• Has this ever happened to you?
-you’re watching a movie late at night
with some friends and no matter
how
hard you try you can’t keep your eyes
open?
-while reading a book late at night?
 You fight it, but soon you nod offSleep Wins!
• To nod off is to temporarily lose
waking consciousness
• Consciousness: Awareness of
oneself and one’s environment
• Depriving yourself of sleep alters
your body’s natural rhythms,
making it difficult to maintain
normal, waking consciousness
•Consciousness: is an awareness of ourselves and our
environment
•Allows us to reflect and plan
3
Conscious awarness allows us to voluntarily
control and communicate our mental states to
others
• We process a lot of information outside of our
awareness by registering stimuli we don’t
consciously perceive
• The unconscious mind processes information
simultaneously on multiple tracks
• Example: When we see a dog running, we are
consciously aware of the result of our cognitive
processing (It’s a dog!), but not of our
subprocessing of the dogs, breed, color, sex, or
movement
• The conscious mind processes information
sequentially, it’s a slow and limited process but
solves novel problems
• Example: Traveling a familiar route to school,
driving a car, making a sandwich
•
Conscious mind
Unconscious
mind
4
• Periodic (periodic, moreor-less regular)
physiological
fluctuations that effect
body temperature, blood
pressure, and
effectiveness of
medications
• Fall into categories
– annual Cycles
– 28 day cycles
– 24 hour cycles
– -90 minute cycles
1. Annual cycles: On an
annual cycle, geese
migrate, grizzly bears
hibernate, and humans
experience seasonal
variations in appetite,
sleep, and mood
Seasonal Affective Disorder
(SAD) is a mood disorder
people experience during
dark winter months
6
• 2. 28-day cycles: The
female menstrual
cycle averages 28
days
• Also known as
Infradian Rhythms
• Research shows
menstruation may not
affect moods
7
3. 24-hour cycles: Humans
experience 24-hour cycles of
varying alertness (sleep),
body temperature, and growth
hormone secretion
4. 90-minute cycles: We go
through various stages of
sleep in 90-minute cycles
8
• Biological rhythms that occur approximately every 24 hours (biological
clock)
• Example: Sleep-wake cycle, can be altered by artificial light
• Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus (cluster of 20,000 cells control
circadian clock) to decrease (morning) melatonin from the pineal gland and
increase (evening) it at night fall
• A hormone that helps
regulate daily biological
rhythms
• Linked to the sleep-wake
cycle
• Melatonin level
increases during the
night and decreases with
exposure to morning
light
• Sleep control
center in the brain
• Monitors changes
in light or dark in
the environment
• Changes levels of
hormones in the
body
• The longer we’re awake,
the more our active
brain produces the
chemical adenosine
• Adenosin: inhibits
certain neurons, which
makes us sleepy
• Caffeine blocks
adenosin’s activity
• Adenosin declines
during sleep
14
• Biological rhythms that occur more than once each day
• About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five
distinct sleep stages
• Example: Stages of sleep throughout the night
• A machine that amplifies and
records waves of electrical
activity that sweep across the
brain’s surface
• Electrodes are placed on the
person’s scalp to measure the
waves
• Used as a means to measure
the stages of sleep
• During strong mental engagement, the brain
exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular beta
waves (15-30 cps)
• An awake person involved in a conversation shows
beta activity
Beta Waves
18
• When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake,
his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and
slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps)
•
A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity
19
Stage 1. Feel self drifting on the
edge of consciousness
 Can experience hallucinations
Stage 2. Minor noises won’t
disturb you
 Sleep talking can occur here
and the rest of the stages
Stage 3. Breathing and pulse
have slowed down
Stage 4. Deep sleep
 Bed wetting and sleepwalking
REM. Increased eye movement,
loss of muscle tone, dreaming
20
• Breathing is slowed.
• Brain waves become irregular.
• It is easy to wake the person, who will insist they are not
asleep.
• Person will report they have dreamlike sensations, such
as falling.
• Brain wave cycle slows.
• EEG spindles (small brain wave bursts) develop.
• First time through stage 2 last about 20 minutes.
• Increase in delta waves (large and slow waves per
second)
• First time through stage 4 is about 30 minutes and is
where one gets rejuvenated
• Stages 1 - 4 considered
N-REM (non-REM sleep):
not characterized by eye
movement or vivid
dreams
• Rapid eye movement
(REM Sleep) as eyes
move quickly back and
forth
• Most dreaming occurs
in REM sleep
• During REM sleep brain
wave patterns are similar to
when a person is awake
• Pulse and breathing
quickens
• REM sleep is sometimes
called paradoxical sleep as
one’s physiology is close to
that of being awake but the
brainstem blocks all
muscle movement
•The first 4 stage takes about 30-40 minutes, then you move back up
•Normal sleep cycle:
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
27
•With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases
and the duration of REM sleep increases
28
• We spend 1/3 of our lives sleeping
• Why?
– Preservation: eliminate waste
products, repair cells and brain
tissue, strengthen immune system
– Restoration: recuperate from the
wear and tear of the day
– Memory: rebuilds fading memories
• Decreases
efficiency of
immune system
functioning
• Safety and
accident issues
• Contributes to
hypertension,
impaired
concentration,
irritability, etc.
Insomnia: problems falling or staying asleep
alcohol and sleeping pills make it worse by reducing
REM sleep
Nightmares: Frightening dreams that wake a sleeper
from REM
Occur usually in the early morning
Night terrors: Sudden arousal from sleep with intense
fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g.,
rapid heart rate, perspiration)
Usually don’t awake fully, and recall nothing the next
morning
Usually during the first few hours of stage 4
Don’t confuse with nightmares
32
Sleepwalking and sleep talking
Usually goes away as we age
Narcolepsy: periodic and overwhelming
sleepiness that leaves individuals falling
asleep while talking or standing up

The person may collapse directly into
REM sleep which can last about 5
minutes
Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when
asleep, tired and irritable, many
repeated awakenings

More prominent in overweight males

Loud snoring
33
• Bruxism – teeth grinding
• Enuresis – bed wetting
• Myoclonus – sudden jerk of a body part occurring
during stage 1 sleep
– Everyone has occasional episodes of myoclonus
•Dreams: sequence of images,
emotions, and thoughts passing
through a sleeping person’s mind
•Lucid dreams: awareness of
one’s dream
Typically this happens when the
dreamer experiences something
strange, and when they stop to
question their reality, they realize
they are in a dream
35
1.
Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams have negative
emotional content
2.
Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being
attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune
3.
Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual dreams are
sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30
4.
Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men and women equally;
men dream more about men than women
• It’s very common to dream of events in our daily lives
 A meeting at work, taking an exam, grocery shopping
Manifest content: the storyline of our dreams, sometimes includes
36
the previous days’ experiences according to Sigmund Freud
• Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested that dreams
provide a psychic safety valve to discharge unacceptable
feelings
• The dream’s manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify our
unacceptable feelings
 Symbolic version of that consists of unconscious
drives/wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly
• Believed most adult dreams could be traced back to erotic
wishes
 A gun might be a disguised representation of a penis 37
• Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort,
and fix a day’s experiences in our memories
• REM sleep facilitates memory and converts into
long-term learning
• If you don’t get good sleep after you learn new
stuff, you won’t integrate it effectively into your
memories
38
• Physiological Function:
Dreams provide the
sleeping brain with
periodic stimulation to
develop and preserve
neural pathways
• Neural networks of
newborns are quickly
developing; therefore,
they need more sleep
39
• Activation-Synthesis
Theory: Suggests that the
brain engages in a lot of
random neural activity
• Dreams make sense of
this activity
• Cognitive Development:
Some researchers argue
that we dream as a part of
brain maturation and
cognitive development
40
• Most dream researchers believe we need REM sleep
• When deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound
• Most other mammals experience REM sleep which is
mostly biological
• Doesn’t happen in fish>behavior is less influenced by
learning
41
42
• A social interaction in
which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to
another (the subject) that
certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts, or
behaviors will
spontaneously occur
• A very relaxed state
43
• Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power resides
in the subject’s openness to suggestion
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
No.
44
• Posthypnotic Suggestion:
Suggestion made during hypnosis
session, carried out after the
subject is no longer hypnotized
 Have helped alleviate headaches,
asthma, and skin disorders
• Dissociation: a split in
consciousness, which allows
thoughts and behaviors to occur
simultaneously with others
 Hypnotic pain relief
45
• Social Influence Theory:
Hypnotic subjects may simply
be imaginative actors playing a
social role
 Motivated to demonstrate
hypnotic behavior
• Divided Consciousness Theory:
Hypnosis is a special state of
dissociated (divided)
consciousness
 Behavior occurs on autopilot
46
47
• Psychoactive Drug: A chemical
substance that alters perceptions
and mood (effects
consciousness)
• Continued use of a psychoactive
drug produces tolerance
• With repeated exposure to a drug,
the drug’s effect lessens
• Thus it takes greater quantities to
get the desired effect 48
•
•
Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug (after addiction), users may experience the
undesirable effects of withdrawal

Physical pain, intense cravings, tremors
As the body responds to a drug’s absence in a negative way, it is demonstrating dependence
•
•
Physical Dependence: physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawl
symptoms when the drug is discontinued
Psychological Dependence: psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative
emotions
49
• Addiction is a compulsive craving for a chemical
substance, despite its adverse consequences
 Aches,nausea, and distress following sudden withdrawl
50
• Psychoactive drugs are divided into 3 groups
1.
Depressants>are drugs that
reduce neural activity and
slow body functions
2.
Stimulants>are drugs that
excite neural activity and
speed up body functions
3.
Hallucinogens>drugs that
distorts perception
51
Alcohol affects:
 motor skills judgment
 memory
 increases aggressiveness
 reduces self awareness
 Speech slured
 Prolonged use can shrink the brain
52
53
• Barbiturates or Tranquilizers: Drugs that depress the
activity of the central nervous system, reducing
anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
 Examples: Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are
prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety
 Large doses lead to impaired memory and
judgement
54
• Opiates: Opium and its derivatives
(morphine and heroin) depress
neural activity, temporarily
lessening pain and anxiety
• Pupils constrict, breathing slows,
becomes lethargic
• They are highly addictive
• When the brain is repeatedly
flooded with an artificial opiate, it
eventually stops producing its
own opiates>endorphines 55
56
• Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing rates
and other autonomic functions to provide energy
57
58
• Amphetamines stimulate
neural activity, causing
accelerated body
functions and associated
energy and mood
changes, with
devastating effects
 Increase heart rate
 Dilation of pupils
 Diminished appetite
 Energy and selfconfidence rise
59
60
61
•
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria
followed by a crash
• Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked
• Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or
injected
• The rush of euphoria lasts about 15-30
minutes
• The crash leads to agitated depression
because the rush depletes the brain’s
supply of dopamine, serotonin, and
norephinephrine
• Cocaine users experience
 emotional disturbance
 Suspiciousness
 Convulsions
 cardiac arrest
 respiratory failure
62
Cocaine Euphoria and Crash
• Ecstasy or
Methylenedioxymethamphet
amine (MDMA) is a stimulant
and mild hallucinogen
• Known as the Club drug
• It produces a euphoric high
and can damage serotoninproducing neurons, which
results in a permanent
deflation of mood and
impairment of memory
• Impairs immune system and
cognitive functions
64
• Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mindmanifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images
in the absence of
sensory input
• LSD (ACID) powerful
chemical hallucinogen
• Experience ranges from
euphoria to detachment
to panic
65
•
•
•
•
THC (delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol): is the
major active ingredient in
marijuana (hemp plant) that
triggers a variety of effects,
including mild hallucinations
Relaxes, disinhibits, produces
euphoric high
Amplifies sensitivity to colors,
sounds, tastes, and smells
Has been used in theraphy for
pain, nausea, cancer related
problems, and AIDS
•
•
•
•
Marijuana consquences
Impairs motor coordination
Impairs perceptual skills
Impairs memory and recall
THC can stay in the body for
up to a month
66
67
• The graph below shows the percentage of US high- school
seniors reporting their use of alcohol, marijuana, and
cocaine from the 70s to the late 90s
68
• The use of drugs is based on biological, psychological, and
social-cultural influences
69
• After a close brush with
death, many people
report an experience of
moving through a dark
tunnel with a light at
the end
• Under the influence of
hallucinogens, others
report bright lights at
the center of their field
of vision
70
Near-death experiences raise the mind-body issue. Can
the mind survive the dying body?
1.
2.
Dualism: Dualists believe that mind (non-physical)
and body (physical) are two distinct entities that
interact.
Monism: Monists believe that mind and body are
different aspects of the same thing.
71