
Carlyle, T 6
Carter, L F 9
Cartwright, S 85
case studies (for/on)
authentic leadership: Innocent 248–49
barriers to strategic planning: Norwegian
ferry-cruise company 183
emotional intelligence development
programme (Whitbread) 101
ethical leadership: Procter & Gamble/
Bob McDonald 256–57, 258
positive psychology: BAE Systems 74–76 see also Linley, A and
Page, N
Procter & Gamble 256–57, 258
see also McDonald, B
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Centre for Applied Positive Psychology
(CAPP) 72–76
Chanaka 242
Chapman, A 252 see also model(s)
chapter summaries
the emotionally intelligent leader 101
extreme leadership 222–24
future challenges – the 21st-century leader 50–51
future leadership 258
leader development 113–34
leadership theory – past and present 27–28
motivation – the enduring principles 77–79, 80
the psychological contract 167
strategic leadership 191
charisma 22–23, 44, 122, 205–06, 239
Chartered Institute for Personnel and
Development (CIPD) 33, 119,
156, 159
Chartered Management Institute (CMI), UK 1, 2, 9, 108, 159, 177, 225, 232,
256, 259
‘The CEO Challenge: the UK Challenge’
(2013) 260
Chein, E 136
Chen, J Q 181
China (and) 30, 44
interpretation of authentic leadership 250–51, 250
President Xi Jinping 82
China Daily 82 Churchill, W 22, 85, 204–06, 224
and charisma 205–06
as servant leader 244
as transformational leader 205
clarity, lack of 184
Clarke, N 235
Collinson, C 8
combat leadership (and) 213–20
courage 215
disciplined and orderly mind 215
inspirational qualities 215
leadership and stress in combat 216–20
see also Cupples, Captain S (CGC)
motivational incentives (in the Chinese
army) 216
professional competence 215
strength of character 215
‘Ten Rules of Command’ 214
Connell, J P 230
Conway, N 136
Copeland, P 112
Coyle-Shapiro, J 140
Csikozentmihalyi, M 229
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Index
cultural differences 48, 161
Cupples, Captain S (CGC) 213, 216–20,
222, 223–24
and Conspicuous Gallantry Cross 217
leadership lessons of 217–20
Cutler, A M 31
Day, D V 105–06, 107
Deci, E L 230
decision-making see psychology of
decision-making
definition(s) of
crisis management (Wikipedia) 193
leadership 5–6
strategic thinking (Bonn) 173
talent management (CIPD) 33
transformation leader (Bass) 205
trust (Oxford Dictonary) 148
Delacampo, R G 157
Dell, M 31 see also blogs and Jarvis, J
De-Vader, L 8
Drucker, P 25, 178–79, 231
Eisenhardt, K M 173
emotional intelligence (EI) (and) 117–18,
148–51
business success 99–101 see also
case studies
development 131
empathy 148
four dimensions of 132
the gender factor 98–99
Goleman’s four dimensions of see
Goleman’s four dimensions of EI
importance of communication 148–49
IQ 81–82
measuring (by/with) 82–87
Bar-On EQ-i model 82–83 see also
model(s)
trust 148–50
Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter
More Than IQ 81
the emotionally intelligent leader (and) 81–101 see also emotional
intelligence (EI)
the gender factor 98–99
Goleman’s four dimensions see
Goleman’s four dimensions of EI
Henry Engelhardt; Ian Munro; Karen
Forrester; Mark Wood; Phil
Loach; William Rogers see BEST
leadership quotes
organizational climate 87–89
team norms 89–91
hypothetical scenario for 90–91
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empathy 86, 94–95, 97, 148, 243
employees’ feelings about workplace (Lyman) 88
The Encyclopaedia of Applied Psychology 82
engaging leadership (and) 226, 228–36
see also articles/papers
Ann Francke; William Rogers;
Will Schofield; see BEST
leadership quotes
colleagues 235–36
‘Engage for Success’ 226, 227, 235
individual mindsets 229–31
autonomy 230
competence 231
optimism 229–30
purposefulness 230
resilience 231
Karen Forrester see Leadership BEST
practice
the line manager 231–33
the senior leader 233–35
The EQ Edge 85, 100
equity theory (Adams) 138–40
ethical leadership (and) 251–57, 253
see also case studies
building blocks of 251–52
ethical culture 255–56
Jonathan Austin see BEST leadership
quotes
New Charter Housing see Leadership
BEST practice
tests for transparency, effect and
fairness 252
traits 251–52
transgressions 255
Ethical Leadership Scales 253, 253
executive coaching 119–23, 125–33, 122
see also group coaching
characteristics and aims of 119–20
and Goleman et al’s self-discovery
and reinvention process 126–28
process and approaches to 123, 125–28, 124
behaviourist 125
cognitive therapy 125
person-centred 125
psychodynamic 125
systems-oriented 125
extreme events, factors defining 194–96, 195
connectivity 196
extent 195–96
immediacy 194–95
nature 196
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276
Index
extreme events, variables for 196–99
complexity 196–97
leadership 199
preparedness 198–99
resources 197–98
extreme leadership (and) 193–224 see also
polar explorers; Antony Smith;
Carmen Watson; Gregor Thain;
Mark Wood; Phil Loach; Simon
Cupples; Will Schofield see BEST
leadership quotes and Leadership
BEST practice
combat leadership 213–20
see also subject entry
creation of positive organizational
culture 224
creation of supportive teams 223
display of highest personal qualities 223
emergency response leadership 207–08,
210–13, 209
emotions/characteristics of Antarctic
station managers 202–03
extreme events 194–99, 208, 210–13,
209 see also extreme events,
factors defining and extreme
events, variables for
findings of studies on 211–13
leadership theories 221–22
lessons from Sir Ernest Shackleton 200–02
political leadership 204–06 see also
Churchill, W and Hitler, A
professional competence 222
‘serve to lead’ 224
survival leadership 199–204
understanding emotional needs of self
and followers 223–24
understanding power of communications 223
Facebook 38, 39–40
The Farther Reaches of Human Nature 65
Feldman, D C 124
Feldman, S 162
Fielder, F E 13–15
figures
Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership model 18
Beddoes-Jones’s authentic leadership model 245
the bigger picture 227
the Blake Mouton Managerial Grid 11
factors affecting job attitudes, as reported
in 12 investigations 66
five-year returns comparison FTSE –
Best Companies 261
Johari Window 115
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 55
Myers-Briggs personality types 111
needs of millennials compared to other
generations 165
practical applications of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs 56
threat factors and modulators 195
Zhang’s refined model of authentic
leadership 250
final thoughts 259–60, 261
Finkelstein, S 187, 188
Fischhoff, N 187
Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership
(Kouzes and Posner) 19–21
Fletcher, D 8
Ford, C M 177
Forehand, G A 87
foresight 243, 244
Foresight Programme (UK) 174
Freas, A 130
Frederickson, B 235
Freedman, J 98–99
Freud, S 54
future challenges for the 21st-century leader 29–51 see also individual subject
entries
globalization (and) 41–49
attributes for enhancing performance
of teams/companies 48–49
cultural differences 42–47
cultural groups and transformational
leadership 44–47 see also research
David Fairfield; Gregor Thain; Will
Schofield see BEST leadership
quotes
study on global leadership capabilities 47 see also studies
innovation (and) 30–33
Phil Loach and William Rogers
see BEST leadership quotes
and Leadership BEST practice 37, 40, 44
see also subject entry
social media 37–41, 41
talent management 33–37, 36–37
see also reports
and Henry Engelhardt
see BEST leadership quotes
future leadership 225–58 see also
individual subject entries
authentic leadership 244–51, 245, 248–49, 250
engaging leadership 226, 228–36, 227
ethical leadership 251–57, 253,
256–57, 258
the integrated psychological approach
to 236–39, 240, 241
servant leadership 241–44
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Index
Gandhi, M 22, 242
Garcia-Retamero, R 98
Gavetti, G 179–81
the generations 156–64
baby boomers 156, 159–60, 161–62
Generation X 157, 159, 160, 161–62,
234
Generation Y/millennials) 157, 159,
161–64, 234, 259
and generational values, strengths and
weaknesses 158
George, B 244–46
George, G M 53
Giannantonio, C M 202
Gilbert, Sir M 205
Giuliani, R 198, 224
‘Global Leadership: Developing Tomorrow’s
Leaders Around the World’
(Forbes, 2012) 44
Global Leadership and Organizational
Behavior Effectiveness Research
Program (GLOBE) 44
globalization 29, 41–49, 51, 151, 225, 250
Goldberg, L R 109, 117, 142–43, 148
see also model(s)
Goldsmith, M 130
Goleman, D 81, 82, 83–84, 88, 89, 91–92,
93, 96–99, 101, 132, 186, 202
and self-discovery/reinvention process 126–28
Goleman’s four dimensions of EI 83–87,
91–97, 91
relationship management 84, 89,
96–97
self-awareness 83, 89, 92, 97
self-management 84, 89, 92–94, 97
social awareness 84, 89, 94–95
Goleman’s models 83, 94, 106
emotional competence inventory (ECI) 97, 105, 186 four dimensions of EI 82, 91, 91, 101
Good to Great 23
good-to-great companies 23
Gopalakrishnan, R 48
Grant, M 40
Great Leaders 106
Great Place to Work 88 see also Lyman, A
and surveys
Greenleaf, R 241, 244
and Center for Servant Leadership 241
Gronhaug, K 183
group coaching 128–30
and action-planning 129
beginning programme of 128
discussion exercise for 128–29
facilitator 130
follow-up support for 130
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multi-respondent feedback stage of 129
Guest, D E 136
Hambrick, D C 187–88
Hampson, Sir S 71
Handbook on Leadership 5
Handfield-Jones, H 33
Handy, C 6
Hannah, S T 194, 196
Hardy, B 243–44
Harrison, D A 251 see also ethical
leadership
Harter, J 228, 235
Haslam, S A 24
Hayday, S 231
Hearn, J 8
Heide, M 183
Hersey, P 15–17, 17
Herzberg, F (and) 57, 58–69, 78–79, 138,
143 see also articles
hygiene and motivation factors 54, 58–67, 59
motivation factors 63–65, 78
self-actualization 65
survey limitations 66, 66, 67
heuristics 188–90
availability 189
biases 189–90
framing the problem 189
judgment 189
post-decision evaluation 189–90
using information 189
representative 189
Hillary, Sir E 200
Hitler, A 22, 85, 204–06
and Mein Kampf 206
Hodgkinson, G P 182
Hogan, G (Flight Centre, UK)) 31
Hooijberg, R 175, 185
Hooper, A 22
House, R J 15, 44–45, 187
and path–goal model of leadership 78
The Human Side of Enterprise 56
Hurley-Hanson, A E 202
Immunity to Change 133
India 30, 43, 44
and the Tata Group 48
Inge, Sir P 215, 223, 224
Ingham, H 114
the inner self see leader development
innovation 30–33, 35, 50, 146, 171, 226,
232, 260
Institute of Business Ethics 252, 253
decision-matching tests for leaders 252
7/31/2014 2:51:53 PM
278
Index
Institute for Ethical Leadership 253
and Ethical Leadership Scales 253, 253
Institute of Leadership & Management (ILM) 34 see also model(s) and reports
the integrated psychological approach (and) 236–39, 240, 241
four dimensions of leadership
(Scouller) 236
Phil Loach see BEST leadership quotes
Three Levels of Leadership (3P) model
(Scouller) 237–39, 241 see also
model(s)
integrity 70, 108, 203, 214, 215, 223, 224,
251–52, 257
James, O 249
Jarrett, M 176
Jarvis, J 31 see also blogs
Jervis, R 198
Jobs, S 22
Johannessen, S 183
Johari Window 114–15, 115
John Lewis Partnership 71
Johns, G 142–44, 146
Jones, J R 53
Judge, T A 109
Jung, C 110–11
Jung’s four preferences 110–11
extraversion (E) or introversion (I) 110
judgment (J) or perception (P) 110–11
sensing (S) or intuition (N) 110
thinking (T) or feeling (F) 110
Kaplan, R S 177
Kapucu, N 208, 209, 222, 223
Kaufmann, R 177
Kegan, R 133
Kemp, C 9
Kets de Vries, M 114, 121, 122, 128
Personality Audit 115
Kets de Vries Institute 129
key competencies for transformational
leaders 22 see also Hooper, A
and Potter, J
Kiewitz, C 152
King, M L 22, 242
Klein, K J 208, 223
Kolditz, T A 210–13, 215, 222, 223
Kouzes, J 19–21, 114
Lahey, L L 133
Lampel, J 169
Langhorn, S 101
Lankau, M J 124
Lao Tzu 1, 5
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 278
leader development (and) 103–34, 107
360-degree assessments 113–15
Ann Francke; Gregor Thain; Ian
Munro see BEST leadership
quotes
executive coaching see subject entry
Henry Engelhardt; Ian Munro see Leadership BEST practice
leadership development 105, 106
management development 105
the Personality Audit 115–19, 115
psychometric tests 109–12, 111, 112
see also subject entry
leader–member exchange theory (LMX) 23–24
role-taking, role-making and
routinization stages for 23–24
‘Leaders in Antarctica: characteristics of
an Antarctic station
manager’ 202
Leaders on Leadership 215
Leadership 21
Leadership BEST practice
Admiral Group: questionnaire
(Henry Engelhardt) 113
authenticity: (David Fairhurst,
McDonald’s Restaurants) 246
‘Courage and Spark’ leadership
development, New Charter
Housing Group (Christine
Amyses, Ian Munro and Peter
Bluckert) 131–33
Haven caravan park (Bourne Leisure)
and Pioneers 145
leadership and stress in combat 216–20 see also Cupples,
Captain S (CGC)
Mark Wood (expedition in the
Arctic) 204
New Charter Housing – GREAT 252
Pertemps 234
PwC people managers 140
The Leadership Challenge 19
leadership styles 8, 11, 15–18, 16, 17, 18,
21, 27, 33, 111, 112, 127–28,
155, 161, 164, 246
adaptive 196
assessing 127
autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire 10 see also Lewin, K
modifying 121
transformational 150, 170, 175
see also transformational
leadership
leadership theory 3–28
behavioural theory 9–13, 11 see also
Blake Mouton Managerial Grid
7/31/2014 2:51:53 PM
Index
functional leadership (and) 18–21, 18,
20 see also Kouzes, J; models
and Posner, B
Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership
(ACL) model 18, 18
Five Practices of Exemplary
Leadership 19–21
great man theory 6–7
relationship theory 21–24 see also
individual subject entries
leader–member exchange theory
(LMX) 23
transformational leadership 21–23
shared social identity and leaders seen as 24–26
‘crafting a sense of us’ 26
‘doing it for us’ 26
‘making us matter’ 26
‘one of us’ 25
situational leadership 13–17, 16, 17,
17–18 see also subject entry
trait theory 7–9, 7, 8
leadership traits 109–10
10 key 19
extraversion 109
openness to experience 110
Leavy, B 31
Lee, S M 181
LESSONS management videos 182
Lester, D L 184
Lewin, K 10, 11
Lewis, S 71, 73, 181
Liden, R C 24
Linley, A 72, 73, 74–76
Lippit, R 10
Lloyd, G C 66
Loftus, E F 189
Lopez-Zavra, E 98
Lord, R G 8
Louis, M R 181
Lovegrove, I 202
Luft, J 114
Luthans, F 229
Luther 6
Lyman, A 88
Lyons, L 130
MacLeod, D 235
Maister, D 232
Mallory, G 200
management development 105, 185
Mandela, N 26, 242
Margolis, J 231
Maslow, A (and) 57, 63, 65, 69, 77, 78, 81,
138, 143
hierarchy of needs 54–56, 55, 56, 65
self-actualization 78
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 279
279
Mason, P A 187–88
Mausner, B 58
Maverick 31
Mayer, J 81
McCauley, C 230
McDermott, A M 151
McDonald, B 41–42 see also Procter &
Gamble
McGregor, D 56–58, 138
and theory X leaders 144
X–Y theory 54, 56–58
McInnis, K J 162
McKee, A 83, 88, 91, 92, 93, 97, 126, 127,
132, 202
McKinsey 33, 35, 50 see also talent
management 33
McKinsey Quarterly 41, 41, 66, 78
Mein Kampf 206
Meyer, J P 162
Meyerson, D 8
Michaels, E 33
Miettinen, R 181
Miller, G 53
Millet, S M 175–76
The Millionaire Mind 99
Mintzberg, H 169
model(s) see also Herzberg, F and Maslow, A
Action-Centred Leadership (Adair) 18, 236
EQ-I (Bar-On) 82–85, 87, 92, 94, 98,
100, 101
Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership
(Kouzes, J and Posner, B) 19–21, 20
five-factor of personality (the big five)
(Goldberg) 109, 142–44
four dimensions (Goleman) see
Goleman’s four dimensions of EI
McGregor’s X–Y theory 54, 56–58
P4 (Chapman, A) 252
three levels of leadership (Scouller) 236, 237–9, 241
personal 238–39
private 238
public 237–38
Momeni, N 87, 89
Montgomery, Field Marshal 215, 224
Morrison, J L 174
motivation (and) 53–80, 80 see also
case studies
Carmen Watson; David Fairhurst; Ian
Munro; Kevin Gold; William Rogers
see BEST Leadership Quotes
findings 68, 69
Herzberg’s hygiene and motivation
factors 58–69, 59, 66, 67
see also Herzberg, F
7/31/2014 2:51:54 PM
280
Index
motivation (and) Continued
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 54–56, 55,
63, 65 see also Maslow, A
McGregor’s X–Y theory 56–58
see also McGregor, D
positive psychology and happiness
principle see subject entry Motivation and Personality 54
and ‘Towards a Positive Psychology’ 69
The Motivation to Work 58, 64, 65, 66
Mouton, J 11–12
Muhammad 6, 242
Murphy’s Eighth Law 198
Myers, I B 110
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 110–11, 111, 112
Nadin, S J 155
Nair, L 40, 44
Nejad, M H 170
Neuman, J H 140
New Charter Housing Group see Leadership BEST practice
The New Psychology of Leadership: Identity,
Influence and Power 24
Niehoff, B P 153
Noe, R A 118
Norton, D P 177
Notter, J 40
Novicevic, M M 244, 245
Ntalianis, F 142–44, 146
The One Minute Manager 15
organizational culture (and) 145–51
David Fairhurst; Jonathan Austin; Karen
Forrester see BEST leadership
quotes
the importance of emotional intelligence 148–51 see also emotional
intelligence
leadership styles 150–51
Organizational Culture and Leadership 136
Orme, G 101
Page, N 73, 75
Palmer, J C 189
Parmenter, D 200
Parnell, J A 184
Paul, J P 153
Peltier, B 123, 124
Perkins, D N T 223
Personality Audit 115–19, 115
and seven dimensions of personality 116–17
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 280
personality characteristics 142–44 see also
Goldberg, L R and model(s)
conscientiousness 143
equity sensitivity 143–44
extraversion 142–43
locus of control 144
neuroticism 142
self-esteem 144
persuasion 5, 127, 241, 243–44
Peterson, C 71
Pilar Berrios Martos, M 98
Platow, M J 24
Pol Pot 85
polar explorers
Amundsen, R 200
Scott, R F 200
Shackleton, Sir E 200–03, 222–24
positive psychology and happiness principle 69–86 see also case studies
at John Lewis Partnership 71
strengths-based approach to 71–74
Positive Psychology at Work 73
Posner, B 19–21, 114
Potter, J 22
Primal Leadership 83, 84, 126
Procter & Gamble 41
PsyC see the psychological contract
the psychological contract (and) 135–67
see also studies (of/on)
Ann Francke; Kevin Gold see BEST
leadership quotes
Antony Smith see BEST leadership quotes
and Leadership BEST practice
contract violation: employee’s perspective 151–54
on managing expectations/staff
empowerment 152–54
contract violation: employer’s perspective 154–55 see also studies
David Fairhurst see Leadership
BEST practice
employee expectations 137–45 see also
Goldberg, L R and model(s)
Adams’ equity theory for 138–40
and personality characteristics 142–44 see also subject entry
the generational factor 155–57, 159–66,
158, 165 see also the generations
and the changing employment
relationship 161–63
I-Deals 163
key factors associated with 136
organizational culture 145–51
see also subject entry
PricewaterhouseCoopers employees
see Leadership BEST practice
7/31/2014 2:51:54 PM
Index
Psychological Types 110
psychology of decision-making (and) 185–90
confirmation and hindsight biases 186–87
discretion 187
strategic leadership qualities 185–86
see also strategic leaders, qualities of
upper echelon theory 187–88
use of heuristics 188–90 see also
heuristics
psychometric tests (for) 109–12, 111, 112
Jung’s four preferences 110–11
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
personality traits 109–10
questionnaire (VIA Institute of Character):
www.viastrengths.org 73
Raja, U 142–44, 146
Rath, T 228, 235
Reicher, S D 24
relationship management see Goleman’s
four dimensions of EI
reports on/by
‘Best Companies to Work For’
(The Sunday Times) 2, 259–60
‘The CEO Challenge: the UK Challenge’
(CMI, 2013) 260
‘Creating Future Leaders’ (ILM, 2010) 34
‘Engaging for Success’ (Department of
Business, Innovation and Skills,
2009) 235
‘Gen Up: How the Four Generations
Work’ (CIPD, 2008) 156
‘The Leadership and Management Talent
Pipeline’ (ILM, 2012) 35
‘Societal Purpose: A Journey in its
Early Stages’ (Economist
Intelligent Unit 2012) 234
research (on/by)
associated with LMX theory 23
connections between ethical leadershp
and ethical culture (Schaubroeck
et al) 255–56
evaluation of transformational leadership
style by different cultural groups
(House et al) 44–45
extreme events/leadership 207–08, 210,
209
impact of transformational and
transactional leaders on management
innovation (Vaccaro et al) 31
influence on returns measured by Standard
& Poor’s 500 Index 88
line managers (Corporate Leadershp
Council, 2004) 231
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 281
281
managers (Robinson and Hayday,
Institute for Employment Studies,
2009) 231
millennials in business (Deloitte/
Confederation of India Industries
2013) 163–64, 165
mindsets for engagement in work (2008) 229–31
talent (McKinsey, 1997) 33
research instruments
Global Executive Leadership Inventory
(GELI) 114 see also de Vries, K
Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) 114
Personality Audit (Kets de Vries et al) 114, 115–19
Richard, O C 145, 146
Robinson, D 231
Roberts, J (CEO, United Utilities) 182–83
Roddick, A 171, 205
Rolfe, J 230
Rousseau, D M 163
Rowe, G 170
Rozin, P 230
Ryan, R M 230
Salovey, P 81
Sandlin, P 118
Schaubroeck, J M 255–56
Schmidt, W 17, 17–18
Schmitt, N 118
Scouller, J 236–39, 241 see also models
self-awareness 81, 83–84, 89, 92, 97–99,
111, 115, 122, 128, 186, 202,
237, 244, 250
self-control 43, 84, 92, 202, 230
self-regard 83, 84, 86, 100
The Selfish Capitalist: Origins of Affluenza 249
Seligman, M 69–70, 71, 72
Sellers, P 206
Semler, R 31
and the ‘Three Whys’ 190
servant leadership 241–44
10 main characteristics of 241–42
Center for 241 see also Greenleaf, R
examples of 242
‘leading from behind’ 243
and Mark Wood 242 see also BEST
leadership quotes
traits for 243–44
situational leadership (and) 13–17, 16, 17,
17–18
Hersey and Blanchard’s model 15–7, 17
least preferred co-worker model 13–14
see also Fielder, F E
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282
Index
situational leadership (and) Continued
path–goal model 15, 16 see also House, R
Tannenbaum and Schmidt leadership
continuum 17, 17–18
Skinner, B F 54
Slaski, M 85
Snyder, C 233
social media 37–41, 41
Sparrow, P R 182
Sparrowe, R T 24
Spears, L C 241, 243 see also servant
leadership
Specht, L 118
Spielberger, C 82
stability 63, 162, 167, 195
emotional 202
financial 170, 188
Stanley, T 99
Startle, C L 9
Stein, S 85, 86, 92, 98, 100
stewardship 242, 243–44
Stogdill, R M 5, 7, 9
Stoltz, P 231
strategic leaders, qualities of 170–71,
185–86
absorptive capacity 185–86
adaptive capacity 186
five essential skills for 190–
managerial wisdom 186 see also
Goleman’s models
strategic leadership 169–91 see also
strategic thinking
analytic dimension of 171–72
defining the future for see strategic
thinking
five essential skills for 190–91
human dimension of 172
and Ian Munro; Jonathan Austin; Phil
Loach see BEST leadership quotes
and psychology of decision-making 185–90 see also subject entry
and strategic planning 171, 174, 178,
180, 182–85, 186, 191
strategic thinking (and) 173–81
Ann Francke; David Fairhurst; Gregor
Thain; Karen Forrester see BEST
leadership quotes
associative thinking 180
environmental scanning levels: industry,
macro and task 174
holistic approach to 177
potential future scenarios 174–75
strategy maps 177
three-step process for 178–79 see also
Drucker, P
visioning and futuring 174–75
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 282
studies (of/on)
(Antarctic) station managers and followers
(Lovegrove, 2013) 202
Centre for Excellence for Leadership and
Management Skills in Wales
(2013) 118
classroom-based training and subsequent
coaching (2013) 118–19
comparison of leadership competences,
and findings (Kolditz, 2007) 210–13
‘Developing the Global Leader of
Tomorrow’ (2008) 47
emotional clarity and emotional repair in
Spanish undergraduates (2012) 98
emotional intelligence 98
EQ-i assessment applied to members of
Young President’s Organization
(US) 85
EQ-i and relationship between EI and
leadership/management ability
(Tesco, 2002) 85
factors connecting EI, gender and
leadership (Freedman, 2012) 98–99
identical and fraternal male twins
(Arvey, 2005) 12–13
leadership behaviours (Michigan
University) 10
link between PsyC type and employee
commitment (McInnis, Meyer
and Feldman, 2009) 162–63
public sector employees (Coyle-Shapiro
and Neuman, 2004) 140
relationship between EI and business
leadership (Stein et al, 2009) 85–87
relationship between employee personality
and PsyC type (2004) 142–44
small business owners’ reactions to
contract breach (Nadin and
Williams, 2012) 155
surveys (on)
Best Places to Work (The Sunday Times) 166
company investment in social media
(Clearswift, 2012) 38
emotional intelligence in women
(Stein, 2009) 98
factors affecting job effectiveness of
non-financial motivators (McKinsey
Quarterly, 2009) 66
FORTUNE 100 Best Companies to Work
For (Great Place to Work) 88
Social Media Survey (Notter and Grant,
2012) 40
7/31/2014 2:51:54 PM
Index
tables
Adair’s leaders’ roles and functions 20
coaching: summary of approaches
(Peltier, 2001) 124
comparison of integrated psychological
approach to traditional leadership
theories 240
differences between leader development
and leadership development 107
Ethical Leadership Scale 253
four dimensions of emotional
intelligence 91
Hersey–Blanchard leadership model 17
leadership competences required of
emergency response leaders 209
McKinsey global survey (June 2009) 67
McKinsey’s six skills of the socialmedia-literate leader 41
motivational questionnaire results 69
Myers-Briggs preferences in relation to
leadership style(s) 112
path–goal leadership styles 16
percentages of factors in reported
high-motivational events 59
Procter & Gamble growth figures
1980–2008 258
‘reap the rewards of recognition’
leadership exercise 80
Stogdill’s leadership traits and skills 7
synopsis of generational values, strengths
and weaknesses 158
Tannenbaum and Schmidt leadership
continuum 17–18
Thinking about Talent Management 36–37
transference/counter-transference
interface (de Vries et al) 122
various authors’ proposed leadership
qualities 8
Taiyang, Q 216
talent management 33–35, 36–37, 50
Tannenbaum, R 17, 17–18
Tao Te Ching 1, 5
Taylor, M D 214–15, 222, 223
Thomas, R 48 The Three Levels of Leadership 236
Timms, P 38
Training Journal (2011) 234–35, 254
see also Blanchard, K
transformational leadership 21–23
and charisma 22–23
five styles for 22
key competencies for 22
Leadership Psychology_Revised_print-ready.indb 283
283
transformational styles 22, 33, 150, 207
Trevino, L K 251
trust 12, 14, 21, 23–24, 38, 50, 57, 88, 89,
94, 104, 116, 121, 136, 146–52,
154, 160–63, 196, 201, 211–14,
216, 218, 223, 231–33, 235–36,
238, 241–44, 246, 257
The Trusted Advisor 232
Turnley, W H 153
Unilever 40
United Kingdom (UK) 18, 30–31, 35, 44,
94, 182, 228
Big Lottery Fund 38
‘The CEO Challenge: The UK Challenge’
(CMI report, 2013) 260
Chartered Management Institute 256
Department for Business, Innovation
and Skills (BIS) 103–04, 235
see also articles/papers
‘Engage for Success’ initiative 226, 258
Foresight Programme (1994) 174
United States (US) 43, 44, 54, 99–100,
103, 208, 228
and the American Psychology Association 69
Vaccaro, I G 31–33
Van Wart, M 207–08, 209, 222, 223
Virgin 22, 30, 171
Von Haller, G 87
The War for Talent 33
Wayne, S J 24
Welch, J 22
and his strategic toolkit – the ‘Big Aha’ 171
Welte, B 8
Wernsing, T 229
Wessel, J R 185
White, R K 10
Wikileaks 40
Williams, C C 155
Worsley, F 223
Wrzesniewsi, A 230
Xi Jinping 82
X–Y theory 54, 56–58 see also
McGregor, D
Zaccaro, S J 9
Zagenczyk 153
Zak, P 232
Zhang 250–51, 250
7/31/2014 2:51:54 PM