W hat Does This Picture Look
Like, And W hat Does Your
Answer Say About You?
Sour c e : L i l i e n f i e l d , S. O. , Wo o d , J. M . , & G a r b, H . N. ( 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e s c i e n t i f i c
C I
RC
status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 27-66.
Goals:
Te a c h t h e i m p o r t a n c e
o f v a l i d i t y.
Te a c h t h e i m p o r t a n c e
o f r e l i a b i l i t y.
Te a c h t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of independent
agreement.
Basic Idea:
This lesson discusses
the scientific use of
p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s.
Projective tests are
used by psychologists
to predict a variety of
personality
characteristics based
solely on how a person
responds to a few
q u e s t i o n s. C a n
scientists really
d i s t i n g u i s h p e o p l e ’s
personalities with just
a few responses to a
drawing?
Gain Attention/Interest:
Activity
Show the class the sample inkblot included at the end of
this lesson and have the students write a few thoughts
a b o u t w ha t t h e y s e e. A s k t h e m t o c o m p a r e r e a c t i o n s.
This will illustrate the variety of interpretations
resulting from the ambiguous inkblot. Responding to
an inkblot will help students better understand the rest
of the lesson.
Alternate Activity
Show the class a picture (any picture can work, although
one they are not familiar with would be best) and have
each student write a brief story about the picture.
Comparing a few volunteered stories will illustrate the
number of different ways people can interpret a single
stimulus (in this case, the picture).
Have you ever looked up at the sky and seen a cloud that
reminded you of something? A horse, a clown, or a car? What
would you think if some scientists told you that what you saw
in that cloud told them something about your personality?
Wo u l d y o u b e l i e ve i t ?
What if someone asked you to draw a picture of a certain
p e r s o n ? Wo u l d yo u f e e l c o m f or ta b l e h av i n g h e r l o o k a t t h e
picture and decide whether or not you are depressed,
a g g r e s s ive , o r p o o r l y a d j u s t e d ? I m a g i n e b e i n g a c c u s e d o f a
crime and having a scientist ask you to draw a picture. What
if how that scientist interpreted your drawing would have a
large impact on whether or not a guilty verdict was returned
by a jury during your trial?
www.circ.cornell.edu
C o p y r i g h t © 2 0 0 5 M a t t h e w C . M a k e l & We n d y M . W i l l i a m s. P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r : We n d y M . W i l l i a m s .
C o n t e n t : M a t t h e w C . M a k e l & We n d y M . W i l l i a m s . L a y o u t & D e s i g n : P a u l B. P a p i e r n o.
T h e s e a r e e x a m p l e s o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s. T h e y a r e c a l l e d p r o j e c t i ve t e s t s
b e c a u s e t h e y a t t e m p t t o t a k e a s m a l l p a r t o f o n e ’s p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r o j e c t
i t f u r t h e r. T h i s i s s i m i l a r t o a p r o j e c t i l e s u c h a s a b a s e b a l l o r s p a c e s h i p.
They are projectiles because they are thrown/launched/propelled.
T h i n k & Wr i t e # 1
Have students write their thoughts about
p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s. D o t h e s e t e s t s wo r k ? A r e t h e y
wo r t h w h i l e ? A r e t h e y s c a r y ?
There are many types of projective tests; some show seemingly random
inkblots (like a stain from spilling a glass of punch on a white tablecloth),
while other projective tests ask people to perfor m a specific task (such as
drawing a picture) from an open-ended question. An open-ended question
h a s n o s e t n u m b e r o f a n s w e r s ( e . g. , “ H o w d o y o u f e e l ? ” ) . A q u e s t i o n t h a t
i s n o t o p e n - e n d e d h a s o n l y s p e c i f i c a n s w e r s ( e . g. , “A r e y o u h a p p y ? ” ) .
Based on the answers given, psychologists deter mine personality traits and
t e n d e n c i e s. A p o p u l a r e x a m p l e o f a p r o j e c t i v e t e s t i s t h e Ro r s c h a c h
( p r o n o u n c e d R OA R - s h o c k ) t e s t , w h i c h i s a d m i n i s t e r e d a b o u t s i x m i l l i o n
t i m e s a y e a r.
How can we understand projective tests and how they work? Through
science.
Ask: What is Science?
S c i e n c e i s t h e s e a r c h f o r a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s. I t i s
not limited to questions about space or chemical
m o l e c u l e s. S c i e n c e c a n b e a b o u t a n y t h i n g. S o m e
people may want only to find the answer that shows
that they are right, but scientists take careful steps to
m a k e s u r e t h e y f i n d t h e b e s t a n s w e r. To d o t h i s,
scientists use proof by disproof when solving
p r o b l e m s. I f a l l b u t o n e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l a n s w e r s i s
eliminated, then scientists conclude they have
p r o b a b l y f o u n d t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r. B y e l i m i n a t i n g a l l
o t h e r p o s s i b l e a n s w e r s, t h e y h a v e f o u n d a p o s s i b l e
c o r r e c t o n e b y d i s p r ov i n g a l l o t h e r s. O n l y a f t e r d o i n g
t h i s d o s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h e y m i g h t h a ve a r i g h t a n s w e r.
1
Ask:
What
is
Science?
2
Define
the
Problem:
See
Many
Sides.
Define the Problem: See Many Sides
Before we go any further, we need to complete an
important step that all scientists must complete
w h e n t h e y a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s. We h a ve t o c l e a r l y
define our problem. Can scientists really predict a
large part of your personality based solely on how
you interpret an inkblot or on how you draw a
p i c t u r e ? D o n’t y o u r a n s w e r s d e p e n d a t l e a s t i n p a r t
on what kind of mood you are in? Or does our tr ue
personality influence our behavior so much that it
can be perceived even though we have only answered
a f e w q u e s t i o n s ? O b v i o u s l y, m a n y q u e s t i o n s c o u l d
b e a s k e d a b o u t t h i s t o p i c . To d a y w e w i l l d i s c u s s o n e
of the most general questions: Do projective tests
work?
T h i n k & Wr i t e # 2
Hypothesis for mation
Have students for m a hypothesis reg arding whether
or not they think projective tests work. Urge them
either to give support for their answer or to give an
example of what they could do to find support.
I n o u r f i r s t a c t i v i t y, w e s a w s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r t o a r e a l p r o j e c t i v e t e s t .
What do you think scientists would have to do to be convinced that the
tests actually work? As with any controversial topic, different people have
va r y i n g o p i n i o n s o n t h e u s e o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s. S o m e t h i n k p r o j e c t i v e
t e s t s h e l p s c i e n t i s t s l e a r n a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a n i n d i v i d u a l ’s
p e r s o n a l i t y. O t h e r s f e e l t h e s e t e s t s c a n n o t p o s s i b l y p r ov i d e p r e c i s e
infor mation about all people. What are some g roups of people who might
be interested in whether or not projective tests should be used?
A f e w s a m p l e g r o u p s / p r o f e s s i o n s, a l o n g w i t h t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s, a r e l i s t e d b e l o w
Clinical Psychologist. Clinical Psychologists help patients with
psychological problems and often use projective tests to help learn about
t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e i r p a t i e n t s. C l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a t t e n d f o u r - y e a r
c o l l e g e s a n d t h e n g o o n t o e a r n g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s.
Ju d g e . Ju d g e s p r e s i d e o v e r c o u r t c a s e s i n w h i c h p r o j e c t i ve t e s t s a r e u s e d
as evidence. Judges attend four-year colleges and then go on to law school.
L a w y e r. L a w y e r s c a n u s e p r o j e c t i ve t e s t s t o h e l p t h e i r c l i e n t s. L a w y e r s
c a n a l s o t r y t o d i s c r e d i t p e o p l e w h o u s e p r o j e c t i ve t e s t s. L a w y e r s a t t e n d
four-year colleges and law school.
S o c i a l Wo r k e r. S o c i a l wo r k e r s u s e t h e r e s u l t s o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s t o
e v a l u a t e c l i e n t s. S o c i a l w o r k e r s a t t e n d a t l e a s t f o u r y e a r s o f c o l l e g e a n d
m a y a t t e n d g r a d u a t e s c h o o l f o r t wo a d d i t i o n a l y e a r s a n d e a r n a M a s t e r ’s o f
C l i n i c a l S o c i a l Wo r k ( M C S W ) d e g r e e .
What about you? Do you think scientists should use projective tests?
( A s k f o r s h o w o f h a n d s, Ye s o r N o. )
3
Fact Versus
Opinion:
What
Constitutes
Evidence?
Distinguish Fact From Opinion:
Learn What Constitutes
Scientific Evidence
Opinions are interesting, but scientists have to
c h e c k t h e f a c t s. T h e y d o n o t r e l y o n o p i n i o n s o r
the thoughts of other people. They need facts
to convince them that an answer is right or
w r o n g. S c i e n t i s t s u s e s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a t o e v a l u a t e
whether or not projective tests actually succeed
a t a s s e s s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y. T h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e :
Va l i d i t y : Va l i d i t y m e a n s t h a t t h e t e s t s a r e
actually measuring what they claim to be
m e a s u r i n g. A t e s t t h a t i s s u p p o s e d t o m e a s u r e
y o u r p e r s o n a l i t y, b u t c o n s i s t s o n l y o f m a t h
p r o b l e m s, i s n o t v a l i d . A p r o j e c t i ve t e s t w o u l d
need to measure personality accurately to have
h i g h v a l i d i t y. I f i t d i d n o t m e a s u r e p e r s o n a l i t y,
then it would not be valid.
Reliability: A test is reliable (or has reliability) if it measures consistently
from time to time. A test is reliable if a person taking the test more than
once receives similar results each time the test is taken. If a person takes a
projective test five times and is labeled depressed only once, then the test
is not reliable.
Independent agreement: A test shows independent agreement if multiple
scientists using the test draw the same conclusions independently of each
o t h e r. I f o n l y o n e p e r s o n c o n t i n u a l l y g e t s t h e s a m e r e s u l t s, t h e n i t m i g h t
just be a result of how that one person conducts the test. If multiple
people find the same result, we can have greater confidence that the test is
accurate.
It is only when scientists answer a question in a way that is valid, reliable,
and with independent agreement, that they can be said to have solid
evidence to make a decision.
Ju s t t o m a k e s u r e t h i n g s a r e c l e a r , l e t ’s g o o v e r a f e w e x a m p l e s. W h i c h o f
these is an example of meaningful evidence?
Marcia takes a projective test for fun and finds out she gave the
same answer for one of the questions as did her friend who
s u f f e r s f r o m d e p r e s s i o n . M a r c i a t h e n b e g i n s t o wo r r y t h a t s h e
might be depressed as well.
A scientist would not consider Marcia depressed, because depression was
n o t m e a s u r e d i n a v a l i d w ay, g i ve n t h e a b s e n c e o f o t h e r s y m p t o m s o f
depression.
Becca has been seeing a therapist for several months and, after
taking a well-respected projective test given to her by her
t h e r a p i s t , s h e w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r. A f t e r s h e
started taking medication for bipolar disorder, Becca started
f e e l i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r.
The example with Becca represents a valid and reliable test.
Shawn and his friends wrote a bunch of questions about
p e r s o n a l i t y a n d g a ve t h e m o u t t o f r i e n d s. A f t e r s c o r i n g h i s b e s t
f r i e n d ’s t e s t , S h a w n s a i d h e s h o u l d s e e a p s y c h o l o g i s t b e c a u s e
something was wrong with him.
S h a w n’s c o n c e r n m a y e ve n t u a l l y t u r n o u t t o b e va l i d . H o w e ve r , i t i s n o t
b a s e d o n s c i e n c e . H i s m e a s u r e s h o w s n e i t h e r r e l i a b i l i t y n o r v a l i d i t y.
Weigh Evidence and
Make Decisions
Back to our main question: How well do projective
t e s t s wo r k ? To c h e c k , l e t ’s t e s t t h e m o n t h e s c i e n t i f i c
r e q u i r e m e n t s w e j u s t d i s c u s s e d : v a l i d i t y, r e l i a b i l i t y,
and independent agreement.
Yo u m a y w a n t t o b r i e f l y r e v i e w t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f e a c h
t o e n s u r e s t u d e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g.
4
Weigh
Evidence
and
Make
Decisions.
The Results: Research on projective tests shows little
v a l i d i t y o r r e l i a b i l i t y f o r m o s t p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s. T h i s
means that the tests did not accurately predict the
personality traits they were tr ying to measure (thus
they were not valid), or that they did not make the
same predictions across different times (thus they
were not reliable). A non-scientist might read this
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c l a i m t h a t p r o j e c t i ve t e s t s a r e w i t h o u t v a l u e a n d s h o u l d
never be used. However, research has shown that projective tests may be
va l i d a n d r e l i a b l e m e a s u r e s f o r s o m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s. D i s o r d e r s
such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and dependency appear to be
r e g u l a r l y i d e n t i f i e d u s i n g p r o j e c t i ve t e c h n i q u e s.
F. Y. I
This means that scientists have found that
Schizophrenia is a disease of the
brain with a variety of symptoms
projective tests can predict the presence, with
i n c l u d i n g , b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o,
s o m e a c c u r a c y, o f d i s o r d e r s s u c h a s
hearing voices and believing
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and
people are reading/controlling
d e p e n d e n c y. T h i s i s n o t a l a r g e n u m b e r o f
o n e ’s m i n d o r p l o t t i n g t o h u r t o n e .
d i s o r d e r s, b u t i t i s s o m e . R e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t
he/she thought beforehand, a scientist would
Bipolar Disorder causes unusual
t a k e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a s a s i g n o f s u p p o r t t h a t c h a n g e s i n a p e r s o n’s b e h a v i o r a n d
mood. It is called “bipolar”
p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s a r e n o t u s e l e s s, t h o u g h t h e
because people with it can have
evidence suggests that their use should be
drastic mood swings, ranging from
limited.
a person being extremely “up” to a
T h i n k & Wr i t e # 3
How about now?
Have students record their thoughts now that they
have learned what scientists have found regarding
pr o j e c t ive t e s t s. Wer e t h e i r hy p o t h e s e s c o r r e c t ?
Do they feel the same as they did during Think &
Wr i t e 1 ?
person being extremely “down”.
Dependency is the need to rely on
an external source (frequently an
illicit drug or alcohol) in order to
function.
Move From Science to Society
5
Move
From
Science
To
Society.
Should projective tests be banned and never used
a g a i n ? S o m e m a y b e l i e v e s o, b u t t h i s i s a n e x t r e m e
position because projective tests can be useful tools in
h e l p i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s p r e d i c t s o m e p r o b l e m s.
However, research has found that projective tests tend
t o b e v a l i d a n d r e l i a b l e i n o n l y a f e w d i a g n o s e s, a n d
thus over use is a risk.
What if a projective test had the potential to help one
o f y o u r f a m i l y m e m b e r s ? Wo u l d y o u w a n t t o s e e t h e
test banned, or used? What about the question we
discussed earlier: Whether the results of a projective
test could help or hurt your defense in a court case?
Wo u l d y o u b e w i l l i n g t o r e l y o n a s c i e n t i s t w h o c l a i m e d
to be able to use a projective test to learn about your
personality? Scientists are forced to answer questions
s u c h a s t h e s e f r e q u e n t l y.
Revisit, Review, Reflect, and Re-evaluate
Current findings have led researchers to believe that
p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s m a y b e h e l p f u l i n s o m e a s p e c t s, b u t
n o t i n a l l . T h u s, p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s c a n b e s t b e u s e d i n a
l i m i t e d w a y. H o w e v e r, t h e l a s t w o r d h a s n o t b e e n
s p o k e n a b o u t p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s. S c i e n t i s t s c o n s t a n t l y
r e v i s i t p r e v i o u s l y - a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s. Pe r h a p s a n e w
method of testing could make projective tests more
a c c u r a t e f o r a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s.
However, these new findings can only be uncovered if
scientists review current and past research. By
r e f l e c t i n g o n t h e s e t h i n g s, f u t u r e s c i e n t i s t s m a y r e evaluate past answers and discover that projective
t e s t s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d , o r c o n v e r s e l y, t h e y m a y l e a r n
that projective tests can be used for a variety of
phenomena. By revisiting, reviewing, reflecting, and
re-evaluating, scientists gather new evidence and
continue to make contributions to what we know
a b o u t p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s.
6
Revisit,
Review,
Reflect,
and
Re-evaluate.
K e y TTe
h i nrkm
&sWr i t e # 4
What's next?
B a s e d o n w h a t t h e y k n o w n o w, a s k s t u d e n t s : W h a t
is the future of projective tests? Should clinical
psychologists continue to use them? What other
things should scientists check regarding projective
tests? Why?
Discussion Questions
1 . Wo u l d y o u w a n t p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s u s e d o n y o u ? W hy o r w hy n o t ?
2 . C a n y o u t h i n k o f a n y e x a m p l e s w h e n r e l i a b i l i t y, v a l i d i t y, o r
independent agreement would not be important?
H o m e wo r k Q u e s t i o n s
1. Find another situation in which reliability is important.
2. Find another situation in which validity is important.
3. Find another situation in which independent agreement is important.
Cor nell Institute for
Research on Children
January 3, 2005
Quiz Questions
Ve r s i o n A
1. What kinds of criteria do scientists need in order to decide that a test
can be used?
a.
b.
c.
d.
reliability
validity
independent agreement
all of the above
2. Reliability means:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
it is consistent from time to time
goodness of fit
different people reach the same conclusion
best intentions
it measures what it claims to measure.
3 . Va l i d i t y m e a n s :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
it is consistent from time to time
goodness of fit
different people reach the same conclusion
best intentions
it measures what it claims to measure.
4. Independent agreement means:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
it is consistent from time to time
goodness of fit
different people reach the same conclusion
best intentions
it measures what it claims to measure.
Quiz Questions
Ve r s i o n B
1 . H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t h a t p e o p l e ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f i n k b l o t s c a n b e u s e d
to decide diagnoses for mental health purposes? What kinds of criteria
do you need in order to decide that such uses are possible?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
goodness of fit
independent agreement
reliability
validity
best intentions
2.
means a test is consistent from time
to time
3.
means different people reach the
same conclusion
4.
means it measures what it claims to
measure.
Quiz Questions
Ve r s i o n C
1 . H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t h a t p e o p l e ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f i n k b l o t s c a n b e u s e d
to decide diagnoses for mental health purposes? What kinds of criteria
do you need in order to decide that such uses are possible and
appropriate?
2. What is reliability? Explain and give an example.
3. What is validity? Explain and give an example.
4. What is independent agreement? Explain and give an example.