MANHATTAN COLLEGE
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
A GUIDE TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
(FORMERLY THE REPORT AND PRESENTATION
PREPARATION MANUAL)
FALL 2013
A Guide to Technical Communication
Copyright © 2011-2013 by the Mechanical Engineering Department
of Manhattan College.
All Rights Reserved.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page i
A Guide to Technical Communication
Cite as: A Guide to Technical Communication, Fall 2013. Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manhattan College, Riverdale, NY. Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page ii
A Guide to Technical Communication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Preface to the Fall 2013 Edition......................................................................................... vi Preface to the Fall 2011 Edition........................................................................................ vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 What Makes Technical Writing Different?......................................................................... 2 How to Communicate Effectively ...................................................................................... 3 Structure of an Effective Report ..................................................................................... 3 Report Preparation .......................................................................................................... 4 Layout, Grammar, and Usage ......................................................................................... 4 Making a Report “Read Well” ........................................................................................ 4 Numbers, Calculations, Units, and Equations ................................................................ 5 Figures and Tables .......................................................................................................... 7 Proofreading: You Still Need To Do It! ......................................................................... 7 Organization and Archival .............................................................................................. 8 Presentation of Graphical and Tabulated Data ................................................................... 9 Placement ........................................................................................................................ 9 Captions .......................................................................................................................... 9 Photographs..................................................................................................................... 9 Drawings ....................................................................................................................... 10 Graphs ........................................................................................................................... 10 Tables ............................................................................................................................ 15 Guidelines for References ................................................................................................. 17 Referencing of Works in a Document .......................................................................... 17 Formats for References ................................................................................................. 17 Laboratory and Technical Reports .................................................................................... 21 Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 21 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 21 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 22 Introduction and Analysis ............................................................................................. 22 Experimental Apparatus and Procedure........................................................................ 23 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................. 24 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 25 References ..................................................................................................................... 25 Appendices .................................................................................................................... 25 Optional Sections .......................................................................................................... 26 Format for Short Laboratory Reports ............................................................................... 28 Design Project Reports - General Instructions.................................................................. 29 Format for Design Project Proposals ................................................................................ 30 Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 30 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 30 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 30 Proposal......................................................................................................................... 30 Schedule ........................................................................................................................ 30 Format for Design Project Progress Reports .................................................................... 31 Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page iii
A Guide to Technical Communication
Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 31 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 31 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 31 Progress to Date ............................................................................................................ 31 Schedule ........................................................................................................................ 31 Calculations (If necessary) ............................................................................................ 31 Format for Design Project Final Reports .......................................................................... 32 Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 32 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 32 Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 32 [Your Project Title] ....................................................................................................... 32 Reflections .................................................................................................................... 32 Calculations................................................................................................................... 32 Acknowledgments......................................................................................................... 32 References ..................................................................................................................... 33 Appendices .................................................................................................................... 33 General Guidelines for Oral Presentations ....................................................................... 34 Initial Considerations .................................................................................................... 34 Preparation Guidelines .................................................................................................. 34 Slide Design and Creation ............................................................................................ 35 To Outline or Not to Outline? That is the Question...................................................... 35 Use of Graphics............................................................................................................. 36 Presentation Issues ........................................................................................................ 36 General Guidelines for Electronic Mail ............................................................................ 38 Just Because It’s Fast Doesn’t Mean It Should Be Informal ........................................ 38 Who Will Be Reading Your Email? ............................................................................. 39 Subject Line .................................................................................................................. 39 Keep the Length Appropriate........................................................................................ 40 Format ........................................................................................................................... 40 Write an Initial Draft, Then Revise! ............................................................................. 40 Attachments .................................................................................................................. 40 Proofreading, You Still STILL Need to Do It! ............................................................. 40 Don’t Hit Send in Anger ............................................................................................... 41 Closing and Signatures ................................................................................................. 41 Emails versus SMS (Text) Messages............................................................................ 42 General Guidelines for Voicemail .................................................................................... 43 References ......................................................................................................................... 44 Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets ............................................................................. 45 Appendix B: Sample Presentations ................................................................................... 50 Experimental Study Slides ............................................................................................ 51 Design Study Slides ...................................................................................................... 55 Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page iv
A Guide to Technical Communication
Acknowledgments
A guide like this is not a single-person effort. While I have been heading up the
updates and revisions to this guide, it would be the height of pretense to claim that I have
done this on my own. Many people, whether they realize it or not, have been instrumental
in making this document what it is. First, the Mechanical Engineering faculty, past and
present, have been responsible for putting together the original version of the Green
Book, as well as offering edits and advice for this new, enhanced version. Second, other
faculty members outside the department have expressed interest, and conversations with
them have given me ideas on enhancements. Third, the alumni and students of this
department, the ultimate beneficiaries of this work, have been instrumental for shaping
this guide. Through watching what aspects of technical communication they find most
challenging and listening to their suggestions, I have attempted to mold this guide to suit
their needs. Finally, I must thank the College administration, which has been generous
with summer grants and stipends to fund this effort.
John C. Leylegian
June 2013
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page v
A Guide to Technical Communication
Preface to the Fall 2013 Edition
This manual can improve your career.
This sounds like a far-fetched claim, doesn’t it? Don’t dismiss it outright.
When I first read this manual, it was a guide for the correct format for reports to be
written by the students of the Mechanical Engineering Department at Manhattan College.
However, after reading my first batch of reports while teaching the Thermal-Fluids
Laboratory, I realized that knowing the correct format for a report means precious little if
a student doesn’t know what constitutes good technical writing.
My path as an engineer has taken me through many different environments in many
different institutions since I began my undergraduate engineering studies. My motivation
for the “reboot” of the Green Book was to take the experiences I have had when it comes
to some of the “soft skills” in engineering, particularly communication, and present them
in a manner which could benefit you by improving your own communication skills
The first edition of this new Green Book was released for the Fall 2011 semester, and
thanks to the useful feedback from the faculty and students of this department, I have
fine-tuned this guide, adding more new material wherever possible without obscuring the
main idea of the guide: that a good, organized story is all you need to be able to
communicate your ideas to your peers, managers, customers, the public, or anyone else
who is counting on those ideas.
The Fall 2013 Edition features new sections on email communications and voicemails.
Based on my own experiences, as well as comments made by recent graduates, it is my
belief that information like this would be useful, and my hope is that students will agree.
So back to my grandiose claim. Why do I think that this pdf can improve your career?
When I listen to the Consultors Committee at their semi-annual meetings, I rarely hear
them say, “I wish students here got more Heat Transfer,” or “Why don’t your graduates
know the difference between Pappas’ Theorem and Stokes’ Theorem?” What I do hear
them say is, “New hires need to work on their writing skills,” or “Our newest engineers
have to work on their presentation skills.” Just like any other skill, communication takes
time and practice to cultivate. If you work on it before you finish your studies, you will
have an advantage when looking for a job. If you continue to work on it after you leave
here, you will have an advantage as you try to advance your career.
Take this guide, read it, apply the lessons it provides, and give feedback on it. It will
be worth it.
John C. Leylegian
June 2013
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page vi
A Guide to Technical Communication
Preface to the Fall 2011 Edition
In my two decades in the engineering field, I have learned that there is an “engineer’s
myth.” This myth is that engineers are these people who sit in cubicles day in and day
out, and don’t do much beyond crunching numbers, writing code, and running
experiments. I quickly learned (even before I completed my bachelor’s degree) that a
huge part of an engineer’s time is spent in communication. Whether it is in writing
reports, assembling and delivering presentations, or even crafting proper e-mail
correspondence, if an engineer is unable to communicate what he or she sees on the
screen, in the experimental results, or on the scratch pad, those nuggets of wisdom will
stay there.
I must admit that this scared me a little bit. I never liked writing, and I hated getting in
front of a group of people and speaking. However, I found that when I was writing and
talking about stuff I liked, it wasn’t nearly as difficult. It became easier for me to do, but I
still needed work. I got plenty of practice in graduate school, since writing and presenting
are large parts of the graduate experience. It was there that my skills improved markedly,
mostly because I was given the key to effective writing and speaking.
When I started working in industry. I was routinely tasked to write reports, make
presentations, and even proofread others’ work, in addition to my technical duties. I
strongly believe that my ability to communicate, just as much as my technical prowess,
was instrumental to not only my advancement, but also to my ability to take on side
work, and to finally make the transition back to academia.
If all of this doesn’t convince you of the importance of good communication skills, let
me tell you the story of Dr. John Houbolt. Dr. Houbolt was an aerospace engineer
working for NASA back in the early days of manned space exploration. He was an expert
in rendezvous, the maneuvering of two spacecraft such that they arrive in the same orbit
and within visual contact. He led committees exploring and studying the different types
of rendezvous, specifically applied to its usefulness in a manned lunar mission. He and
his colleagues determined that Lunar Orbit Rendezvous, or LOR (the meeting of two
spacecraft in lunar orbit) would decrease the required liftoff weight of a lunar mission by
roughly 50 percent.
What did Houbolt do? He talked about his discovery, to anyone who would listen. He
gave several briefings to engineers at NASA and the U. S. Air Force. However, there was
significant resistance. In addition to the skepticism surrounding the weight savings,
rendezvous was an issue. While rendezvous in space is something we take for granted
today, in 1960 it had never been done. In fact, the United States had not even launched a
human into space yet! If rendezvous in lunar orbit failed, astronauts could be stranded.
Unfortunately, the skeptics were not even going to check the calculations and see if the
concept had any merit. It looked like there was enough prejudice against LOR that it
would be dismissed outright.
Houbolt was determined to let LOR get a fair shake, and he knew that to do it he
would have to share the idea with the NASA leadership. In two letters written to the
NASA Associate Administrator and a two-volume technical report, Houbolt thoroughly
explained the concept and how it would be able to meet the deadline set by President
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page vii
A Guide to Technical Communication
Kennedy (they had less than a decade to land a man on the moon). It was risky – Houbolt
knew that going over as many heads as he did could cost him his job. It did pay off
though, and LOR was given a chance to compete against other types of lunar missions.
With further presentations and reports, LOR was chosen as the model for the Project
Apollo missions.
In the end, it didn’t matter that LOR was the best way to get men to the moon. It did
matter that the main champion of the concept was able to communicate the idea to the
right people in order for it to be considered, even in the face of seemingly impossible
opposition. I hope that this story illustrates the value of good communication skills to all
of you.
John C. Leylegian
August 2011
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page viii
A Guide to Technical Communication
Introduction
Written and oral communication skills are very important in our society. In particular,
an engineer is frequently called upon to explain his or her work to an audience. The
audience may be wide-ranging, such as radio or television, a room full of people, or just
the boss. The ability to write and speak well in these situations often accounts for who
advances in an organization. Professional presentation needs to be developed in addition
to proper grammar and fluency of style. Development of professional presentation ability
is the purpose of this manual.
In the undergraduate curriculum, instructors regularly require written or oral reports in
a style that is more formal than the typical homework assignments, tests and class
participation format. This manual serves as a guide for the preparation of such reports in
courses offered by the Mechanical Engineering Department. Previous versions of report
writing manuals were developed for the types of reports and presentations a student may
be expected to deliver in a given class. However, one important item has been left out:
how does one write or speak in the proper manner for technical reports and presentations?
Therefore, this manual not only addresses the proper structure for reports and
presentations, but also how to write and speak properly.
Your instructor will expect you to follow the format indicated for reports in all courses
that require report writing and presentation unless he or she indicates otherwise. Keep
this manual for reference throughout your undergraduate program, but note that this
manual is a work in progress (as it should be). Any input, comments or suggestions are
always welcome. Remember that this manual is to serve you, the student, to introduce
you to proper technical communication.
When you commence your working career, pay close attention to the format expected
of you in a new environment. Know what is expected of you, but hopefully the lessons
learned here will give you an edge.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 1
A Guide to Technical Communication
What Makes Technical Writing Different?
No doubt, by this time you have written many papers, essays and reports for different
teachers and professors, both in high school and college. However, this is technical
writing, and technical writing is a VERY different undertaking than what you have
probably done to date. The main difference between what you have done in the past and
good technical writing is that you must be clear, concise, and complete in your reports.
In industry you will often be called upon to give written and oral reports. Employers
of engineering graduates around the country fault graduates not for their technical
knowledge, but for their poor communication skills. If you opt for graduate school and a
possible career in academia, you will definitely need to know how to write and how to
speak. Reports, theses, papers, articles, lectures, talks at conferences… you’ll need to do
them all not to mention a thesis or dissertation and the associated defense.
There are very important reasons for this style, which no doubt runs counter to what
you have done in the past. The first reason is that the audience for technical reports is
very different. In a literature class, for example, the professor is the only one reading your
paper, and he or she will most likely read it from cover to cover, poring over every word.
In an engineering firm, on the other hand, several people may be reading what you write,
and most of them will not read the entire work.1 Sometimes it is because they only need
to read the parts most essential to their work. Sometimes it is because they just don’t have
the time to read every page of every report they need to review.2 In any event, the
technical literature reader needs to identify the information most important to them as
quickly as possible. They need to be able to understand the point you are trying to get
across, without trying to interpret your data for themselves, they need to do so in
language they can readily understand, and they need to find the information they need
where they expect it to be in the report. Put simply; don’t make the reader work harder
than necessary to get the story you’re trying to tell. An important item that should be
given a serious consideration in any technical writing is the focus of the report. A
technical report conveys a point or some points to readers, e.g., make conclusions for a
lab result or present some analytical model. All arguments in the report should be related
to the point(s) of the report. The author may go a little off track by discussing some
related topic but must be careful not to discuss them to the extent that dominates the
report. For example, if a report is written about results related to the cooling channel in an
engine the author might write some general description of the engine but this description
should not overwhelm the focus of the report, which is cooling channels.
Now think about the textbooks you have read for your various science and engineering
courses. Do you read them cover to cover, or do you pick and choose the passages you
need to read? Are the best textbooks written in obscure, obtuse language, or are they
written plainly and simply? Strive for that level of clarity in your writing. It’s not easy,
and it takes time, but with effort it is possible.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 2
A Guide to Technical Communication
How to Communicate Effectively
Here are a few suggestions for writing. These tips will help your reports look
professional, and make them easy to read and understand.
Structure of an Effective Report
You must always remember that the key to good technical writing is to tell a good,
coherent story. The different sections of a report just provide a framework, so that a
reader can get to the parts most important to him or her in a hurry. The organization of
these sections grows out of the need to tell a story in order, not the other way around.
Later on in this manual the details of different types of reports will be discussed.
However, regardless of the type of report, the order of the story will not change. The
body of the report (excluding abstract, table of contents, references and appendices – but
more on those later) will follow this order:2
Introduce the Problem
Your report will most likely address some engineering problem; it can be collection
and analysis of some experimental data, or possibly the generation of a new design based
on an objective subject to some constraints. In either event, describing the problem is the
first thing that needs to be done. Depending on the type of report, you should be
answering one or more of the following questions:
Why are these data useful?
What is your proposed design supposed to do?
What have other researchers/engineers done in the past to try to solve this problem?
Is there any underlying theory to better frame and describe the challenges of the
problem?
Describe Your Solution
Now that the problem is framed, tell the reader how you solved it. If it is an
experimental study, what apparatus did you use? What data did you collect? If it is an
analytical study, what theory did you develop or utilize to describe the phenomenon? If it
is a design project, explain the design you developed.
Tell What You Learned
This section is an interesting part of a report. Now that you have presented your
experimental data, you can talk about what they mean. How do they relate to other
studies performed in the past? Did you see anything unusual? What do you recommend
for future work in this field? If it’s a design project, what would you have done
differently based on what you know now?
Don’t Let Your Story “Bleed”
We’ve established the parts of a report. It is important that this order be respected. In
other words, make sure that information that should be in one part of a report doesn’t
“bleed” into another part. This will disrupt the flow of the story, and could lose the
reader. In addition, if someone is looking for specific information, having it in the wrong
part of the report, the reader might not find it.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 3
A Guide to Technical Communication
Report Preparation
All laboratory reports are to be produced using computer software, mainly word
processors and drawing software – no handwriting or hand drawing is permitted. This
shouldn’t be a problem, since everybody has a computer, or access to one. Write your
reports as professional reports (not school exercises); pretend that the work was done to
examine a specific phenomenon for a customer and write it accordingly.
When writing any kind of report, unless a style sheet tells you otherwise, start each
section on a new page, with a clear, e.g., bold, heading title.
Layout, Grammar, and Usage
When possible, use templates for ease of formatting. However, if a template is not
provided, type single spaced, and use an easy-to-read font type and size. Commonly used
fonts are Times New Roman (serif font) and Arial (sans serif font). Font sizes of 10-12
points are most appropriate. Number all pages, except the title page. Pages before the
body of the report (e.g. Abstract, Table of Contents) should be numbered using Roman
numerals; all other pages should be numbered using Arabic numerals.
Neatness and clarity, as well as the proper use of the English language, are essential.
Reports should be correctly assembled before submittal, and the entire report should be
identically formatted, even though different people may have written different parts.
Correct spelling is important. Read aloud your report when completed. This may help
you to correct a passage that is not as clear as it seemed when you wrote it. Do not use
contractions in a technical report. They are fine in other, less formal documents (e.g.
this guide).
Making a Report “Read Well”
Editing for style is something that some authors prefer to do towards the end of the
writing process; others are constantly editing for style. Whichever way you prefer,
remember that a large portion of where many students’ reports fall short is for style. Style
is one of the things that make a report readable. Here are some things you can do to
improve style:1
Avoid Unnecessary Words
One of the most common issues seen in technical writing is the use of unnecessary
words. It’s as if people think that more words automatically mean better technical
writing! More often than not, the opposite is true. One way to remove unnecessary words
is to avoid redundancies:

Change “the woman had a set of twins” to “the woman had twins.”

Change “the fuel-rich flame was green in color” to “the fuel-rich flame was green.”

Change “acids tend to be sour tasting” to “acids tend to be sour.”
A second way is to avoid “inflated phrases.” For instance:

Change “the increase in current is due to the fact that the conductor was heated” to
“the increase in current is because the conductor was heated.”
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 4
A Guide to Technical Communication

Change “salt air has a corrosive effect on untreated metal” to “salt air corrodes
metal.”
The famous British author George Orwell (1903-1950) had two rules for writing:
If it is possible to cut a word out, cut it out.
Never use a long word when a short one will do.
Granted, one can take this too far (cutting out so many words that the point you are trying
to get across becomes obscured), but proofreading should catch this. Albert Einstein
summed it up best:
Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.
Strive for clarity, conciseness and accuracy in your writing.
Voice, Tense, and Use of First Person
The difference between writing in the active and passive voice is whether the writer
wishes to emphasize the agent or the object of a given action. In many cases, this means
that the passive voice is preferred – in an experimental report, for instance, you want to
emphasize what you did, not the fact that you did it. You should not slavishly adhere to
this rule though. There are times when a passage is more difficult to read in the passive
voice. At those times, write in the active voice. Remember, readability is paramount.
Be sure to use appropriate verb tenses. In general, your text should flow
chronologically. Remember that you are recounting what was done, not what you are
doing or what you will do. Therefore, past tense will be used quite extensively. Only use
the present and future tenses where absolutely required.
Once you move from the past to the present, stay in the present unless there is a
compelling reason to use the past tense. First person plural, i.e. “we”, is appropriate in
many sentences – again, it’s all about making yourself understood. If writing in the first
person, active voice is the most effective way to get your point across in a particular
sentence, just go with it.
Avoid the “Gotchas”
One point that often gets glossed over is that when you write something, you must be
prepared to back it up. There are two ways one can back up a statement. The first is by
citing your own current work: “As seen in Fig. 3, the relationship between Seebeck
voltage and temperature is linear.” The second is by citing previous work in the field: “In
Reference 4, dimensional analysis was used to prove that friction factor is a function of
Reynolds number and relative roughness.”
Numbers, Calculations, Units, and Equations
Numbers one through ten are expressed as words; other numbers are expressed as
numbers.
Unless your professor tells you otherwise, a good rule of thumb for the number of
significant figures is the following: Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one
significant figure, unless the leading digit in the uncertainty is a 1. In that case the
uncertainty should be rounded to two significant figures. Then, the last significant figure
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 5
A Guide to Technical Communication
in a stated value should be of the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty. Even when
your results have no stated uncertainties, remember that the number of significant figures
you use is indicative of the uncertainty you expect. In other words, if you state a
temperature of 100.002°C, you are suggesting that your error is on the order of 0.001°C,
whether you realize it or not!3
Create all equations using an equation editor. Using the Equation button on the Insert
tab of Microsoft Word (versions 2007 and later) can sometimes result in equations that
are “compressed” so that symbols which should be the same size are not always done so.
Here’s an example of an equation created using this tool:
ఙೣ ିఙ೤ ଶ
߬௠௔௫ ൌ ටቀ
ଶ
ଶ
ቁ ൅ ߬௫௬
(3)
Note that the symbols in the fraction are smaller than the other symbols in the equation.
Look at your textbooks – are the equations in these books laid out that way? An easy way
to get better-looking equations is to use the Object button (it’s just to the left of the
Equation button on the Insert ribbon). On the pop-up window, select “Microsoft Equation
3.0” and create your equation using the pull-down menus. Here is the same equation
created using Microsoft Equation. Note the difference.
 max
 x  y
 
2

2

   xy2

(3)
Equations are typically centered on a line. If you are going to refer to back to
equations you have already provided, these equations should be numbered. Number the
equations with a number in parentheses to the right of the equation. Equations should be
numbered in the order in which they appear. Equation numbers should be right-justified
on the line, as was done in the two examples above. To achieve this effect, you can set up
a style in Microsoft Word with a center tab stop at the center of the line, and a rightjustified tab stop at the right margin. When you refer to equations in the text, they should
be mentioned by number, e.g., “In Equation (1) we see…”, or “Equations (3)-(5) outline
the iterative method to determine temperature.” However, sample calculations and
uncertainty analyses can be done using a mathematical program, such as Mathcad.
Make sure you format numbers and equations properly, even when they are in the
body of the text. That means never use the format 46E-4; this should be 46×10-4. (Why
not?) Also, never use the format x^2; this should be x2. Formatting of superscripts and
subscripts, adding italics, etc., in text is relatively easy to do, and finding special
characters (including Greek letters) is also straightforward. If you don’t know how to do
it, ask someone. Here are some basic tips for proper formatting of mathematical
expressions so that your work looks professional:

Scalar variables indicated by upper and lowercase Latin characters (A, B, C, x, y, z)
should be italicized.

Scalar variables indicated by lower case Greek characters (α, β, γ, δ, ε, ω) should be
italicized. Upper case Greek characters (Δ, Θ, Π, Σ, Φ) are not italicized.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 6
A Guide to Technical Communication


Vectors should either be indicated with an arrow ( x ), or should be bold type without
italics (x).

Multiplication of scalar variables should be written as ab, not ab, a·b, or a*b.

Exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions (exp, ln, sin) should not be
italicized.

Make sure there is sufficient space before and after the equation, so it doesn’t look
crowded.
It is interesting to note that some of these rules have changed over time, and will
probably continue to do so. For instance, common dimensionless groups such as
Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), etc. were never italicized, just like
functions. However, it has become common to italicize these abbreviations as well.
All numbers should have appropriate units (unless the number is dimensionless, e.g.
Reynolds Number – by the way, note the lack of apostrophe on “Reynolds”). Do not mix
units in a report: select either SI or British units, or provide the secondary unit type in
parentheses (e.g. 1 in (25.4 mm)). Write units in short hand (e.g. “ft” not “feet”)
Figures and Tables
If you provide a figure or table, it MUST be cited in the text. All figures and tables
need captions. Captions should include numbers, e.g., Figure 1, Table 1, etc. These
numbers should be in the order in which they are cited in the text. Figure captions are
below the figures, not above. Table captions, however must be placed above the table.
Figure and table captions should be descriptive, e.g.:
Figure 3: Comparison of experimental and theoretical friction factors as a function
of Reynolds Number.
Note that you may use the cross-reference capability that is available in most word
processing software. This feature is useful in case a new figure, table, equation or
reference is added. The numbers will automatically shift and no manual numbering is
needed.
There will be more information about developing effective graphs later in this manual.
Proofreading: You Still Need To Do It!
How does a group make sure that all parts are correctly formatted, and that proper use
is assured? By proofreading! Some people think that in the age of spellcheckers that
proofreading is no longer necessary. Spellcheckers will identify words that are not in the
dictionary, not misspelled words. A spellchecker will not be able to tell you when to use
“they’re,” “there,” or “their.” A spellchecker probably doesn’t know the difference
between “it’s” and “its” (do you?). Proofreading will not only spot misspelled words, it
can also correct organizational problems, find unnecessary words, and all of the other
pitfalls identified above.
If you are writing a report as part of a group, proofreading will help spot mistakes
more easily. Getting a fresh set of eyes on the portions of the report you didn’t write can
help detect mistakes that you aren’t able to see.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 7
A Guide to Technical Communication
Proofreading only takes a few minutes, and the payoff is well worth the investment of
time.
Organization and Archival
If you are working on a long-term (one or two semester long) design project, you will
most likely be publishing several documents regarding the same project; for example, a
proposal at the outset, periodic progress reports, and culminating with a final report.
Some of the narrative of earlier reports should be useful in subsequent reports. Therefore,
be sure to save your reports on for later use. There are now several different options,
including flash drives, Manhattan College’s remote drive (the “Home Server”), Google
Docs, Dropbox, and the list goes on. They all have their advantages and disadvantages. If
you have done a good job on your proposal, the task of writing your progress reports will
be easier. Likewise good proposals and progress reports lessen the anguish of writing the
final report, the major written requirement for such a project.
There are two other very good reasons for organizing and archiving your reports. First,
saving copies of your reports can provide a good source of information for prospective
employers. As was stated above, employers want engineers who can communicate. What
better way to prove this than showing examples of your work? Second, once you get into
industry, it is very possible that some work you have done will be put on hold for an
indeterminate length of time – it can be anywhere from weeks to years. If you properly
document the work you have done via reports, memoranda, etc., and archive those
reports, you will be able to pick up where you left off more easily than if you have to
piece material together from memory and sparse notes.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 8
A Guide to Technical Communication
Presentation of Graphical and Tabulated Data
A report or presentation will typically have several figures and/or tables. Figures and
tables are invaluable, because they can convey information or ideas in a compact, easyto-understand manner. Figures include all photographs, drawings, and graphs. Tables are
data presented in a row/column format.
Placement
Figures and tables are best placed at the top or bottom of a page. Floating text boxes or
frames in Microsoft Word work well when you want to fix figures or tables in these
positions while avoiding unnecessary white space on pages. Be sure to keep sufficient
space (the equivalent of a single line) between the end of the text on a page and a figure
or table.
Captions
All figures and tables must be numbered consecutively and referenced in the narrative
by that number, i.e. no figure or table should appear without being discussed in the
narrative. Figures and tables should have their own numerical sequences, i.e., if a report
has five figures and two tables, the figures will be named “Figure 1” through “Figure 5,”
and the tables will be named “Table 1” and “Table 2.” Captions should appear below a
figure, but above a table.
Captions should be descriptive. For example: “Figure 1. Design of conical-flowderived wave rider.” Remember that sometimes figures will be taken out of context, and
writing a descriptive caption will help to insure that the figure is not misused. Part of a
descriptive caption includes describing the symbols/lines used in a graph; sometimes the
legend is insufficient to give all of the information clearly, and the caption can be used to
clarify things. Captions are not necessary for figures or tables in presentations, since
you’re talking about the figures or tables and can describe them fully.
The caption should be in the same font as the rest of the text, but bold or italicized (or
both) so it stands out from the rest of the text. Captions can be inserted using the Insert
Caption button found in the References ribbon of Microsoft Word. Using this feature
allows you to reference the figures in your text using the Cross-Reference feature, and
automatically updates all figure and table numbers if you insert new figures and/or tables
in a document.
Photographs
Include photographs whenever possible and appropriate. For instance, if you are
documenting an experimental study, photograph the experimental apparatus. If it is a
design study, provide photographs of the finished product (if the design was fabricated).
For clarity, include objects such as rulers or common objects, or people in the photograph
to provide a sense of scale. Photographs of individuals require their approval. Similarly,
secure permission to use photographs that are the property of someone else, or at the very
least cite the source for such images.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 9
A Guide to Technical Communication
COMBUSTION-FIRED
AIR HEATER
TEST CABIN
6 FT. DIA.
GASL, INC.
BLOWDOWN LABORATORY
Figure 1: Sample photograph using text boxes to identify important items.
Items in the photograph referenced in the text can be identified using text boxes, as
shown in Figure 1. Remember, the objective is clarity, so anything you can do to explain
things more clearly is useful.
Drawings
Drawings should be computer-generated; they should not be hand drawn. Otherwise,
use the same guidelines for photographs. An example of a drawing is shown in Figure 2.
Graphs
There are several different types of graphs: the most common used in engineering are
bar, pie, scatter, surface, and contour. Each is used to handle different types of data. To
understand which types of data belong in different types of graphs, we shall review the
different types of data:4
Types Of Data
Nominal data are differentiated using some naming system. This naming system could
be anything; e.g., color, country of origin, fabrication technique, pay grade, etc. The
naming system could be numerical, but the numbers would not necessarily imply levels
Figure 2: Sample line drawing.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 10
A Guide to Technical Communication
of importance or any other quantitative property.
Ordinal Data are placed in some order based on a scale. In general, the scale does not
allow for any arithmetical operations, but relative relations can be drawn from the scale.
An example of ordinal data would be finishing processes for a piece of metal, e.g., sawn,
filed, milled, ground. These processes can be classified, (a sawn surface will be much
rougher than a ground surface), but arithmetic operations could not be performed.
Interval Data are measured along an integer scale, i.e., the classifications on the scale
are equidistant. Certain mathematical operations (addition and subtraction) can be
performed on these data.
Ratio Data or Scalable Data can be compared as ratios of one another. Most physical
measurements fall into this category, e.g. mass, speed and time.
Pie Graphs
Pie graphs are most often used to compare nominal or ordinal data. The emphasis is on
the contribution of each category to a whole; therefore, pie graphs are especially good to
describe percentages or fractions.5 For instance, a pie graph would be well-suited to
display the contributions of different types of energy sources (wind, tidal, coal, oil,
nuclear) utilized over a fixed time. A partially-exploded graph is sometimes used to focus
on one of the categories. An example of a pie graph is shown in Figure 3.
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs, like pie graphs, are most often used to compare nominal or ordinal data,
although they are occasionally used to present interval or ratio data. In the latter cases the
graph is often referred to as a histogram. Bar graphs are often used to plot the frequency
of a certain type of data; for instance, the number of students receiving various letter
grades in a course. Bar graphs are more versatile than pie graphs in that several sets of
data can be compared easily side by side, e.g., the differences in the distribution of grades
5, 2%
45, 22%
85, 42%
Gas
Coal
Oil
Trash
70, 34%
Figure 3: Usage of various energy sources.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 11
A Guide to Technical Communication
for same class taught in different semesters, or the distribution of material hardness from
samples treated at different facilities. Bar graphs are therefore well suited for drawing
comparisons.5 A sample bar graph showing comparisons of different data is shown in
Figure 4.
Scatter Plots
Scatter plots are created by using the abscissa (horizontal axis) to represent an
independent variable, and the ordinate (vertical axis) as the dependent variable. Each
datum is then assigned a location on the plot based in the values for the independent and
dependent variables. This type of plot is probably the most common type found in the
reports you will be writing. There are some rules you should follow to make sure these
graphs present the data well.
First, depending on the range and behavior of the data, you should choose the most
appropriate way to present your graphs, e.g. linear or logarithmic axes. If you are not
sure, try them and see which types of scales show the important features of the data best.
Sometimes, if the range of data covers multiple orders of magnitudes, a logarithmic axis
may be preferable. If more than one manner is acceptable, keep it as simple as possible.
In other words, if you can get your point across using either a linear or a logarithmic axis,
use the linear axis.
Second, if you are plotting experimental data, you should plot your data as individual
points. Do NOT connect your data with lines, a spline, or a curve fit; unless there is a
reason to do so, e.g. a trend is to be drawn between the data. In addition, experimental
data should have error bars, corresponding to experimental uncertainties. These
uncertainties should be generated through accepted techniques. Ask your instructor if
he/she has not shown you how to do so. On the other hand, if theoretical data are to be
included on a graph for comparison, no points should be shown. Rather, connect the
points with a smooth curve (NOT a curve fit) and remove the points themselves. An
300
Air
Auto
Train
People-Miles (Million))
250
200
150
100
50
0
1940's
'50's
'60's
'70's
'80's
'90's
Figure 4: People-miles traveled by various means of transportation from 1940’s
through 1990’s.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 12
A Guide to Technical Communication
Rectangle
Dimensionless Temperature
1.0
Sphere
Cylinder
Theoretical Rectangle
0.8
Theoretical Sphere
Theoretical Cylinder
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Fourier Number
Figure 5: Sample scatter plot showing multiple sets of experimental data (points)
with error bars, and theoretical data (curves) utilizing different line styles.
example of this can be seen in Figure 5. In this graph the dimensionless temperatures in
different hot objects are plotted as a function of Fourier Number (a dimensionless form of
time). The symbols represent measured quantities, while the curves are theoretical
predictions based on the equations of heat transfer relevant to the particular problem.
In some cases theoretical data are developed from some experimental inputs. For
example, the drag on a body is based on the projected area, which is a measured quantity.
In that case, the theoretical data should consist of two curves: a lower bound and an upper
bound based upon the uncertainty in the theoretical value.
Third, when several sets of data are presented on the same set of axes, a legend
describing each set should be included. Each set of data points should be distinguished by
dissimilar symbols on the graph (e.g. squares, diamonds, and so on). If two different
dependent variables are to be shown, it may make sense to show them on different
vertical axes (left and right side), like Figure 6.
Note that the precision of the axes is important for readability. All labels on a given
axis should have the same precision (same number of decimal places), and this should be
the minimum necessary to accurately represent all of the labels on that axis.
Surface and Contour Plots
Surface and contour plots are useful to show when a dependent variable is a function
of more than one independent variable. Both plots show a single dependent variable in
terms of two independent variables. The contour plot shows an X-Y plane, with the
dependent variable represented by different colors on that plane. A surface plot, on the
other hand, is a three-dimensional rendering, with the dependent variable represented as a
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 13
A Guide to Technical Communication
700
80
Power
70
Efficiency
600
60
50
400
40
300
30
200
Efficiency (%)
Power (kW)
500
20
100
10
0
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Engine Speed (1000 rpm)
Figure 6: Scatter plots showing two sets of experimental data on different axes.
projecting in the third (Z) dimension. Examples of these plots are shown in Figure 7 and
Figure 8.
It should be mentioned that while a program like Excel is capable of generating these
5
4
z
3
y
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
0.8-1
0.6-0.8
0.4-0.6
0.2-0.4
0-0.2
-0.2-0
-0.4--0.2
-0.6--0.4
-0.8--0.6
-1--0.8
0
5
x
Figure 7: Sample contour plot of the function f(x, y) = sin (xy/2).
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 14
A Guide to Technical Communication
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.8-1
0.6-0.8
0.4-0.6
0.2-0.4
0-0.2
-0.2-0
-0.4--0.2
-0.6--0.4
-0.8--0.6
-1--0.8
0.4
0.2
z
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
5
-0.6
4
-0.8
-1.0
0.0
3
2
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
1
2.5
x
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
y
0
5.0
Figure 8: Sample surface plot of the function from Figure 7.
types of plots, it is not ideal. Dedicated graphing packages, such as SigmaPlot and
Tecplot, are much better equipped to produce quality contour and surface plots.
Tables
Tables should be formatted and planned as carefully as plots – using a table as a “data
dump” is not advisable, unless the purpose is to document raw data in an appendix of a
report. The first column of a table is most typically an independent variable, or a list of
categories. The first row is typically “headings,” or a list of variables. Headings and
categories are often centered (horizontally and vertically) in their respective cells.
The format for the data in the table can be a matter of personal taste. Some prefer the
data to be centered, while others prefer numbers to be right justified, and others may want
Table 1: Temperature versus time data collected at the center of a brass
rectangular prism submerged in a water bath.
Time (s)
0.00.2
10.00.2
20.00.2
30.00.2
40.00.2
50.00.2
60.00.2
70.00.2
80.00.2
90.00.2
Temperature (°C)
301
351
411
451
471
501
521
521
521
521
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 15
A Guide to Technical Communication
the data in a single column to have decimal points aligned. Check with the person who is
evaluating your reports for their thoughts, but above all, clarity is key. A relatively simple
table with caption is shown in Table 1.
Avoid using heavy shading in tables whenever possible. While using multiple colors
may look good on the screen, they might not look as nice (or be as easy to read) when
printed in black and white. Reproducibility may also be an issue; if you print out a colorshaded table, and make a black and white photocopy, you might be left with a completely
unreadable graph or table.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 16
A Guide to Technical Communication
Guidelines for References
When writing a report, article, or other technical document, often you will call upon
work done by other groups, or work you have already published in another document.
Whenever you are presenting work that is neither new nor original to the authors of the
document, it MUST be referenced. Note the bold, italic, underlined word in all capital
letters. What is the reason for the embellishment? If you present work as your own which
is not yours, you have plagiarized. A new set of rules for dealing with plagiarism has just
been established across the College, but regardless of the penalty imposed here,
plagiarism is not tolerated in either industrial or scholarly circles. It is theft, pure and
simple. Please consult the Student Handbook for the details on the policy.
The rules are simple: if something you write or present is not your own idea, or your
own data, or your own analysis, it must be referenced, unless it is “common knowledge.”
Since the definition of what is common knowledge can be nebulous at times, it is best to
play it safe and provide a reference.
Whenever possible, go to the original reference. For example, if you are researching
something out of a book, but the passage of interest to you was cited from a journal
article, it is better to acquire the article and reference it in your work.
Many different formats exist for referencing, and no particular format is superior, but
certain types of reference formats are more likely to be used in technical literature. In this
department we will use a particular format for references. There is no excuse for using an
improper format for references; in fact, publishers will send manuscripts back to authors
for improper referencing practices – it has happened. The format adopted is that of the
American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), with some minor
modifications. Their guidelines can be found online at the AIAA ScholarOne
Manuscripts Portal.6
Referencing of Works in a Document
When you want to reference an outside work, it will be done using a superscripted
number, thusly.1 The superscript is placed after punctuation, e.g., a period, comma,
semicolon, etc. References are numbered in the order in which they are cited, i.e., the first
reference cited is 1, the second is 2, and so on. If two works are referenced for the same
sentence, they should be separated with a comma.3,4 If three or more sequential works are
referenced, it should be done in this manner.5-7 An easy way to insert references in a
document is to use the Insert Endnote feature in the References ribbon of Microsoft
Word. You will need to make sure the references are numbers, rather than letters or
symbols, and you will need to make sure the references appear in the right location of the
report. A little practice will teach you how to accomplish this.
If a figure or table contains outside work, the reference is placed in the figure or table
caption.
Formats for References
Here are the formats for the references, with examples of each:
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 17
A Guide to Technical Communication
Periodicals
Vatistas, G. H., Lin, S., and Kwok, C. K., “Reverse Flow Radius in Vortex
Chambers,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 24, No. 11, 1986, pp. 1872, 1873.
doi: 10.2514/3.13046
2
Dornheim, M. A., “Planetary Flight Surge Faces Budget Realities,” Aviation Week and
Space Technology, Vol. 145, No. 24, 9 Dec. 1996, pp. 44–46.
3
Terster, W., “NASA Considers Switch to Delta 2,” Space News, Vol. 8, No. 2, 13–19
Jan. 1997, pp. 1, 18.
All of the preceding information is required. The journal issue number (“No. 11” in
Ref. 1) is preferred, but the month (Nov.) can be substituted if the issue number is not
available. Use the complete date for daily and weekly publications. Transactions follow
the same style as other journals. The DOI (Digital Object Identifier) should be
incorporated in every reference for which it is available (see Ref. 1 sample); for more
information on DOIs, visit www.doi.org or www.crossref.org.
1
Books
Peyret, R., and Taylor, T. D., Computational Methods in Fluid Flow, 2nd ed., SpringerVerlag, New York, 1983, Chaps. 7, 14.
5
Oates, G. C. (ed.), Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion,
AIAA Education Series, AIAA, New York, 1984, pp. 19, 136.
6
Volpe, R., “Techniques for Collision Prevention, Impact Stability, and Force Control
by Space Manipulators,” Teleoperation and Robotics in Space, edited by S. B. Skaar
and C. F. Ruoff, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, AIAA, Washington, DC,
1994, pp. 175–212.
Publisher, place, and date of publication are required for all books. No state or country
is required for major cities: New York, London, Moscow, etc. A differentiation must
always be made between Cambridge, MA, and Cambridge, England, UK. Note that series
titles are in Roman type (not italicized).
4
Proceedings
Thompson, C. M., “Spacecraft Thermal Control, Design, and Operation,” AIAA
Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, CP849, Vol. 1, AIAA, Washington,
DC, 1989, pp. 103–115
8
Chi, Y. (ed.), Fluid Mechanics Proceedings, NASA SP-255, 1993.
9
Morris, J. D., “Convective Heat Transfer in Radially Rotating Ducts,” Proceedings of
the Annual Heat Transfer Conference, edited by B. Corbell, Vol. 1, Inst. of
Mechanical Engineering, New York, 1992, pp. 227–234.
Reports, Theses, and Individual Papers
10
Chapman, G. T., and Tobak, M., “Nonlinear Problems in Flight Dynamics,” NASA
TM-85940, 1984.
11
Steger, J. L., Jr., Nietubicz, C. J., and Heavey, J. E., “A General Curvilinear Grid
Generation Program for Projectile Configurations,” U.S. Army Ballistic Research
Lab., Rept. ARBRL-MR03142, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, Oct. 1981.
12
Tseng, K., “Nonlinear Green’s Function Method for Transonic Potential Flow,” Ph.D.
Dissertation, Aeronautics and Astronautics Dept., Boston Univ., Cambridge, MA,
1983.
7
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 18
A Guide to Technical Communication
Government agency reports do not require locations. For reports such as NASA TM85940, neither insert nor delete dashes; leave them as provided. Place of publication
should be given, although it is not mandatory, for military and company reports. Always
include a city and state for universities. Papers need only the name of the sponsor; neither
the sponsor’s location nor the conference name and location is required. Do not confuse
proceedings references with conference papers.
Electronic Publications and Web Pages
CD-ROM publications and regularly issued, dated electronic journals are permitted as
references. Archived data sets also may be referenced as long as the material is openly
accessible and the repository is committed to archiving the data indefinitely. References
to electronic data available only from personal Web sites or commercial, academic, or
government ones where there is no commitment to archiving the data are not permitted in
the reference list.
13
Richard, J. C., and Fralick, G. C., “Use of Drag Probe in Supersonic Flow,” AIAA
Meeting Papers on Disc [CD-ROM], Vol. 1, No. 2, AIAA, Reston, VA, 1996.
14
Atkins, C. P., and Scantelbury, J. D., “The Activity Coefficient of Sodium Chloride
in a Simulated Pore Solution Environment,” Journal of Corrosion Science and
Engineering [online journal], Vol. 1, No. 1, Paper 2, URL:
http://www.cp/umist.ac.uk/JCSE/vol1/vol1.html [cited 13 April 1998].
15
Vickers, A., “10-110 mm/hr Hypodermic Gravity Design A,” Rainfall Simulation
Database [online database], URL: http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/bgrg/lab.htm [cited 15
March 1998].
Always include the citation date for online references. Break Web site addresses after
punctuation, and do not hyphenate at line breaks.
NEVER CITE WIKIPEDIA FOR ANYTHING. EVER. FOR ANYTHING AT ALL.
Wikipedia, like old book-form encyclopedias, are a starting point for research. Look into
the references cited in the articles in Wikipedia, then cite them yourself.
Computer Software
16
TAPP, Thermochemical and Physical Properties, Software Package, Ver. 1.0, E. S.
Microware, Hamilton, OH, 1992.
Include a version number and the company name and location of software packages.
Patents
Patents appear infrequently. Be sure to include the patent number and date.
17
Scherrer, R., Overholster, D., and Watson, K., Lockheed Corp., Burbank, CA, U.S.
Patent Application for a “Vehicle,” Docket No. P-01-1532, filed 11 Feb. 1979.
18
Girlea, F. and Leylegian, J. C., “Apparatus, Systems, Methods for the Production of
Hydrogen,” U. S. Patent 8,263,027, filed 12 Aug. 2009, granted 11 Sep. 2012.
Private Communications
If you receive information directly from a person, which cannot be referenced in an
article, book, or paper, it is a private communication, whether it is in-person, over the
telephone, or via email.
19
Pritchard, P. J., Private communication, 12 November 2012.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 19
A Guide to Technical Communication
Provide the name of the source and the date(s) over which the communication
occurred.
Unpublished Papers and Books
Unpublished works can be used as references as long as they are being considered for
publication or can be located by the reader (such as papers that are part of an archival
collection). If a journal paper or a book is being considered for publication, choose the
format that reflects the status of the work (depending upon whether it has been accepted
for publication):
20
Doe, J., “Title of Paper,” Name of Journal (to be published).
21
Doe, J., “Title of Chapter,” Name of Book, edited by…, Publisher’s name and
location (to be published).
22
Doe, J., “Title of Work,” Name of Archive, Univ. (or organization), City, State, Year
(unpublished).
Unpublished works in an archive must include the name of the archive and the name
and location of the university or other organization where the archive is held. Also
include any cataloging information that may be provided.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 20
A Guide to Technical Communication
Laboratory and Technical Reports
Now that we have described how a report should flow, and have discussed effective
means of communication through graphics, we will get into the actual organization of
technical documents. There are two main types of technical documents covered in this
manual. The first are laboratory reports and technical reports. These reports document
experimental or analytical studies. The sections of these reports are outlined here, with
the similarities, as well as the differences pointed out.
Remember, as stated in the Introduction, if an instructor provides alternate guidelines
on the format of a report, those alternate guidelines supersede the format here.
Cover Page
All reports must have a cover page that contains:
 Course and section number.
 Group number (if the work is being performed by a group).
 Name(s) of the student(s) in the group.
 Title.
 Instructor’s name.
 Date experiment performed (if this is a laboratory report).
 Date report handed in.
A sample cover page is shown in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an
electronic version in Word format is available for your use.
A few words about titles: when someone is reviewing a list of reports or articles for
documents which need to be read, he or she will start with a list of titles. Make your title
as descriptive as possible, in order to make sure that the widest audience possible reads
your report. For instance, “Aerodynamic Characteristics of Two Waverider-Derived
Hypersonic Cruise Configurations” is a far superior title to “Aerodynamics of High
Speed Aircraft.”
Abstract
Give a brief (only about one paragraph), clear indication of what is in the report along
with the primary results or final design characteristics. It should state, in simple
declarative sentences what was attempted and accomplished, how it was accomplished
only if special techniques were utilized, and what was achieved. That is, it should contain
the main results and the main conclusions based on the results. Since the abstract is a
summary of the entire report, you should write your abstract after you have completed all
other parts of the report.
The abstract should be written with the expectation that it will be printed separately
from the report. In fact, technical journals often publish lists of abstracts so that readers
can quickly determine what articles are of interest to them. Therefore, there should be no
references to figures or tables in the report, works cited, etc. The abstract should be able
to stand alone as a clear succinct summary of the work performed, and should allow a
reader to decide if the work is of sufficient interest to warrant reading the full report.
Here is an example of a well-written abstract, from the NASA Technical Paper
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 21
A Guide to Technical Communication
“Aerodynamic Characteristics
Configurations:”7
of
Two
Waverider-Derived
Hypersonic
Cruise
An evaluation was made of the effects of integrating the required aircraft
components with hypersonic high-lift configurations known as waveriders to
create hypersonic cruise vehicles. Previous studies suggest that waveriders offer
advantages in aerodynamic performance and propulsion airframe integration
(PAI) characteristics over conventional non-waverider hypersonic shapes. A
wind-tunnel model was developed that integrates vehicle components, including
canopies, engine components, and control surfaces, with two pure waverider
shapes, both conical-flow-derived waveriders for a design Mach number of 4.0.
Experimental data and limited computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solutions
were obtained over a Mach number range of 1.6 to 4.63. The experimental data
show the component build-up effects and the aerodynamic characteristics of the
fully integrated configurations, including control surface effectiveness. The
aerodynamic performance of the fully integrated configurations is not comparable
to that of the pure waverider shapes, but is comparable to previously tested
hypersonic vehicle models. Both configurations exhibit good lateral directional
stability characteristics.
Note the fact that not only does the abstract provide a description of what was done, it
also give the reader some specifics on the range of parameters investigated and the results
obtained.
Table of Contents
This is a list containing the section titles and the page numbers on which the sections
begin. Microsoft Word has a built-in Table of Contents function, which will automatically
generate and update your Table of Contents as you assemble your report. Ask your
instructor about this if you do not know how to use this feature.
Introduction and Analysis
These two sections are sometimes written as one; if the information is in a single
section, it is referred to simply as the “Introduction.” The Introduction is used to provide
an overview of the problem, and the context within which the problem exists. It also
gives the reader a background to the problem constraints, and required outcomes. It
should familiarize and orient your readers.5
Introduction
It is important to realize that the title of this section is totally descriptive of its role. It
is to introduce the reader to the report in the same way that you would “introduce a friend
to a third party.” The first element of information is the context of the work, which
should be done in a way that is important to the reader. What are the origins of your
interest in the work, and what is the motivation (purpose) for the investigation that has
been executed? Be fair – don’t overstate or understate the importance of the work being
done.5 Given the motivation, the background information can next be developed for the
reader. It is in this portion of the report that you will introduce material from texts,
handbooks, journal articles, the laboratory handouts, and other available references. You
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 22
A Guide to Technical Communication
should not copy substantial sections of previously printed material (e.g. equations); these
should be summarized with a reference.
Following the motivation and background, the material to be found in the subsequent
sections should be summarized. This will complete the introduction; the reader’s mind
will be prepared for what is to follow. The Introduction can (and often should) have
equations in it if they form part of the “background.” However, be careful not to include
unnecessary background material, or to be repetitive.
Note that if this is well done, then all subsequent statements can be fit into a rational
understanding by the reader; if it is not well done, then the reader will expend creative
energies trying to infer what is going on. Reading a report with a poor introduction is a
frustrating experience.
Analysis
The Analysis will introduce the remaining basic equations (i.e., those not yet presented
in the Introduction) and (more importantly) manipulate these into the form required to
interpret and process the experimental data. In some cases, the Analysis Section will
present the equivalent of a “result of the investigation” in that the analytical results will
be separately significant in-and-of themselves. The questions of: “what to include and
what to refer to from previously written materials,” sometimes lead to confusion. In
general, one can answer this question by observing that the analysis must be conceptually
complete…the major steps must be shown…but that lengthy and detailed considerations
are best covered by a reference to their original source. Note that at the conclusion of the
Analysis Section, the reader will be aware of what basic data are required, and what will
be calculated from these data.
Note that “data” is a plural noun; one measurement is a “datum.” Note also that the
symbols must be clearly defined - it is usually appropriate to make use of defining figures
– line drawings are usually the most appropriate in this instance (think of your
textbooks!). All of the symbols to be used should appear in a Nomenclature list (see
below), or described in the text if no Nomenclature list is included.
As a general observation, the Introduction and the Analysis sections should be written
from the perspective that they could have been written before the experiment was
executed. That is, they will include everything that could have been thought of before the
work was performed, even if some of it was not realized until the experiment was
finished.
The reader now has the information of why the experiment was performed and what
data were desired. The reader is now ready to appreciate how the experiment was
configured to provide the data and what procedures were followed to assure the
correctness of the data.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
Sometimes this section is not necessary, particularly when the report is not
documenting an experimental study. In that case, a separate Analysis section (see above)
describes how you did what you did.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 23
A Guide to Technical Communication
If you performed an experiment, this section should provide a schematic
representation of the experimental equipment, including detailed views of unusual or
important components. This information is usually a valuable aid in informing the reader
about the experiment. The sketch can be used to document pertinent dimensions of the
apparatus and it can be used to specify the experimental equipment used for the study. If
the procedure used in the experiment is not an established one, it is necessary to include
details of the techniques used. However, it should not be a simple protocol (a set of
instructions). A method section should contain context (“In order to… we…”), and does
not necessarily be in chronological order, but rather should be in the most logical order
for the reader to follow.5 The criterion here is that someone familiar with the general area
of investigation should be able to reproduce your experiments from the information given
in this section.
A common question is whether or not to include equations in the Experimental
sections, rather than the Intro/Analysis sections. A good rule of thumb is if the equations
are theoretical in nature, they belong in the Introduction. If they relate to reduction of the
experimental data based on something specific to your experimental setup, they are more
appropriate in the Experimental section.
Results and Discussion
The next section can be a “Results” or a “Results and Discussion” section; if the
former, a separate “Discussion” section would follow. The basis of selection between two
options is the volume of the results to be presented-and/or-the complexity of transforming
the primitive results into the final form. Experience is useful in making this decision and
the stylistic tastes of the writer are important in the selection as well. If one-versus-two
sections are used, then the comments below should be interpreted as applying to the
combined section.
Results
This section is the location of all results of the experiment. The results should be
introduced with appropriate prose; do not simply list a set of results such as P1 = 3.5 in.
of water, T2 = 50° F, etc. For example: “Figure 3 presents the transient temperature
distributions at different locations along the aluminum rod” or “Table 2 provides …” It is
important to differentiate between primitive and processed results; that is, the reader
should be aware of what was directly observed and what is inferred by calculations based
upon equations in the Analysis section. It is essential that ALL presented figures or tables
be referred to in the text, and have numbered, descriptive captions. The numbers must
follow the sequence in which they are introduced to the reader.
The results section should focus on presenting the data which answer the questions
asked in the Introduction of the report. Irrelevant results (e.g. raw data) should not be
presented here; rather, show them in an Appendix (see below).5
It is always appropriate to provide the reader with uncertainties. Their inclusion
expands the information content beyond that provided by the base numbers themselves.
At this point in the report, the reader has access to all of the essential and objective
information that was available to the writer. Beyond this point, the writer has the
opportunity to inform the reader of the fruits of her/his creative efforts.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 24
A Guide to Technical Communication
Discussion
The major task of this section is to interpret the results, to note what is “as expected”,
what is unexpected, and what is of technical interest. The interpretation of the results in
terms of the motivation for the experiment should obviously be focused upon. The
discussion could contain a comparison with other similar investigations as established in
the background or an explanation of discrepancies between theoretical and experimental
values. The strong points of the work should be brought out here along with any
limitations. If the writer does not point out the limitations of his/her work, someone else
surely will later. It may also be appropriate to comment on possible future investigations
or improving the experiment. When discussing the experimental results, do not use vague
references to the accuracy of the measurements; note the estimated uncertainties and their
effects on the calculated values. As mentioned above, all graphs and tables should be
discussed and referred to by their corresponding figure and table numbers.
An immensely frustrating aspect of critiquing student reports is to read a passage like:
“It is not possible to form any conclusions from the study since the results are
inaccurate.” On the contrary, it would be pleasant to read a quantitative interpretation of
how the estimated uncertainly influences the extraction of the desired information from
the available measurements.
Conclusions
In this section, present the appropriate conclusions which can be drawn from your
work; relate your findings to the original objectives; point out special features of your
work; mention limitations and discrepancies; and demonstrate how closely you have
achieved the objectives. A useful style is to start with a reiteration of the objective of the
study. Following this introductory sentence, the major conclusions can be presented in
the form of simple declarative sentences. The conclusions will follow from the items
developed in (an implied by) the material in the previous sections.
No new information (results or interpretation thereof) should appear in this section,
with the exception with recommendations for related future projects. It should serve
primarily as a summary of the major points of the work.
References
In general a list of references used should be included in any report. Great care should
be taken to follow the specified format of the organization for which the report is being
written (for example a research center may have different guidelines than a for-profit
business). In this project, all references used during the preparation of the report, or
during the design process, should be listed in the format given in the section Guidelines
for References.
Microsoft Word has a built-in Endnote function, which will automatically number and
re-number references. Ask your instructor about this if you do not know how to use this
feature.
Appendices
Sample or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are peripheral to the main theme of
the report should be placed in an appendix. This could include computer calculations,
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 25
A Guide to Technical Communication
sample calculations, extra graphs, extra tables, or extra figures. Appendices should be
referred to in the text and should therefore be labeled and have a title (e.g. Appendix A:
Motor Performance).
A criterion for deciding whether or not to put something in an appendix is to ask the
question “Does its inclusion in the main body of the report detract from the smooth flow
of the presentation?” If the answer is affirmative, and if the material contributes to the
information content of the report, then it should be presented as a separate unit. Each
appendix should be lettered; Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix should be
cited in the body of the report (if you don’t mention it, how does the reader know it’s
there?), and the appendices should be ordered based on the order of their citation
(Appendix A must be the first appendix cited in the report).
Some of the most common items to be found in an Appendix are:
Data Sheets
The original data sheet must be submitted. This may be copied or reproduced for
clarity, in which case the original should still be submitted.
Sample Calculations
This section should include examples of each type of calculation performed in the
experiment. Typically, the first and last set of data in a run should be used for sample
calculations. Each calculation should be identified by describing the part of the
experiment that it is from (or the appropriate run number), what is being calculated, and
the specific data that is being analyzed. If a number of calculations are to be performed
on the same data the run analyzed should remain the same. All units must be included,
and numerical values should have an appropriate number of significant figures. The
calculations should also be presented in an understandable manner so that the logical
connection between adjacent calculations can be seen.
Uncertainty Analysis
It is always appropriate to provide the reader with uncertainty estimates of the results.
The experimentalist is, of course, in the best position to perform such estimates. Perform
this procedure on the sample calculations.
Optional Sections
Some types of reports may need additional sections. Examples of these sections are
given here.
Nomenclature Listing
The Nomenclature listing, if included, is normally right before the Introduction. As the
name suggests, it lists and define all symbols used in the report. Note that the symbols in
the nomenclature should be arranged in alphabetical order and that Greek symbols (also
in alphabetical order) should follow after the Latin symbols. Common subscripts and
superscripts should be listed separately. Where possible, refer to an equation which
defines the symbol. Also proofread your report to ensure that all symbols are defined.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 26
A Guide to Technical Communication
Acknowledgments
Be sure to thank the people who helped you in a meaningful way, for example the
members of the technical services staff of Manhattan College, fellow students,
instructors, outside experts, and any benefactors (sources of material or funding). When
mentioning the name of someone you are thanking, also give his or her affiliation.
Acknowledgments are usually placed after the Conclusions. An example of an
Acknowledgments section is provided below:
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the Air
Force Office of Scientific Research. We would like to thank Professor Hai Wang
of the University of Southern California and Professor J. W. Bozzelli of the New
Jersey Institute of Technology for their helpful discussions.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 27
A Guide to Technical Communication
Format for Short Laboratory Reports
Occasionally, a professor will ask for a “short format” laboratory report. The idea for
such a report is a documentation of the study, with primary focus on the collection and
interpretation of the data, without significant underlying theory.
As the name suggests, this type of report is to be short, but prepared according to good
engineering practices. A short form report would contain the following sections:
Abstract
Data Sheets
Sample Calculations
Uncertainty Analysis
Results
Discussion of Results
Conclusions
References
Appendices
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 28
A Guide to Technical Communication
Design Project Reports - General Instructions
Now we will discuss the second major type of technical documents, related to design
projects. There are three types of design project reports – Proposals, Progress Reports and
Final Reports. The next three sections of this manual will discuss the format of each in
turn.
Remember, as stated in the Introduction, if an instructor provides alternate guidelines
on the format of a report, those alternate guidelines supersede the format here.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 29
A Guide to Technical Communication
Format for Design Project Proposals
The first document to be written for a design project is the proposal, which outlines
what you set out to do in your project, and how long it will take. All proposals shall
contain the following sections with proper headings as indicated:
Cover Page
A sample cover page is given in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an
electronic version in Word format is available for your use.
Table of Contents
This is a list containing the section titles and the page numbers on which the sections
begin.
Introduction
The Introduction is a brief discussion that introduces the reader to the project and
prepares the reader to understand the project as described more fully in the MAIN
BODY. It could have background information that describes why the project is
undertaken and other information that establishes the importance of the project in the
context of the course. It should have no equations and refer to no figures.
Proposal
The Proposal is the principal narrative section. It should contain the project goals, the
accomplishments and remaining tasks. Figures presented are discussed in this section.
Expenses, if any, are reported in this section.
Schedule
The Schedule refers to a Gantt chart presented as a figure that plans the project from
proposal to completion with specific dates. Discuss the principal features of the Gantt
chart in this section.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 30
A Guide to Technical Communication
Format for Design Project Progress Reports
Prepare this report for the reader who has not seen your proposal and is otherwise not
familiar with your project. All progress reports shall contain the following sections with
proper headings as indicated:
Cover Page
A sample cover page is given in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an
electronic version in Word format is available for your use.
Table of Contents
The Table of Contents lists the sections with page numbers on which the section
begins.
Introduction
The Introduction repeats and corrects, if necessary, the information in your proposal
introduction and otherwise summarizes developments through the proposal stage. The
final sentence(s) of this section introduces the reader to the discussion of the PROGRESS
TO DATE, i.e., the next section. No figures are to be presented in this section.
Progress to Date
The Progress to Date discusses in detail the progress you have made since submitting
the proposal. Explain the present state of your design with drawings and photographs as
appropriate. Discuss your calculations if included. Remember to refer to all figures in this
narrative and number the figures in the order in which you refer to them. Report expenses
to date and indicate any updates to your budget.
Schedule
The Schedule reviews your schedule of work presented in your proposal. Indicate
whether you are progressing rapidly enough at this stage. Indicate any changes in your
schedule as a reflection of your experience to date. Update your Gantt chart if necessary
and discuss the updates in this section.
Calculations (If necessary)
The Calculations section presents all calculations in an orderly fashion. Identify the
nature of each calculation and discuss the calculation in your PROGRESS TO DATE
section. All units must be included, and numerical values should have an appropriate
number of significant figures.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 31
A Guide to Technical Communication
Format for Design Project Final Reports
Prepare this report for the reader who has not seen your proposal and progress report
and is otherwise not familiar with your project. All final reports shall contain the
following sections with proper headings as indicated:
Cover Page
A sample cover page is given in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an
electronic version in Word format is available for your use.
Table of Contents
Present as in previous reports.
Executive Summary
In two pages or less, state what you accomplished in narrative form, i.e. no equations
and no figures. State the name and address of any cooperating facility. Briefly state the
accomplishments of both your project. This section serves one type of important reader,
perhaps the chief executive of a company, who only wants to know what you
accomplished and its significance. He or she may read only this section of your report
and scan the section with figures. You want to be sure that person receives the message.
[Your Project Title]
This is the main body of the report. Briefly discuss the background to supplement the
executive summary, any design constraints and success metrics for this particular
problem, and then present your final design in detail with drawings and photographs
presented as figures. Be sure to refer to all figures in the order you place them. Present a
Bill of Materials which includes sources of supplies. Give a selling price for the product.
For guidelines, double the cost of materials if it is a production item, more if it is custommade. In addition, the item in most cases should be better, cost less, or be both, than
competitive products.
Reflections
Discuss whether you accomplished your goals, where you fell short, and how you
might modify the design if you were to start again knowing what you now know.
Describe problems you encountered. Describe obstacles you overcame.
Calculations
This section presents all calculations in an orderly fashion. Identify the nature of each
calculation and discuss the calculation in your main body of the report. All units must be
included, and numerical values should have an appropriate number of significant figures
Acknowledgments
Be sure to thank the people who helped you in a meaningful way, for example the
members of the technical services staff of Manhattan College, fellow students,
instructors, outside experts, and any benefactors (sources of material or funding). When
mentioning the name of someone you are thanking, also give his or her affiliation.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 32
A Guide to Technical Communication
References
In general a list of references used should be included in any report. Great care should
be taken to follow the specified format of the organization for which the report is being
written (for example a research center may have different guidelines than a for-profit
business). In this project, all references used during the preparation of the report, or
during the design process, should be listed in the format given in the section Guidelines
for References.
Microsoft Word has a built-in Endnote function, which will automatically number and
re-number references. Ask your instructor about this if you do not know how to use this
feature.
Appendices
Sample or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are peripheral to the main theme of
the report should be placed in an appendix. This could include computer calculations,
sample calculations, extra graphs, extra tables, or extra figures. Appendices should be
referred to in the text and should therefore be labeled and have a title (e.g. Appendix A:
Motor Performance).
Sample or lengthy calculations, error analyses, lengthy derivations, or side issues that
are not really in the main theme of the report should be placed in an Appendix. A
criterion for deciding whether or not to put something in an appendix is to ask the
question “Does its inclusion in the main body of the report detract from the smooth flow
of the presentation?” If the answer is affirmative, and if the material contributes to the
information content of the report, then it should be presented as a separate unit. Each
appendix should be lettered; Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix should be
cited in the body of the report (if you don’t mention it, how does the reader know it’s
there?), and the appendices should be ordered based on the order of their citation
(Appendix A must be the first appendix cited in the report).
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 33
A Guide to Technical Communication
General Guidelines for Oral Presentations
Communication is key to being a successful engineer – unless you can write reports
and give presentations to share your findings with colleagues, managers, and others, your
findings may end up being ignored. However, you must know your audience and be able
to keep their attention. One key to keeping a group’s attention is to tell a coherent story.
A second key is brevity. Keep your talk short, simple, and to the point. Nothing makes
for an uncomfortable presentation like a long-winded, meandering story. Certain things
can be done to maintain brevity and a coherent story.
Initial Considerations
When planning an oral presentation the presenter must have a clear idea of what has to
be presented. To achieve this, a summary of key topics should be identified. Also, the
presentation should be designed to suit the background and expectations of the audience.
Finally, the presentation should be designed to fit into the allotted time for the
presentation. At technical conferences presentations typically last 20 – 30 minutes,
however, a status report presentation might some can be as short as 10 minutes while a
thesis presentation or an invited talk may be as long as 45 minutes. All of these aspects
associated with the creation of the presentation are time consuming therefore the
presenter should not underestimate the time that it takes to put together a good
presentation. A general rule of thumb is that you should spend, in average, about oneand-a-half minutes per slide. Rushing through slides is not a good practice. You should
give enough time for audience to absorb the material that you want to convey.
Preparation Guidelines
As mentioned above, you should use no more than two slides per three minutes of
presentation time. That would mean that for a 20-minute presentation, you should have
no more than 14 slides, and for a half hour presentation, you should have a maximum of
20 slides. This slide count includes the title slide. Don’t look at any of the slides and
think “I can get through this slide in only a few seconds.” If you can do that, there must
not be much information on the slide and you can merge it with the slide before or the
slide after. Remember that the first thing the audience is going to do when a new slide is
put up is look at the slide – they will not be listening to you. If you only keep the slide up
“for a few seconds,” they will barely get a chance to look at the slide, and they will not
have heard anything you have said.
Prior to the actual talk the presentation should be practiced to gauge its length, and to
ensure smooth transitions between speakers if multiple speakers are involved. In fact, it
may do you well to script your presentation. This does not mean that you should know
your presentation word for word; it does mean that you know exactly what points need to
be conveyed, and (more importantly) in what order. Know what you are going to say is
the best way to avoid (or at least minimize) the “aahs” and “umms” that are peppered in
many presentations.8 Also, prepare for anticipated questions, and in a group environment
ensure that team members do not interrupt or contradict each other when responding to
questions.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 34
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide Design and Creation
When creating the slides for the presentation, choose a slide design that is bright,
simple, and easy to print out. This prevents the audience from being distracted by the
graphics, and allows anyone to obtain copies of the slides. Also, ensure that the slides are
not too crowded, and use large visual elements to allow the slide information to be read
by audience members distant from the screen. There should be minimal text content and
what exists should be in the form of bulleted items (use the oral part of the presentation to
convey most of the word content). In general, if large amounts of information, such as
graphs, tables, etc., have to be conveyed use multiple slides. Keep in mind if you make a
slide too crowded with lots of text the audience will start reading the slides, and not pay
attention to your talk. Finally, if presentation software is being used, make sure that
backup overhead projector slides exist in case there is a problem with the projection
system.
Examples of slides for different types of presentations can be seen in Appendix B:
Sample Presentations.
To Outline or Not to Outline? That is the Question
The outline slide is a source of contention among people who regularly give
presentations, because people either love them or hate them. You professor will most
likely have an opinion, and it is not the purpose of this manual to offer an opinion.
However, the arguments for and against will be provided for the benefit of the student.
Before we get into the pros and cons, just remember that the outline of the
presentation should mimic the outline of a written report. For instance, if you are
presenting the material which would go into a laboratory report, your presentation should
have the following order:

Introduction

Analysis

Experimental Apparatus and Methodology

Results

Discussion

Conclusions
Do not prepare a slide with references. References should go at the bottom of the slides
where the information is presented. There’s a good reason for this. When you read a
paper, having all of the references at the end of the paper gives you an efficient,
organized way of accessing sources cited in the work. You can flip back and forth as you
read the paper and check the references as you go. You do not have this luxury in a
presentation, and so to understand which material is from various outside sources, the
references must be on the individual slides.
The reasons why the sections of the presentation should follow the sections of the
report is simple. The sections of a report are set up to provide a compelling story that is
easy to follow. Why should a presentation be any different? A good presentation should
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 35
A Guide to Technical Communication
have both an easy-to-follow story, and a focus. Without these points, you’ll lose your
audience.8
Okay, on to the outline versus no outline debate…
Outlines are good to generate, because they are indispensable for organization
purposes. The Outline Slide presents the audience with the path that your presentation
will follow. The slide provides the first step in a three pronged approach of giving a
presentation, “say what you are going to say, say it and say what you’ve said.” This
approach reinforces the main points of the presentation to your audience.
However, since you are aiming for brevity, an outline slide can disrupt the flow of the
story. By all means, you should have an outline worked out when you develop your
presentation, but do you want to waste a slide telling the audience about the story you’re
about to tell? Just get to the story. Instead of an outline slide, your first slide after the title
slide can outline the problem, i.e., this slide can inform the audience of the objective of
the study. If you explain what you’ve set out to do, there will be no question why you’ve
done anything that you show on subsequent slides.
So what should you do? For now, you should include one if your professor says so, or
not if he/she is against them. However, you should decide what works better for you once
you start presenting in the “real world.”
Use of Graphics
Use pictures (schematics, graphs, etc.) as the “anchors” of your slides. Keep the words
on the slides to a minimum; it will prevent you from reading directly from the slides, and
keeps the slides from being cluttered. Equations can be good, but do not go through
derivations in a presentation. Show the basic equations, followed by the final equations
used in the reduction of the data. Skip the intermediate steps, but you can mention in a
general sense how you get from the start to the finish.
Make sure that any text on the slides is large enough to be seen (this includes
equations). Here’s a good rule of thumb: Print the slides out, place them on the floor, and
stand over them. If you can read the printouts from that height (5-6 feet), the audience
should have no problem reading the slides when projected on a screen.
Presentation Issues
There are also several issues that have to be considered at the time when a presentation
is given. The first involves the presentation equipment itself. Before giving a
presentation, the equipment should be inspected for its physical arrangement and
condition to ensure that any necessary adjustments or accommodations can be made.
Remember that YOU ARE THE FOCUS DURING A PRESENTATION. The slides
are there as visual aids to help explain what you have done. There was a professor at
Princeton named Irv Glassman who, at conferences, would routinely turn off the
overhead projector (this was before laptops and Power Point presentations) after being
introduced. He would talk for a minute or two about the motivation for the research he
was presenting, and then turn on the projector again and continue. Moreover, he would
have all of his students do the same thing when they were presenting at conferences or
dissertation defenses. While the projector was off there was nothing to focus on but the
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 36
A Guide to Technical Communication
speaker. This practice would establish the speaker, rather than the slides, as the central
concern of the audience. This is a rather radical practice, and few people would be brave
enough to try something like this without significant coaching, but the logic behind the
practice is undeniable.
Before starting your presentation, remember that you are the expert on the material
you are presenting. It may be difficult to remember this at first, especially when you are a
student being evaluated on the quality of your presentation. However, when you leave
and start presenting you work in your career, this expertise will become more evident,
and therefore it will be easier for you to remember. It will probably be most evident in the
way questions are asked. In school, questions are asked by the professor to test your
knowledge. After school, colleagues will ask questions because they are interested in
what you have to say, and they want to know more. It’s an empowering feeling, and you
need to cultivate it.
When giving the actual presentation a rapport with the audience should be maintained.
This can be accomplished by working through the slide material rather than from notes; it
creates a more cohesive presentation and shows the audience that the presenter is very
familiar with the material. In fact, don’t even bring notes up to the podium with you.
They’ll serve you no purpose. The speaker should also maintain eye contact with the
audience by facing them at all times, while making sure that the projected image is not
obscured. The presenter should also talk slowly, clearly and loudly enough to allow the
audience to hear what is being said, and use a pointing device (either a telescoping
pointer or a laser pointer) to call attention to salient features on the slides. Also, slides
should not be removed too quickly, since the audience needs time to absorb the
information being presented.
Care should also be taken to ensure that the presenter creates a good impression. This
can be achieved by being presentable, neat, and well dressed. In addition, the presenter
should never chew gum, wear a hat, put his or her hands in pockets, or use fills such as
“um,” “ah,” etc. Introduce yourselves to the audience, if you haven’t already been
introduced.
Keep looking at the audience – pick individual people to focus on, but occasionally
shift to different people. Do not let your eyes stay fixed on the screen, since then you’ll
be talking away from the audience!
Do not get rattled by interruptions. They happen. In class, if you’re interrupted, it’s
done in order to improve your presentation style (to make sure you know what you’re
talking about). In other situations, if you’re interrupted, it’s probably because the person
is very interested in what you’re talking about and wants to know more.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 37
A Guide to Technical Communication
General Guidelines for Electronic Mail
Electronic mail (email) has become a common way to communicate with peers,
colleagues, superiors, employees, etc. This mode of communication has, in the past ten to
fifteen years, largely replaced the memorandum as a form of communication within an
organization, just as it has replaced the paper letter as the form of communication with
entities outside an organization. Why are emails so useful?
 Complex messages can be transmitted efficiently. Simple messages can be
transmitted via telephone or face-to-face meetings. For something a more
involved, an email is better.1
 They provide a written history. Electronic communications allow for traceability
of information transfer between entities, and thanks to modern technology, are
automatically archived “in the cloud.”1
 They potentially eliminate meetings. If you can provide updates on information
that only needs to be transmitted one way, sending a memo-type email allows
users to read information at their leisure, keeping schedules free for other items.9
You will probably be writing more emails than any other type of document, and so it
pays to know how to write them in a way that gets your point across in a clear, succinct
manner.
Just Because It’s Fast Doesn’t Mean It Should Be Informal
Many people treat emails in the same way they treat text messages; it’s a quick and
easy way to send a message to someone. This treatment of email is certainly fine in a
more familiar environment (with friends and family), but such an approach really is not
the most appropriate for business communication. Here are two emails recently sent to
me, which serve as examples of what not to do (the names have been removed to protect
the not-so-innocent):
from:
Cxxxxx <cxxxxx.student@manhattan.edu>
to: "john.leylegian@manhattan.edu" <john.leylegian@manhattan.edu>
date:
Fri, Feb 8, 2013 at 8:20 AM
subject: Class Absence
mailed-by:
manhattan.edu
Hello professor
I will be unable to make it to class today due to inclement weather. Can u email
me the topics to be covered in class today? Thank you and stay safe.
From,
Cxxxxx
Sent from my iPhone
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 38
A Guide to Technical Communication
from:
Mxxxxx <mxxxxxx@me.com>
to: "john.leylegian@manhattan.edu" <john.leylegian@manhattan.edu>
date:
Fri, Apr 26, 2013 at 8:00 AM
subject: Hey professor
mailed-by:
me.com
Hey Professor,
I will not be coming into class this morning , I have an early appointment with
the passport bureau to get my passport for my upcoming France trip.
Thank You
Mxxxxx
Both of these email messages exhibit a level of familiarity not appropriate for business
email messages. In the first, the student wrote the email as if it were a text message,
complete with a “u” where a “you” belonged. The second message has a subject line not
indicative of the subject of the message, and an overly familiar greeting.
TAKE YOUR TIME… and it doesn’t have to be a lot of time. When you write an
email that is in a professional capacity, write it as if it were going to be read by a
potential employer, since it very well might, but more on that in the next section.
Who Will Be Reading Your Email?
Who are you writing to? The short answer is: More people than you think. You might
have an initial distribution for your email (people who you are sending to, then others
who are carbon copy (cc:) or blind carbon copy (bcc:) recipients), but forwarding an
email only takes a single click. Recipients of your email may think it should have a wider
distribution; so for better or worse, your email may end up in the inbox of almost anyone.
This fact makes it imperative that you put your best face forward.
When replying to an email the question of distribution is just as important. You should
know the difference between “Reply” and “Reply All.” There are two reasons for taking
care with distribution for replies. First, you do not want to be the person who needlessly
clutters other people’s Inboxes with information that does not apply to them. Second, if a
message is sensitive in nature, it is important to make sure only the people who need
information are getting it.
If only the sender needs to see your response, make sure you “Reply” rather than
“Reply All.” Remember: you can always re-send an email to a larger audience, you can’t
“unsend” though.
Subject Line
The subject line is the first thing your recipients will see. Therefore, it should be a
clear, very concise description of what is to follow. Remember that if you do not your
email may not be given the attention it deserves.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 39
A Guide to Technical Communication
Another important thing to remember about subject lines: some anti-spam filters may
block a legitimate email you’re trying to send because a subject line is vague, misspelled,
or some other “red flag” is raised. Normally the best way to keep people’s emails out of
your spam folder is to make sure they are in your Address Book. You should also check
your Spam folder regularly to make sure important messages are not being inadvertently
ignored.
Keep the Length Appropriate
An email should not be more than one or two pages in length. If you find that it needs
to be longer, perhaps you should consider writing a report to convey your ideas.
Format
There are many different formats for memos which could apply to email
communications. They can be informational or instructional in nature, and more
information on these formats may be found in References 1 and 9. The important thing to
remember is, like in reports, to tell a clear, coherent story.
Write an Initial Draft, Then Revise!
When you start to write an email, you may write in a “stream of consciousness”
manner; that is, you will just start to write as ideas pop into your head. This type of
writing is okay to articulate your thoughts, but they typically do not come out in a
reasonable order. Therefore, once you have your ideas out, they need to be organized into
a more logical manner to the reader.10
Use the first draft to get your ideas down in writing. The next one or two drafts should
be used to fit your thoughts into a coherent format. Finally, polish up what you want to
say in the final draft.
Attachments
There are three main issues when dealing with attachments.
First, don’t forget them! If you have attachments for your email, they should be
included as soon as you think they are necessary. If you don’t include them right away,
you might forget them altogether. At this point, you’ll need to write the sheepish mea
culpa: “Sorry, forgot to include the attachment(s).” Avoid this mistake at all costs!
Second, try to keep attachments in formats that you know your recipients can read.
Things like text files, pdfs, Word documents, Excel workbooks, etc. are best. Files in
other formats should not be sent unless you know that the recipient has the correct
application.
Third, be aware of limitations on overall attachment size for emails. You might not be
able to send very large files, and your recipients may not be able to receive them. In this
case, offer a link to the file accessible on the cloud. Applications like Google Drive,
Dropbox, or internal network drives can be used for this purpose.
Proofreading, You Still STILL Need to Do It!
Before you hit “Send,” take a last look at it. Make sure everything is spelled correctly,
grammar and punctuation are correct, the flow of the story is correct, and any attachments
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 40
A Guide to Technical Communication
are included. If it’s really important, ask a colleague, and be sure to return the favor if
he/she asks you.
One consultor once said at one of our meetings, “If someone sends me an email
riddled with grammatical and/or spelling errors, would I want him or her designing a new
airplane, or a car, or even a coffee maker?” Remember, you only get one chance for a
good first impression.
Don’t Hit Send in Anger
An important thing to always remember about emails and SMS messages: subtle clues
about intonation, body language, etc., are non-existent. In addition, we all at one time or
another have gotten heavily invested in the work we have done, and a result is
hypersensitivity. A seemingly innocuous message could easily set someone off if it is
misread. Therefore, we offer two pieces of advice:
First, when sending emails, refrain from any type of language which could easily be
misconstrued as hostile. Leave tongue-in-cheek comments, sarcasm, and the like for inperson exchanges, where they may go over better. If you’re not sure, ask someone to read
your email before you send it.
Second, if someone has overblown a comment you made in an email, nip it in the bud.
Calmly apologize, and try not to make the same mistake again. Business emails are not
the correct setting for a flame war. No one wins.
Closing and Signatures
An email is a letter, and therefore should have a closing. The most common closing in
business emails uses a pre-composed signature, but any closing used in business letters,
e.g., Sincerely, Regards, etc. are appropriate as well. Sometimes both the closing and the
signature are used together.
Signatures, if your company uses them, should be standard. Usually if you are a new
hire, guidelines for communications are laid out and expected of all employees. A big
reason for uniformity is branding. Try to keep uniform between computer and mobile
devices. For example, here is the standard signature used by Manhattan College:
----------------------John C. Leylegian, PhD
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Riverdale, NY 10471
Phone: 718-862-7279
Fax: 718-862-7163
john.leylegian@manhattan.edu
www.manhattan.edu
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 41
A Guide to Technical Communication
The font, including the color, bold face/italicization, etc., was standardized by the
College. On the other hand, if you frequently send emails from a smart phone you might
not be able to have an elaborate signature set up on your smartphone. In that case, use a
plain text version, such as:
-John C. Leylegian
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Manhattan College
Riverdale, NY 10471
Phone: 718-862-7279
Fax: 718-862-7163
john.leylegian@manhattan.edu
www.manhattan.edu
---------------------------Sent from my DROID
If you can apply the rules for good technical writing to your approach to emails, you
will be a great deal ahead of your peers when you find yourself in the business world.
Emails versus SMS (Text) Messages
Text messages were mentioned earlier, as an example of what not to do in an email.
Text messages were originally limited to 160 characters, because this was considered the
maximum length necessary to concisely express a thought.11 For this reason, SMS is not
really the best way to communicate complex ideas, and you should probably avoid it
whenever possible.
If you need to send business messages via SMS, remember that the rules for email
should still apply. Conduct yourself professionally, avoid abbreviations and emoticons,
and be clear and concise in your communication.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 42
A Guide to Technical Communication
General Guidelines for Voicemail
When you work you will often need to leave voice mail messages for colleagues, or
people who you would like to be potential colleagues. Voicemail differs slightly from
email since voicemails aren’t necessarily editable (some voicemail systems allow you to
re-record a voicemail, but this feature is far from ubiquitous). Therefore, here are some
simple guidelines when you want to leave a voicemail message for someone:12
 Plan out what you’d like to say before you call. Write out a few key notes to help
you. This way, you don’t lose your train of thought or fill your message with
awkward pauses.
 Begin by clearly stating your name and a contact number.
 State your purpose for calling. Be specific and eliminate any confusion. Avoid
rambling.
 End your message with a plan to call again on a specific day. This lets the
recipient off the hook if they are unable to call back, and ensures you’re not
waiting around for a return phone call.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 43
A Guide to Technical Communication
References
1
Eisenberg, A., Effective Technical Communication, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1992, Chaps 2-5, 12.
2
Longuski, J., Advice to Rocket Scientists, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Reston, VA, 2003, Chaps 21-24.
3
Course materials for 2.272 Project Laboratory, Spring 2009. MIT OpenCourseWare,
URL: http://ocw.mit.edu, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [cited 24 June 2011].
4
Straker, D., Types of Data, Changing Minds Website, Syque, URL:
http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/measurement/types_data.htm [cited 6
April 2008].
5
Belcher, A., Endy, D., Kuldell, and Stachowiak, A., Course materials for 20.109
Laboratory Fundamentals in Biological Engineering, Fall 2007. MIT OpenCourseWare,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology http://ocw.mit.edu [cited 24 June 2011].
6
AIAA ScholarOne Manuscripts Page, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/aiaa [cited 19 December 2012].
7
Cockrell, C. E. Jr., Huebner, L. D., and Finley, D. B., “Aerodynamic Characteristics of
TwoWaverider-Derived Hypersonic Cruise Configurations” NASA TP-3559, Jul 1996.
8
Daum, K., “5 Tips for Giving Really Amazing Presentations,” Roaring or Boring, 3 July
2013, Inc. URL: http://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/5-tips-for-giving-really-amazingpresentations.html [cited 8 July 2013].
9
Connor, P., Business Memos, Writing@CSU, Colorado State University, URL:
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=73 [cited 19 June 2013].
10
Mias, C. and Zinn, M., Personal Communication, 4 April 2013.
11
Milian, M., “Why text messages are limited to 160 characters,” Technology Blog, 3
May 2009, Los Angeles Times URL: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/
2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html [cited 26 June 2013].
12
McClain, A., “How to Leave a Good Voicemail Message,” eHow Tech, URL:
http://www.ehow.com/how_7516281_leave-good-voicemail-message.html [cited 26 June
2013].
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 44
A Guide to Technical Communication
Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets
The following pages provide some cover sheets for different types of reports. These
cover sheets can be found in files on the Mechanical Engineering Department Blackboard
site for your use. Just be sure to replace all of the pertinent information.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 45
A Guide to Technical Communication
MECH 405 (02)
Thermal/Fluids Laboratory
Experiment No. 4
Forced Convection
Report Submitted to
Dr. Mohammad Naraghi
Group 3
John Aquino
James Knapp
Richard Thomas
Experiment Performed: 14 April 2003
Report Submitted: 28 April 2003
Mechanical Engineering Department
Manhattan College
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 46
A Guide to Technical Communication
MECH 211-01
Introduction to Design
DESIGN PROJECT
Proposal
Group A
Eric Clegg
Philip Ng
Thomas Langowski
September 22, 2004
Mechanical Engineering Department
Manhattan College
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 47
A Guide to Technical Communication
MECH 401 (01)
Mechanical Engineering Design
Progress Report
Project: Easy Rider Cart
Report submitted to
Dr. Daniel Haines
20 October 2002
Group B
Twisted Minds Inc.
Charles Dickens
Mary Murphy
James Patterson
Mechanical Engineering Department
Manhattan College
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 48
A Guide to Technical Communication
MECH 401 (01)
Mechanical Engineering Design
Final Report
Project: Easy Rider Cart
Report submitted to
Dr. Daniel Haines
10 December 2002
Group B
Twisted Minds Inc.
Charles Dickens
Mary Murphy
James Patterson
Mechanical Engineering Department
Manhattan College
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 49
A Guide to Technical Communication
Appendix B: Sample Presentations
In general, there are only three types of oral presentations that are associated with the
engineering field: design presentations, presentations of experimental or theoretical work,
and presentations describing state-of-the-art material. On the following pages there are
frameworks for the first two types. It should be noted that these are only guidelines, and
depending on the situation more than one slide may be needed to cover a specific issue,
some slides may not be necessary, or a specific topic may be missing altogether.
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 50
A Guide to Technical Communication
Experimental Study Slides
Slide 1
Experimental Study Title
Names of Group Members
Course Number
Slide 2
Introduction
Use bullets to outline the objective of the
project in question
Use a slide design that is bright and easy
to print out.
Provide a background to the problem
Discuss the State-of-the-Art
Slide 3
Theory and/or Hypothesis
The basic principles
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 51
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 4
Experimental Design
Discuss full or partial factorial design
chosen
Discuss the use of any confounding or
blocking
Slide 5
Test Equipment Setup
Use text, pictures,
and/or diagrams
Clearly annotate the
pictures
Describe the
methodology
Slide 6
Data Measured
? Present a sample of the raw data when
appropriate, i.e., when data processing
involves more than simple algebra
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 52
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 7
Statistical Analysis
Present the statistical analyses
ANOVA
Regressions
Confidence intervals
Chi squared test
Slide 8
Slide 9
Tables/Graphs of Data
Discussion of the Results
Discuss salient features of the data and
trends observed
Discuss any anomalies
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 53
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 10
Conclusion
Present the conclusions that can be drawn
from the experiment
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 54
A Guide to Technical Communication
Design Study Slides
Slide 1
Design Study Title
Names of Group Members
Course Number
Slide 2
Introduction
Use bullets to outline the objective of the
project in question
Use a slide design that is bright and easy
to print out.
Objective of Project
Slide 3
Specifications
Present requirements and constraints
State the what’s that needed to be done
Present and Quality Function Deployment
(QFD) analysis
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 55
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 4
Conceptual Designs
Present the fours conceptual designs that
were examined
Use text, pictures, and/or diagrams
Slide 5
Slide 6
Design Selection Matrix
Detailed Design
Design Analysis (assumptions, sample
calculation, and results)
Use text, pictures, and/or diagrams
Present material selection process
Reliability analysis
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 56
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 7
Prototype Performance
Present performance data and graphs
Slide 8
Manufacturing Issues
Processes to be used
Slide 9
Economic Analysis
Part costing
Manufacturing costing
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 57
A Guide to Technical Communication
Slide 10
Conclusion
Present the salient features of the design
Last Updated 8/22/2013
Page 58