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INTRODUCTION
I. World Economy and World Trade Law
1
The founding of the World Trade Organization, and the entry into force
of its rules on January 1, 1995 marked a turning point in the development of international economic relations. Following a long period
of lesser significance and effectiveness of the international trade system,
the WTO today can be considered the most relevant regulatory body in
global economic relations. However, its impressive institutional framework
and complex body of law, should not lull one into forgetting that its coverage is still limited. International financial matters are dealt with by the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Furthermore, important other issues, as, for example, investment, have scarcely been addressed
by the WTO so far, but primarily remain the subject of numerous bilateral treaties.1 Moreover, the international system of technical and economic
cooperation is significant. In addition, a multitude of other organizations
are active in the area of international economic relations. These include
the United Nations, the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD), regional economic organizations, as well as the
OECD and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). Together,
these various institutions and regulations form the world economic legal
and institutional order.
2
The concept of order, as commonly used in this area, is also similarly
used in national economic policy and law. It characterises a set of principles, laws and institutions which governs social or economic activities. In
this sense, the WTO can be seen as an important pillar of the world
trade order, which mainly builds on the principles of the liberalization
of trade and non-discrimination. In addition, it is also worth noting that
this world trade order is only one part of an extensive world economic
system which contains the above-mentioned elements.
1
It should be noted, however, that a more comprehensive regime on investments is on the
agenda of the ongoing Doha round, paras 799 et seq.
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II. World Trade in Numbers
International trade, i.e. the exchange of goods and services, as well as
investments, has grown steadily since the end of the Second World War.
However, trade activities differ considerably between regions. While Asia
has seen an increase in its share of world trade, the figures show a decrease
as far as Africa is concerned. In 2003, world exports amounted to some
7,294 billion US-Dollars, representing a fifth of the worldwide gross national
product. These developments have many causes. However, it can hardly
be doubted that the opening up of national markets by lowering tariffs
and reducing trade barriers made an important contribution to it.
3
Development of world trade (export) by regions and selected national economies
1948–2003 – Billion US$ and Percentage 2
World
1948
1953
Billion US Dollar
1963
1973
1983
1993
2003
58.0
157.0
579.0
1838.0
3671.0
7249.0
19.3
41.4
5.7
12.4
3.5
1.3
2.4
72.8
16.9
45.4
4.8
14.9
6.4
1.0
3.4
81.8
15.4
38.9
4.5
19.1
8.0
1.2
5.3
76.5
16.6
45.0
2.5
26.1
9.9
2.5
9.2
89.5
13.7
43.1
2.4
26.1
6.5
6.0
9.7
94.3
84.0
Percentage
North America
Western Europe
Africa
Asia
Japan
China
Tiger States
GATT/WTO
Members
27.3
31.5
7.3
13.6
0.4
0.9
3.0
60.4
24.2
34.9
6.5
13.1
1.5
1.2
2.7
68.7
4
In 2003, the European Union was the largest exporter (19,4%), followed
by the USA (12,7%), Japan (8,3%), China (7,7%) and Canada (4,8%). As
far as imports are concerned, the EU ranks second (18,7%) after the US
(21,8%).3
5
Trade in commercial services is growing and today amounts to approximately one fifth of world trade. In 2000 commercial services4 worth
some 1,450 million US Dollars were exported. However, those figures are
likely even to underestimate the role of the service sector due to inconsistent
methods of calculation and difficulties with the collection of data. For
instance, services of foreign suppliers provided by way of commercial pres-
2
Source: WTO Annual Report, International Trade Statistics 2004, 30.
Source: WTO, Leading exporters and importers in world merchandise trade (excluding
intra-EU (15) trade), 2003, http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2004_e/section1_e/i06.xls.
4
The heading of commercial services includes areas such as transport services, travel services and other industry related services. For further definitions, see also para. 540.
3
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ence are not included. In 2000, the EU’s share of exported commercial
services was 41.2%, followed by those of the USA (18.67%), Japan (4.69%)
and Canada (2.49%). Within this period, 40% of the EU’s trade in commercial services was with the USA, while only 13% was with European
Free Trade Association States, 6% with African States, and 18% with Asia.5
III. Literature, Information and Research Tools
Marci Hoffman, International Economic Law and the Internet: Content, Quality
and Research Methods, JIEL 4 (2001) 4, 231–244; Juan M. Mesa, Legal and
Documentary Research at WTO: The New Documents On-Line Database, JIEL
4 (2001) 4, 245–259; Marci Hoffman & Jill Mc. Watson (eds), ASIL Guide to
Electronic Resources of International Law, ASIL Bulletin No. 14, 2nd ed.,
Washington 2002.
1. Documents of the WTO
6
Official documents of the WTO6 are available on the Internet for free
in the three authentic languages, English, Spanish and French7 – as long
as they are not classified or kept confidential for a particular length of
time.8 The documents can be searched with the help of the document
symbol, which is assigned on the basis of the WTO document nomenclature. This nomenclature reflects the relevant body and the type and
content of the document. Each document symbol consists of a combination of letters, digits and additional specifications.9 The following general
indications are used, and appear as the first letter of a document symbol:
G
IP
JOBS
S
WT
OFFICE
SCHD
PLURI
trade in goods
intellectual property
unsigned documents
trade in commercial services
WTO committees
Administration
schedules of concessions and commitments
plurilateral agreements
5
Source: Eurostat and IWF, see also Eurostat, Statistics summary Nr. 117/20014: EUFigures for the Ministerial Conference at Doha, <http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/>.
6
<http://www.wto.org>.
7
<http://docsonline.wto.org/>.
8
For details, see the General Council’s accepted principles and the procedure of release,
WT/L/160/Rev. 1, 8.7.1996.
9
E.g.: G/SPS/W/63/Rev.1 – (collection/series/type/digit/status).
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The letters after the stroke specify the subject matter more closely. For
instance, documents concerning anti-dumping matters are denoted by the
letters G/ADP[. . .], whereas WT/DS[. . .] relates to dispute settlement.
The type of the document is further specified by another letter as follows:
M
N
Q
R
W
minutes
notification
question/reply
report
working paper
Further indications concern the document’s status:
Add.
addendum
Corr. corrigendum
Rev.
revision
Suppl. Supplement
7
The WTO Secretariat produces a number of publications, which can
in most cases be downloaded. These include the annual reports, international trade statistics; studies and parts of reports relevant to trade policy
reviews (see para. 27). The reports and awards of the Panel and Appellate
Body under the DSU are accessible by way of the WTO database
(<http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_e.htm>) and are
also published on paper.10
8
The Analytical Index – Guide to GATT Law and Practice (6th ed.,
Geneva) is a particularly useful reference tool for legal practitioners. It is
published by the Secretariat and includes relevant decisions concerning
the particular provisions of the GATT. A collection of important decisions, reports, protocols and other documents of the GATT 1947 generated
between 1952 and 1995 has been published by the GATT Secretariat
under the title: Basic Instruments and Selected Documents (BISD). It is
based on an initial four-volume edition. Since 1953, “Supplements”11 have
been published annually. The BISD has also been published in a microfiche
edition.
9
The WTO has published its first edition of a WTO Analytical Index,
covering the period from 1 January 1995 to 30 June 2001, which is also
accessible via the Internet.12 The Appellate Body Repertory of Reports
and Awards13 covers the case law of the Appellate Body between 1995–
10
WTO Dispute Settlement Reports 1996–2003, Cambridge University Press.
Example of citation: BISD 39S/62 = Basic Instruments and Selected Documents, 39th
Supplement, Page 62.
12
<http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/analytic_index_e/ analytic_index_e.htm>.
13
<http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/repertory_e/repertory_e.htm>.
11
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2004 by reference to cases, subject matter and relevant provisions. The
WTO Focus Newsletter covers current activities of the WTO and
recent developments. It is freely available and can be ordered by way of
electronic subscription.14
2. Literature
a. Textbooks, Monographs, and Collections (Selection)
Bhagwati, Jagdish & Panagariya, Lectures in International Trade, 2nd
Arvind & Srinivasan,
ed., Cambridge 1998
Thirukodikaval
Bhala, Raj & Kennedy, Kevin
World Trade Law: The GATTWTO System, Regional
Arrangements, and U.S. Law,
Charlottesville 1998, with
Supplement 1999
Carreau, Dominique &
Juillard, Patrick
Droit international économique,
Paris 2003
Corden, W. Max
Trade Policy and Economic
Welfare, 2nd ed., Oxford 1997
Cottier, Thomas
GATT-Uruguay Round, Bern 1995
Dam, Kenneth W.
The GATT, Law and International
Economic Organization, Chicago
1970
Flory, Thiébaut
L’organisation mondiale du
commerce, Brussels 1997
Hilf, Meinhard &
Oeter, Stefan (eds.)
WTO-Recht, Baden-Baden 2005
Hoekman, Bernard M. &
Kostecki, Michel M.
The Political Economy of the
World Trading System, 2nd ed.,
Oxford 2001
Hudec, Robert E.
The GATT Legal System and
World Trade Diplomacy, 2nd ed.,
Salem 1990
14
<http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/focus_e/focus_e.htm>. For further sources, see the
link, “Resources”, on <http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/res_e.htm>.
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Jackson, John H.
The World Trading System, 2nd
ed., Cambridge/London 1997
Jackson, John H.
The World Trade Organization –
Constitution and Jurisprudence,
London 1998
Jackson, John H. &
Sykes, Alan O. (eds.)
Implementing the Uruguay Round,
Oxford 1997
Krugman, Paul R. &
Obstfeld, Maurice
International Economics, Theory
and Politics, 5th ed., Reading 2000
Lowenfeld, Andreas F.
International Economic Law,
Oxford 2001
Matsushita, Mitsuo &
Schoenbaum, Thomas &
Mavroidis Petros C.
The World Trade Organization,
Oxford 2003
Meerhaeghe, Marcel A. van
International Economic Institutions,
7th ed., Dordrecht 1998
Ortino, Federico & Petersmann, The WTO Dispute Settlement
Ernst-Ulrich (eds)
System 1995–2003, The Hague
et al. 2004
Palmeter David &
Mavroidis, Petros C.
Dispute Settlement in the World
Trade Organization, Practice and
Procedure, 2nd ed., Cambridge
2004
Picone, Paolo & Ligusto, Aldro
Diritto dell’organizzazione mondiale
del commercio, Padova 2002
Seidl-Hohenveldern, Ignaz
International Economic Law, 3rd
ed., The Hague 1999
Stern, Brigitte &
Ruiz Fabri, Hélène
The Case-Law of the WTO, Leiden/
Boston, Vol. 1 2004, Vol. 2 2005
Trebilcock, Michael J. &
Howse, Robert
The Regulation of International
Trade, 3rd ed., London, 2004
Senti, Richard &
Conlan, Patricia
WTO: Regulation of World Trade
after the Uruguay Round, Zurich
1998
Siebert, Horst
World Economy, 2nd ed., London/
New York 2002
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Sykes, Alan O. & Davey,
William J. & Jackson, John H.
Cases and Legal Problems of
International Economic Relations,
3rd ed., St. Paul 2002
Viner, Jacob
A Problem in International Trade,
Chicago 1923
Weiler, Joseph H. H. (ed.)
The EU, the WTO, and the
NAFTA, Oxford/New York 2000
7
b. Manuals
– WTO Secretariat, Guide to GATT Law and Practice (Analytical Index),
6th ed., 2 Vol. Geneva 1995.
– WTO Secretariat, Guide to Dispute Settlement, 2002.
– WTO Secretariat, WTO analytical index, Geneva 2003.
– WTO Secretariat, A Handbook on the WTO Dispute Settlement System,
2004.
– Dennin, Joseph F.‚ (ed.), Law & Practice of the World Trade Organization,
(Loose leaf ) New York 2001.
– Pescatore, Pierre & Davey, William & Lowenfeld, Andreas (eds): Handbook
of WTO/GATT Dispute Settlement, 11th ed. (March 2002), (Loose
leaf ) New York 1992.
– Prieß, Hans-Joachim & Berrisch, Georg (eds), WTO-Handbook, Munich
2003.
– Wolfrum, Rüdiger & Stoll, Peter-Tobias (eds), Max-Planck-Commentaries
on WTO Law, 2005.
c. Collections of Legal Texts
World Trade Organization
The Legal Texts – Results of the
Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade
Negotiations, 2nd ed., Cambridge 1999
World Trade Organization
The WTO Dispute Settlement
Procedures, 2nd ed., Cambridge/
Geneva 2001
Tietje, Christian
Welthandelsorganisation, 2nd ed.,
Munich 2003
Zamora, Stephen & Brand,
Ronald A. (eds)
Basic Documents of International
Economic Law, Chicago 1990
Henkin, Louis & Smit, Hans
& Pugh, Richard C. &
Schachter, Oscar
International Law: Cases and Materials
4th ed., St. Paul 2001
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Kunig, Philip & Lau, N. & International Economic law – Basic
Meng, Werner
Documents, 2nd ed., Berlin 1993
Cheng, Chia-Jui (ed.)
Basic Documents on International
Trade Law, 3rd ed., 1999
Hilf, Meinhard &
WTO-LawRecht, Text Collection
Schorkopf, Frank (eds)
English/German, 2nd ed., Hamburg 2003
10
d. Journals
In the journals field, very few are aimed specifically at WTO law. These
include
– Journal of International Economic Law ( JIEL)
– Journal of World Trade ( JWT)
– World Trade Review
A number of other titles regularly include reports and articles on this
area of law
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
American Journal of International Law (AJIL)
Aussenwirtschaft
Brooklyn Journal of International Law
Common Market Law Review
Europäische Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht (EuZW)
European Journal of International Law (EJIL)
European Journal of Political Economy
Fordham International Law Journal
Harvard International Law Journal (HVILJ)
International and Comparative Law Quarterly
Legal Issues of Economic Integration
Leiden Journal of International Law
Michigan Journal of International Law
Minnesota Journal of Global Trade
Recht der Internationalen Wirtschaft (RIW)
Review of International Economics
The World Economy
World Competition
World Trade and Arbitration Materials
Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht
(ZaöRV)
e. Information services
There are also information services on offer, to allow tracking of the
latest developments in international trade law, and especially WTO law.
These are offered both in printed form and on the Internet. “Bridges
Weekly Digest” is a weekly information letter of a non-governmental
organisation, the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Develop-
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ment (<http:// www.ictsd.org>), which is freely available. Another valuable information source is the World Trade Law website (http://www.
worldtradelaw.net), which has a commercial section, but also contains
free material.
f. Internet sites for WTO Law 15
European Commission,
Directorate General Trade
http://europa.eu.int/comm/trade/index_en.htm
Int. Centre for Trade and
Sustainable Development
http://www.ictsd.org
International Law Association –
Int. Trade Law Com.
http://www.ila-hq.org
International Chamber of
Commerce (ICC)
http://www.iccwbo.org
International Monetary Fund
(IMF)
http://www.imf.org
North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA)
http://www.nafta-sec-alena.org/
Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
http://www.oecd.org
Trade and Development Centre http://www.itd.org/
UN Commission on
International Trade Law
http://www.uncitral.org
UN Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD)
http://www.unctad.org
United States Trade
Representative (USTR)
http://www.ustr.gov
World Bank
http://www.worldbank.org
World Custom Organization
(WCO)
http://www.wcoomd.org
World Trade Organization
http://www.wto.org
15
See JIEL 5 (2002) 1, 251–264 and JIEL 7 (2004) 1, 199–201, for more detailed lists of
links regarding the WTO and international trade law.
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g. Research Tools on the Internet
Michigan State University –
global EDGE (Statistics)
http://globaledge.msu.edu/ibrd/
Institute of International
Economic Law, Georgetown
University
http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/intl/iiel/
home.htm
New York University School
of Law, WTO and GATT
and Research
http://www.law.nyu.edu/library/
wtoguide.html
Max-Planck-Institute of
comparative public and
international law – UN Library
http://www.virtual-institute.de/de/UNDepot/
Inhalt.cfm
Transnational Law Database –
Lex Mercatoria
http://www.tldb.de