Tennessee Department of Education
Literacy, Grades 3 - 5: School Team Training Series
Participant Packet
TNCore Summer Training 2014
The contents of this manual were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education. However, those contents
do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the
Federal Government.
Tennessee Department of Education
School Team Training Series
Literacy 3-5
Summer 2014
Section
Opening
Table of Contents
Title
Course Goals and Setting the Stage
Tab 1, page 1
SRSD Introduction
SRSD Introduction
Tab 2, page 11
Stage 1
Activate and Develop Background Knowledge
Tab 3, page 35
Stage 2
Discuss It
Tab 4, page 67
Stage 3
Model It
Tab 5, page 81
Stage 4
Memorize It
Tab 6, page 113
Stage 5
Support It
Tab 7, page 117
Stage 6
Independent Practice
Tab 8, page 123
Appendix
Resources
Tab 9, page 129
Opening
Welcome to 2014-15 TNCore Training
Our Goal:
Support collaborative learning focused on increasing
student achievement in Tennessee.
How Will We Achieve that Goal?
 Peer-led discussion and collaboration
 Direct applications to our classrooms and schools
 Focus on student work
This summer’s School Team Training Series has three
tracks:
 PreK -2 Math & Literacy
 Grades 3-12 Math
 Grades 3-12 Literacy
1
What the School Team Training Series Is and Is Not
What it is
Peer led; Teachers learning alongside
teachers
TDOE-prescribed course of action
Content-specific strategies and
discussions
General discussion of instructional
practices
A yearlong learning series with bridge to
practice exercises
Only a summer workshop or isolated PD
experience
Focused on student learning
Focused on compliance
New content
A repeat of teacher content from this
past summer
Sit and get content
Connected to our own students’ work
2
What it is not
School Team Training Series Model
Learning Leader Experience
3
Participant Experience
4
Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement
5
Training Norms:
 Keep students at the center of focus and decision-making
 Be present and engaged – limit distractions, if urgent matters
come up, step outside
 Monitor air time and share your voice – you’ll know which
applies to you!
 Challenge with respect – disagreement can be healthy,
respect all intentions
 Be solutions oriented – for the good of the group, look for
the possible
 Risk productive struggle – this is safe space to get out of your
comfort zone
 Balance urgency and patience – we need to see dramatic
change and change will happen over time
6
School Team Training Series Literacy Learning Leader Agenda
June 2014
Day 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Context
Session
Time
Introduction and
Welcome
8:00-8:15
Opening
8:15-9:15
Coaches to LL only
July/August Opening
9:15-9:30
Participants will receive in July/August
Literacy Opening
9:30-10:00
Break
10:00-10:15
Breakout 1
10:15-11:30
Lunch
11:30-12:30
Breakout 2
12:30-1:30
Break
1:30-1:45
Breakout 3
1:45-3:00
Coaches to LL only
Participants will receive in July/August
Participants will receive in July/August
Participants will receive in July/August
Day 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session
Time
Welcome
8:00-8:10
Breakout 4
8:10-9:10
Break
9:10-9:25
Breakout 5
9:25-10:00
Context
Participants will receive in July/August
Coaches to LL only
7
Breakout 6
10:00-11:30
Lunch
11:30-12:30
Breakout 7
12:30-2:00
Break
2:00-2:15
Breakout 8
2:15-3:00
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
Day 3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8
Session
Time
Context
Breakout 9
8:10-9:40
Coaches to LL only
Break
9:40-9:55
Breakout 10
9:55-11:30
Lunch
11:30-12:30
Breakout 11
12:30-2:00
Break
2:00-2:15
Closing
2:15-3:00
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
Coaches to LL only
School Team Training Series School Participant
Sample Literacy 3-12 Agenda 2014-15
July/August In-service 2014
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session
Anticipated Time Length
TDOE Opening
15 minutes
8:00-8:15
Literacy Opening
30 minutes
8:15-8:45
Literacy Breakout 1
1 hour 15 minutes
8:45-10:00
Break
15 minutes
Literacy Breakout 2
1 hour
10:15-11:15
Lunch
1 hour
11:15-12:15
Literacy Breakout 3
1 hour 15 minutes
12:15-1:30
Break
15 minutes
1:30-1:45
Literacy Breakout 4
1 hour
1:45-2:45
Sample Schedule*
10:00-10:15
PLC
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session
Fall PLC #1
Fall PLC #2
Anticipated Time Length
Sample Schedule*
45 minutes
August/Early September
45 minutes
October/Early November
9
January ½ Day
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session
Anticipated Time Length
Sample Schedule*
Breakout 1
1 hour 25 minutes
8:00-9:25
Break
10 minutes
9:25-9:35
Breakout 2
1 hour 25 minutes
9:35-11:00
PLC
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session
Anticipated Time Length
Sample Schedule*
Spring PLC #1
45 minutes
January/Early February
45 minutes
March/Early April
Spring PLC #2
10
Intro to SRSD
Introduction to Self-Regulated
Strategy Development (SRSD)
Acknowledgements
The Self-regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) Approach was created by Dr. Karen Harris of Arizona
State University, and colleagues. Many of the materials included in this presentation draw from
resources on SRSD available in: Harris, K.R., Graham, S., Mason, L.H., & Friedlander, B. (2008). Powerful
Writing Strategies for All Students. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.
© 2014 thinkSRSD. Leslie Laud, Debra McKoewn, Pooja Patel, Barbara Friendlander and Erin Fitzpatrick
contributed to the development and refinement of the materials included in this presentation. We also
express gratitude to Karen Harris for her support and contributions in creating this presentation.
The naming of publications, websites or other resources cited in the materials is by no means an
exhaustive list of examples. The Tennessee Department of Education does not endorse or promote
specific vendors.
11
Introduction to SRSD
Goals
Participants will:




Identify the Stages of Self-regulated Strategy Development (SRSD).
Outline the Bridge to Practice format.
Reflect on your current writing practices using a self-assessment.
Review the Common Core State Standards for Writing and Language; understand how SRSD can
support students in achieving the Common Core State Standards.
List of Materials






12
What is SRSD?
SRSD Overview
Bridge to Practice Chart for STTS 1-12 ELA Training
Self-assessment of Writing Practices
Common Core State Standards for ELA
o Writing Grade 3
o Writing Grade 4
o Writing Grade 5
o Language Grade 3
o Language Grade 4
o Language Grade 5
Definitions of the Standards’ Three Text Types (From Appendix A of the CCSS)
What is SRSD?
SRSD stands for “Self-Regulated Strategy Development.” It was developed based on extensive evidencebased research. SRSD is a pedagogy designed to help students improve their writing through strategy
instruction and self-regulation.
There are two fundamental concepts of SRSD:
Self-regulation:
“Deliberate, conscious control of cognitive activity.”
Strategy:
“Plan of action used to achieve an overall aim.”
(Quotes from Dr. Karen Harris)
Important points to remember:







SRSD is not a scripted program
SRSD is a pedagogical framework
SRSD is a collection of best practices
SRSD offers resources for teachers to use when teaching writing
SRSD involves a Six-stage Gradual Release Model
SRSD incorporates the writing process: plan, write, revise, publish
SRSD offers explicit support and immersion in real writing
13
SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
14
15
Bridge to
Practice 1
Component
Recommended
timing
Within first
month of
school (Note:
Best done
Diagnostic/pre-assessment task:
1. In teams, decide on a writing task to
administer to your students as a diagnostic.
The newly released PARCC Practice Test
Task

Notes
Teachers have flexibility in selecting the task.
The writing task should meet the following
criteria:
o At least two complex texts
Introduction: The following sequence of Bridge to Practice activities and PLC meetings is designed to augment the content of 2014 summer
TNCore literacy training (grades 1-12). The spring semester (starting in January) repeats a second round of the same activities from the fall
semester but using new materials so that schools on block schedule can start again using the same sequence of activities with a fresh group of
students. This sequence can apply equally to teachers of ELA and the literacy content areas of history/social studies, science, and technical
subjects. Literacy teachers should find tasks (several such tasks are posted to www.tncore.org) or create tasks (2013 summer TNCore training
includes modules on creating high-level tasks) using texts from their content areas.
Bridge to Practice Chart for STTS 1-12 ELA Training
16
second week)
* Some schools arrange for 2-3 hours of coverage for
teachers to meet in teams to score together. Scoring
in grade level teams is encouraged. For help when
scoring, consult scoring guideline sheets, as needed.
Scoring blind to student and blind to time of test (pre
or post/beginning of year or end of year) is best. A
selection (33% maybe) should be scored by at least 2
people independently, and all scores that are below
criterion (set by school) should be scored by at least 2
people. Disagreements can be resolved through
discussion, not averaging. Sort students papers into
three piles (strong, moderate and requires extra
support) to guide differentiating instruction. For
more information on planning and conducting scoring
meetings, consult the handout labeled “Writing
Scoring Meeting Preparation, Scoring Meeting
Agenda, and PLC Agenda Protocols.”
5.
4.
3.
2.
(Research Simulation Tasks) is recommended.
Administer the task as a timed, on-demand
assessment. This should be a “cold” read and
write. Students should be given no support
during this task, as is done in timed ondemand writing assessments.
Collect student work and read the writing
pieces.
Read the writing pieces again, but this time
score with scales, preferably the scales
provided* (fine to adapt these, as needed).
Enter data from scored writing into excel
sheets provided, so that you begin a yearlong tracker of writing data.



Writing-to-sources prompt that
requires students to incorporate
information from at least two stimulus
texts
o Informational/explanatory focus
(analytical writing)
Teachers may select the writing task from:
o PARCC sample items or practice tests
(RST—Research Simulation Task)
o Released 2013-14 Tennessee writing
prompts (Phase I, II, or III)
o Teacher- or PLC-created/selected
prompt that meets the above criteria
(other good sources might be
www.achievethecore.org or other
states’ Common Core websites)
It is important for the PLC to agree on a
common checklist or rubric to use throughout
the year so students have consistent
expectations. Model scales are offered.
If possible, schedule extra PLC time to analyze
your current students’ results from last year’s
(spring 2014) Tennessee Writing Assessment
to form a more complete picture of student
writing ability
o
17
Within first
month of
school
First quarter
Fall PLC #1
(45
minutes)
Bridge to
Practice 2
Analyze diagnostic student work:
1. Analyze student work already entered into
excel data sheets with colleagues: discuss
trends, weaknesses, strengths across classes.
Determine key areas of improvement for first
quarter. Set next instructional steps.
2. Bring suggestions for new sources and/or
prompts (aligned to the same writing mode
as diagnostic), and choose from these to use
for next tasks used in Bridge to Practice 2.
3. For more information on planning and
conducting this PLC meeting, consult the
handout labeled “Writing Scoring Meeting
Preparation, Scoring Meeting Agenda, and
PLC Agenda Protocols.”
1. Assign the second task, but this time spend
several lessons working on it with students,
providing support. Focus on reading
comprehension through close reading of
stimulus texts, the writing process, and SRSD
strategies. Grades 1-5 teachers should also
incorporate explicit teaching of Reading:
Foundational skills. In instruction and
support, emphasize key areas of
improvement as determined from diagnostic
results.
2. Assign a new task and collect it for a
formative assessment. This should be
another “cold” read and write, like the
diagnostic. Students should not receive
instruction on reading these texts or any
support with the writing.
3. Score all cold write samples with scale, enter
data into excel templates (year-long tracker)






If possible, do the writing task yourself first.
Ideally, during step one teachers will assign
multiple tasks over the course of a quarter for
students to continue to gain practice and
improve writing in the selected mode. Writing
tasks can be embedded within units and
should use extended/supplemental unit texts
when possible. Tasks should correspond with
curricular topics of focus.
Ensure that the majority of teaching time is
spent instructing and scaffolding students as
needed. Cold reads/writes will only be done
occasionally to check in on student progress.
It can be helpful to have students color code
and score their cold write before turning it in
for teacher scoring.
Teachers have flexibility in selecting task. PLCs
may select another writing task from the
Bridge to Practice 1 list.
If time, review SRSD Self-Assessment and
complete this again. Discuss which elements of
SRSD listed in the self-assessment you might
further highlight in your teaching of writing.
18
End of first
quarter
Second quarter
Fall PLC #2
(45
minutes)
Bridge to
Practice 3
Analyze second round of student work:
1. Analyze student work in data sheets: discuss
trends, weaknesses, strengths across classes.
Determine key areas of improvement for
second quarter.
2. For more information on planning and
conducting this PLC meeting, consult the
handout labeled “Writing Scoring Meeting
Preparation, Scoring Meeting Agenda, and
PLC Agenda Protocols.”
Differentiation/re-teaching:
1. Select a small group of students who, based
on results from diagnostic and second essay,
have not made significant improvements in
writing ability.
2. Design extra small group
support/intervention activities for these
students targeted to their specific needs
(based on data from scale).
3. Work with those students in small groups on
revising their second “cold” writing task,
and/or on continued writing tasks, as
needed.
4. Invite colleague(s) to observe a lesson and
offer feedback. Teachers can ask for what
kind of feedback they would find most
helpful such as: what kind of support did they
offer? What did students say to each other
while working?
5. Bring a list of questions around writing
instruction, differentiation, and SRSD to the
and bring data sheets to next PLC. (For notes
on scoring, see BTP1 assignment.)


Teachers should analyze data to evaluate
individual student growth and determine
which students require differentiation. This
might include writing enrichment
opportunities, or additional support or
intervention.
Reflect again on the SRSD Self-Assessment.
Which practices are you using now and which
might you emphasize more?
19
Within first
month of
spring
semester
(Note: Best
done second
week)
Within first
month of
spring
semester
Bridge to
Practice 4
Third quarter
End of third
quarter
Bridge to
Practice 5
Spring PLC
#2 (45
minutes)
Spring PLC
#1 (45
minutes)
End of first
semester
January PD
day (1/2
day)
Analyze second round of student work: As in fall PLC
#2.
Assign and score a task: As in Bridge to Practice #2,
except this time choose a new task for schools on
year-long schedules.
Analyze diagnostic/pre-assessment student work: As
in fall PLC #1.
Diagnostic/pre-assessment task: As in Bridge to
Practice #1 above, except this time choose a task in
the opinion/argument mode. For schools on block
schedule, this will serve as a diagnostic for a new
group of students, and these teachers may decide
which mode to work on.
January PD. Also, bring pre/post writing
samples that show strong gains, and that
show students struggling to make gains.
Introduce Opinion/Argument writing

Pre-assessment opinion/argument prompts
and sources will be offered in advance and
teachers have the option of bringing these to
the January PD day. That way, when we go
over scoring for Opinion/Argument, teachers
will have their own students’ work that they
can use to practice as they learn scoring for
this new mode.
Self-Assessment of Writing Practices: What’s Familiar? What’s New?
Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is a package of practices, many of which are
familiar and you use already. We recognize that as practicing teachers you bring a wealth
of knowledge about effective writing instruction. This list is not evaluative but a formative
assessment (for just you) to identify which ideas or combinations may be familiar or new.
The purpose is to help you focus your learning on what may be new ideas for you, as you
participate in this course. Thank you for taking the time to complete this.
Rate yourself 1-4:
1—I do this often
2—occasionally
3—have tried it
4—haven’t tried
yet
Stage 1: Activate and Develop Background Knowledge
I pre-assess students’ ability to write in a mode before I begin teaching that mode.
I pre-assess students’ knowledge of what should be included in a mode before teaching
that mode.
I provide mnemonics to help students recall steps or parts of a mode.
I provide writing exemplars for students to review, both published and student written.
I teach the parts of a mode, and ensure students understand these before writing.
Stage 2: Discuss it
I have students identify parts of a mode in an exemplar.
I provide graphic organizers for writing, or systems to create these.
I have students analyze and repair weak samples collaboratively, and then independently.
I have students articulate how strategies help them and where they might use them.
Stage 3: Model it
I encourage my students to use positive self-talk when they write.
I model think alouds that focus on how to approach writing strategically from start to
finish.
I lead collaborative writes with my students participating.
I have students score their own writing, repeatedly using the same scale so they see
growth.
I have students graph their gains when writing.
I have students set and monitor their goals when they write.
Stage 4: Memorize it
I review strategies such as mnemonics and self-regulations practices daily until
internalized.
Stage 5: Support it
I provide regular writing practice, offering support as needed, until all master the
standards.
I teach students how to offer structured, constructive peer feedback.
I fade dependence on graphic organizers so students develop internalized systems for
planning.
I fade dependence on teacher prompting so students use writing process steps
independently.
I provide regular feedback on student writing, use of strategies and use of self-regulation.
I confer with students in small groups.
Stage 6: Independent Performance
I ensure students use strategies and self-regulation independently.
I help students fade the self-direction they use from overtly directing themselves, to
covert.
I check to ensure students have transferred their use of strategies to other settings.
I collect final post assessments to ensure students mastered specified standards.
20
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English Language Arts Standards » Writing » Grade 3
Text Types and Purposes
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.1 Write opinion pieces on topics or texts, supporting a point of view with
reasons.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.1a Introduce the topic or text they are writing about, state an opinion, and
create an organizational structure that lists reasons.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.1b Provide reasons that support the opinion.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.1c Use linking words and phrases (e.g., because, therefore) to connect
opinion and reasons.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.1d Provide a concluding statement or section.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic, convey ideas and
information clearly.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2a Introduce a topic and group related information together; include
illustrations when useful to aiding comprehension.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2b Develop the topic with facts, definitions, and details.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2c Use linking words and phrases (e.g., also, another, and, more, but) to
connect ideas within categories of information.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2d Provide a concluding statement or section.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using
effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3a Establish a situation and introduce a narrator and/or characters; organize
an event sequence that unfolds naturally.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3b Use dialogue and descriptions of actions, thoughts, and feelings to develop
experiences and events or show the response of characters to situations.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3c Use temporal words and phrases to signal event order.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3d Provide a sense of closure.
Production and Distribution of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.4 With guidance and support from adults, produce writing in which the
development and organization are appropriate to task and purpose. (Grade-specific expectations for
writing types are defined in standards 1–3 above.)
21
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.5 With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen
writing as needed by planning, revising, and editing. (Editing for conventions should demonstrate
command of Language standards 1-3 up to and including grade 3 here.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.6 With guidance and support from adults, use technology to produce and publish
writing (using keyboarding skills) as well as to interact and collaborate with others.
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.7 Conduct short research projects that build knowledge about a topic.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.8 Recall information from experiences or gather information from print and
digital sources; take brief notes on sources and sort evidence into provided categories.
Range of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and
revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks,
purposes, and audiences.
22
English Language Arts Standards » Writing » Grade 4
Text Types and Purposes
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.1 Write opinion pieces on topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons
and information.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.1a Introduce a topic or text clearly, state an opinion, and create an
organizational structure in which related ideas are grouped to support the writer’s purpose.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.1b Provide reasons that are supported by facts and details.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.1c Link opinion and reasons using words and phrases (e.g., for instance, in
order to, in addition).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.1d Provide a concluding statement or section related to the opinion
presented.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and
information clearly.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2a Introduce a topic clearly and group related information in paragraphs and
sections; include formatting (e.g., headings), illustrations, and multimedia when useful to aiding
comprehension.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2b Develop the topic with facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or
other information and examples related to the topic.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2c Link ideas within categories of information using words and phrases
(e.g., another, for example, also, because).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2d Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or
explain the topic.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2e Provide a concluding statement or section related to the information or
explanation presented.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using
effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3a Orient the reader by establishing a situation and introducing a narrator
and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3b Use dialogue and description to develop experiences and events or show
the responses of characters to situations.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3c Use a variety of transitional words and phrases to manage the sequence of
events.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3d Use concrete words and phrases and sensory details to convey
experiences and events precisely.
23

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3e Provide a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or
events.
Production and Distribution of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization
are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (Grade-specific expectations for writing types are
defined in standards 1–3 above.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.5 With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen
writing as needed by planning, revising, and editing. (Editing for conventions should demonstrate
command of Language standards 1-3 up to and including grade 4 here.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.6 With some guidance and support from adults, use technology, including the
Internet, to produce and publish writing as well as to interact and collaborate with others; demonstrate
sufficient command of keyboarding skills to type a minimum of one page in a single sitting.
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.7 Conduct short research projects that build knowledge through investigation of
different aspects of a topic.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.8 Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information
from print and digital sources; take notes and categorize information, and provide a list of sources.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis,
reflection, and research.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.9a Apply grade 4 Reading standards to literature (e.g., “Describe in depth a
character, setting, or event in a story or drama, drawing on specific details in the text [e.g., a
character’s thoughts, words, or actions].”).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.9b Apply grade 4 Reading standards to informational texts (e.g., “Explain
how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text”).
Range of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and
revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks,
purposes, and audiences.
24
English Language Arts Standards » Writing » Grade 5
Text Types and Purposes
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.1 Write opinion pieces on topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons
and information.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.1a Introduce a topic or text clearly, state an opinion, and create an
organizational structure in which ideas are logically grouped to support the writer’s purpose.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.1b Provide logically ordered reasons that are supported by facts and details.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.1c Link opinion and reasons using words, phrases, and clauses
(e.g., consequently, specifically).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.1d Provide a concluding statement or section related to the opinion
presented.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and
information clearly.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2a Introduce a topic clearly, provide a general observation and focus, and
group related information logically; include formatting (e.g., headings), illustrations, and multimedia
when useful to aiding comprehension.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2b Develop the topic with facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or
other information and examples related to the topic.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2c Link ideas within and across categories of information using words,
phrases, and clauses (e.g., in contrast, especially).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2d Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or
explain the topic.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.2e Provide a concluding statement or section related to the information or
explanation presented.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using
effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3a Orient the reader by establishing a situation and introducing a narrator
and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3b Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, and pacing, to
develop experiences and events or show the responses of characters to situations.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3c Use a variety of transitional words, phrases, and clauses to manage the
sequence of events.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3d Use concrete words and phrases and sensory details to convey
experiences and events precisely.
25

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.3e Provide a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or
events.
Production and Distribution of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization
are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (Grade-specific expectations for writing types are
defined in standards 1–3 above.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.5 With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen
writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. (Editing for
conventions should demonstrate command of Language standards 1-3 up to and including grade
5 here.)
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.6 With some guidance and support from adults, use technology, including the
Internet, to produce and publish writing as well as to interact and collaborate with others; demonstrate
sufficient command of keyboarding skills to type a minimum of two pages in a single sitting.
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.7 Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge
through investigation of different aspects of a topic.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.8 Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information
from print and digital sources; summarize or paraphrase information in notes and finished work, and
provide a list of sources.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis,
reflection, and research.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.9a Apply grade 5 Reading standards to literature (e.g., “Compare and
contrast two or more characters, settings, or events in a story or a drama, drawing on specific
details in the text [e.g., how characters interact]”).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.9b Apply grade 5 Reading standards to informational texts (e.g., “Explain
how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text, identifying which
reasons and evidence support which point[s]”).
Range of Writing
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.5.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and
revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks,
purposes, and audiences.
26
English Language Arts Standards » Language » Grade 3
Conventions of Standard English
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and
usage when writing or speaking.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1a Explain the function of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in
general and their functions in particular sentences.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1b Form and use regular and irregular plural nouns.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1c Use abstract nouns (e.g., childhood).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1d Form and use regular and irregular verbs.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1e Form and use the simple (e.g., I walked; I walk; I will walk) verb tenses.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1f Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1g Form and use comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, and
choose between them depending on what is to be modified.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1h Use coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1i Produce simple, compound, and complex sentences.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling when writing.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2a Capitalize appropriate words in titles.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2b Use commas in addresses.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2c Use commas and quotation marks in dialogue.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2d Form and use possessives.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2e Use conventional spelling for high-frequency and other studied words and
for adding suffixes to base words (e.g., sitting, smiled, cries, happiness).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2f Use spelling patterns and generalizations (e.g., word families, positionbased spellings, syllable patterns, ending rules, meaningful word parts) in writing words.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.2g Consult reference materials, including beginning dictionaries, as needed to
check and correct spellings.
Knowledge of Language
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.3 Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading,
or listening.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.3a Choose words and phrases for effect.*
27

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.3b Recognize and observe differences between the conventions of spoken and
written standard English.
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning word and
phrases based on grade 3 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.4a Use sentence-level context as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.4b Determine the meaning of the new word formed when a known affix is
added to a known word (e.g., agreeable/disagreeable, comfortable/uncomfortable, care/careless,
heat/preheat).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.4c Use a known root word as a clue to the meaning of an unknown word with
the same root (e.g., company, companion).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.4d Use glossaries or beginning dictionaries, both print and digital, to
determine or clarify the precise meaning of key words and phrases.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.5 Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships and
nuances in word meanings.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.5a Distinguish the literal and nonliteral meanings of words and phrases in
context (e.g., take steps).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.5b Identify real-life connections between words and their use (e.g., describe
people who are friendly or helpful).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.5c Distinguish shades of meaning among related words that describe states of
mind or degrees of certainty (e.g., knew, believed, suspected, heard, wondered).
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.6 Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate conversational, general academic,
and domain-specific words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships
(e.g., After dinner that night we went looking for them).
28
English Language Arts Standards » Language » Grade 4
Conventions of Standard English
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and
usage when writing or speaking.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1a Use relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, which, that) and relative
adverbs (where, when, why).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1b Form and use the progressive (e.g., I was walking; I am walking; I will be
walking) verb tenses.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1c Use modal auxiliaries (e.g., can, may, must) to convey various conditions.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1d Order adjectives within sentences according to conventional patterns
(e.g., a small red bag rather than a red small bag).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1e Form and use prepositional phrases.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1f Produce complete sentences, recognizing and correcting inappropriate
fragments and run-ons.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.1g Correctly use frequently confused words (e.g., to, too, two; there, their).*
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling when writing.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.2a Use correct capitalization.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.2b Use commas and quotation marks to mark direct speech and quotations
from a text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.2c Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.2d Spell grade-appropriate words correctly, consulting references as needed.
Knowledge of Language
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.3 Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading,
or listening.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.3a Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.3b Choose punctuation for effect.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.3c Differentiate between contexts that call for formal English (e.g., presenting
ideas) and situations where informal discourse is appropriate (e.g., small-group discussion).
29
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and
phrases based on grade 4 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.4a Use context (e.g., definitions, examples, or restatements in text) as a clue
to the meaning of a word or phrase.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.4b Use common, grade-appropriate Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues
to the meaning of a word (e.g., telegraph, photograph, autograph).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.4c Consult reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses),
both print and digital, to find the pronunciation and determine or clarify the precise meaning of key
words and phrases.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.5 Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and
nuances in word meanings.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.5a Explain the meaning of simple similes and metaphors (e.g., as pretty as a
picture) in context.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.5b Recognize and explain the meaning of common idioms, adages, and
proverbs.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.5c Demonstrate understanding of words by relating them to their opposites
(antonyms) and to words with similar but not identical meanings (synonyms).
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.4.6 Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate general academic and domainspecific words and phrases, including those that signal precise actions, emotions, or states of being (e.g.,
quizzed, whined, stammered) and that are basic to a particular topic (e.g., wildlife,
conservation, and endangered when discussing animal preservation).
30
English Language Arts Standards » Language » Grade 5
Conventions of Standard English
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and
usage when writing or speaking.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1a Explain the function of conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections in
general and their function in particular sentences.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1b Form and use the perfect (e.g., I had walked; I have walked; I will have
walked) verb tenses.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1c Use verb tense to convey various times, sequences, states, and conditions.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1d Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.1e Use correlative conjunctions (e.g., either/or, neither/nor).
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling when writing.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2a Use punctuation to separate items in a series.*

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2b Use a comma to separate an introductory element from the rest of the
sentence.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2c Use a comma to set off the words yes and no (e.g., Yes, thank you), to set
off a tag question from the rest of the sentence (e.g., It’s true, isn’t it?), and to indicate direct
address (e.g., Is that you, Steve?).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2d Use underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate titles of works.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.2e Spell grade-appropriate words correctly, consulting references as needed.
Knowledge of Language
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.3 Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading,
or listening.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.3a Expand, combine, and reduce sentences for meaning, reader/listener
interest, and style.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.3b Compare and contrast the varieties of English (e.g., dialects, registers) used
in stories, dramas, or poems.
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and
phrases based on grade 5 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies.
31

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.4a Use context (e.g., cause/effect relationships and comparisons in text) as a
clue to the meaning of a word or phrase.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.4b Use common, grade-appropriate Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues
to the meaning of a word (e.g., photograph, photosynthesis).

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.4c Consult reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses),
both print and digital, to find the pronunciation and determine or clarify the precise meaning of key
words and phrases.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.5 Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and
nuances in word meanings.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.5a Interpret figurative language, including similes and metaphors, in context.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.5b Recognize and explain the meaning of common idioms, adages, and
proverbs.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.5c Use the relationship between particular words (e.g., synonyms, antonyms,
homographs) to better understand each of the words.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.5.6 Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate general academic and domainspecific words and phrases, including those that signal contrast, addition, and other logical relationships
(e.g., however, although, nevertheless, similarly, moreover, in addition).
32
Definitions of the Standards’ Three Text Types
(From Appendix A of the CCSS)
Argument
Arguments are used for many purposes—to change the reader’s point of view, to bring about some
action on the reader’s part, or to ask the reader to accept the writer’s explanation or evaluation of a
concept, issue, or problem. An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that the writer’s
position, belief, or conclusion is valid. In English language arts, students make claims about the worth or
meaning of a literary work or works. They defend their interpretations or judgments with evidence from
the text(s) they are writing about. In history/social studies, students analyze evidence from multiple
primary and secondary sources to advance a claim that is best supported by the evidence, and they
argue for a historically or empirically situated interpretation. In science, students make claims in the
form of statements or conclusions that answer questions or address problems. Using data in a
scientifically acceptable form, students marshal evidence and draw on their understanding of scientific
concepts to argue in support of their claims. Although young children are not able to produce fully
developed logical arguments, they develop a variety of methods to extend and elaborate their work by
providing examples, offering reasons for their assertions, and explaining cause and effect. These kinds of
expository structures are steps on the road to argument. In grades K–5, the term “opinion” is used to
refer to this developing form of argument.
Informational/Explanatory Writing
Informational/explanatory writing conveys information accurately. This kind of writing serves one or
more closely related purposes: to increase readers’ knowledge of a subject, to help readers better
understand a procedure or process, or to provide readers with an enhanced comprehension of a
concept. Informational/explanatory writing addresses matters such as types (What are the different
types of poetry?) and components (What are the parts of a motor?); size, function, or behavior (How big
is the United States? What is an X-ray used for? How do penguins find food?); how things work (How
does the legislative branch of government function?); and why things happen (Why do some authors
blend modes?). To produce this kind of writing, students draw from what they already know and from
primary and secondary sources. With practice, students become better able to develop a controlling
idea and a coherent focus on a topic and more skilled at selecting and incorporating relevant examples,
facts, and details into their writing. They are also able to use a variety of techniques to convey
information, such as naming, defining, describing, or differentiating different types or parts; comparing
or contrasting ideas or concepts; and citing an anecdote or a scenario to illustrate a point.
Informational/explanatory writing includes a wide array of modes, including academic modes such as
literary analyses, scientific and historical reports, summaries, and précis writing as well as forms of
workplace and functional writing such as instructions, manuals, memos, reports, applications, and
résumés. As students advance through the grades, they expand their repertoire of
informational/explanatory modes and use them effectively in a variety of disciplines and domains.
Although information is provided in both arguments and explanations, the two types of writing have
different aims. Arguments seek to make people believe that something is true or to persuade people to
change their beliefs or behavior. Explanations, on the other hand, start with the assumption of
33
truthfulness and answer questions about why or how. Their aim is to make the reader understand rather
than to persuade him or her to accept a certain point of view. In short, arguments are used for
persuasion and explanations for clarification. Like arguments, explanations provide information about
causes, contexts, and consequences of processes, phenomena, states of affairs, objects, terminology,
and so on. However, in an argument, the writer not only gives information but also presents a case with
the “pros” (supporting ideas) and “cons” (opposing ideas) on a debatable issue. Because an argument
deals with whether the main claim is true, it demands empirical descriptive evidence, statistics, or
definitions for support. When writing an argument, the writer supports his or her claim(s) with sound
reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
Narrative Writing
Narrative writing conveys experience, either real or imaginary, and uses time as its deep structure. It can
be used for many purposes, such as to inform, instruct, persuade, or entertain. In English language arts,
students produce narratives that take the form of creative fictional stories, memoirs, anecdotes, and
autobiographies. Over time, they learn to provide visual details of scenes, objects, or people; to depict
specific actions (for example, movements, gestures, postures, and expressions); to use dialogue and
interior monologue that provide insight into the narrator’s and characters’ personalities and motives;
and to manipulate pace to highlight the significance of events and create tension and suspense. In
history/social studies, students write narrative accounts about individuals. They also construct event
models of what happened, selecting from their sources only the most relevant information. In science,
students write narrative descriptions of the step-by-step procedures they follow in their investigations
so that others can replicate their procedures and (perhaps) reach the same results. With practice,
students expand their repertoire and control of different narrative strategies.
Texts that Blend Types
Skilled writers many times use a blend of these three text types to accomplish their purposes. For
example, The Longitude Prize, included above and in Appendix B, embeds narrative elements within a
largely expository structure. Effective student writing can also cross the boundaries of type, as does the
grade 12 student sample “Fact vs. Fiction and All the Grey Space In Between” found in Appendix C.
34
Stage 1
Stage 1:
Activate and Develop
Background Knowledge
Stage 1:
Activate and Develop Background Knowledge
Goals
Participants will:




Identify and describe the components of Stage 1.
Describe how to provide instruction to students based on the tasks in Stage 1.
Recognize the role of pre-assessment in writing instruction.
Understand how mnemonics and exemplar essays help students plan and structure their
writing.
List of Materials:







Collect Pre-assessment
Pre-assessment of Mode Knowledge
Grade 3, Grade 4, and Grade 5 tasks
Mnemonic Chart
Introduce Mnemonic
Evaluate Exemplar Essay, Review Mode Parts and Terms, and Discuss Key General Writing
Concepts
Exemplar Essays
35
SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
36
Collect Pre-Assessment
Essential components:
 Select a Common Core-aligned informational/explanatory writing task
 Assign the task to all of your students
 Do not provide students any support during the pre-assessment
 Assign the mode knowledge questionnaire
 Collect and score writing samples
 Use results of pre-assessment to inform instruction going forward
Introductory note to teacher:
Teachers in PLC’s or collaborative teams are encouraged to choose a common pre-assessment
writing task. Ideally, this task will include multiple complex informational texts on the same topic and a
prompt that requires students to integrate textual details into an explanation or analysis. We
recommend you give your students the task included in this resource book as a pre-assessment, because
this book includes materials (such as exemplar essays and think-alouds) that match these prompts and
can be used immediately after you give the pre-assessment. Note that the task included in this book is
for professional development purposes and is not formatted for student use. For more information on
how to find the original source of the task used in this book, see the instructions in the appendix for
accessing the PARCC practice tests.
Please be aware that once students use a given prompt for a pre-assessment, you can no longer
use that same prompt with them as an authentic assessment of what they can already do as writers
(because they will have seen the exemplar responses). However, later on you can assign students a new
prompt based on the same texts
Throughout the SRSD stages, you might still collect frequent “cold” writing samples (timed
writing situations in which students encounter a new task and receive no support from teachers) to
measure growth along the way, but the majority of student writing will be embedded in instruction
where students receive scaffolded support and feedback as they go. Whenever possible, it is highly
encouraged to have students select their own writing topics: research shows that when students can
choose their own topics, writing skills grow faster.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons. Each time you collect a pre-assessment, be
sure to run the activity and state your directions in the exact same way so that the assessment
conditions remain consistent.
1) Select a writing task for students. Make sure all your students write to the same prompt so you
can compare samples within a class and across classes.
2) Distribute the task (prompt and texts) to students. Note that students will be doing a “cold”
write, without any support. Do not teach the sources before students read, and do not give
reminders of what to do when writing, except for the brief mode definition below. To begin,
say:
TEACHER: Today we will be thinking and writing about the informative mode. What is informative
writing? (Give a brief one sentence definition if they are not familiar with this mode type.)
37
Please do your best writing today. We’ll be looking this over to decide next steps we can take to help
make your writing even better. It is important that you do your best writing so that we can see what you
already know how to do and not spend time working on that.
I recommended that you regularly skip lines or double space in order to make it easier to make changes
and/or additions later.
3) Students should read the sources silently and write independently.
4) Collect student writing samples.
5) After students finish writing, say:
TEACHER: Now that you have written in this mode, please complete the questionnaire “Pre-assessment
of Mode Knowledge” about the parts used when writing informatively. This is a pre-assessment of terms
I have not yet taught this year so we do not expect you to know them yet. We are just checking to see if
you might have encountered them in the past. If you are not familiar with a term, feel free to write HNLY:
Have Not Learned Yet. Again, we do not expect you to know these terms but if you do we do not want to
spend time teaching what you already know.
6) Distribute the Pre-assessment of Mode Knowledge and collect. (Or, conduct this pre-assessment
component orally by asking students: What should you include in an informative writing piece?
Then, follow by asking about each term on the questionnaire.) Note that you can give this
questionnaire again after a few weeks so students can see how much clearer their
understanding of each term is at that point.
7) After you collect the pre-assessment samples, you can score them (in grade level teams
preferably), then enter the scores into an Excel sheet and use this data to inform your next
instructional steps (see stage 3 for more information on scoring).
8) Use students’ pre-assessments throughout the SRSD process. After students learn to score, they
can return to their pre-assessments and score them. From that scoring process, students can
see what they already included in their writing and what needs to be added or strengthened.
They do this so that they then can set a goal for their next writing piece.
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Pre-Assessment of Mode Knowledge: Grade 3
What should a topic introduction include?
What is a fact?
What is a definition?
What is a detail?
What is important evidence?
What makes evidence important?
What does it mean to examine?
What should go into a concluding statement?
What does it mean to choose words for effect?
What does it mean to use linking words and phrases to connect ideas within categories of information?
What is a simple, compound, and complex sentence?
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Pre-Assessment of Mode Knowledge: Grade 4
What should be included in a topic introduction?
What is a fact?
What is a definition?
What is a detail?
What is a quote?
What is important evidence?
What makes evidence important?
What does it mean to examine?
What should go into a concluding statement?
What is precise language and domain-specific vocabulary?
What is a coordinating conjunction?
What does it mean to link ideas within categories of information using words and phrases?
40
Pre-Assessment of Mode Knowledge: Grade 5
What should be included in a topic introduction?
What is a fact?
What is a definition?
What is a detail?
What is a quote?
What is important evidence?
What makes evidence important?
What does it mean to examine?
What should go into a concluding statement?
What is precise language and domain-specific vocabulary?
What does it mean to vary sentences for reader interest and style?
What does it mean to link ideas within and across categories of information using words, phrases, and
clauses?
What is a clause?
41
Grade 3 Task
Excerpt from Eliza’s Cherry Trees: Japan’s Gift to America
By Andrea Zimmerman
When she was twenty-six, Eliza bought tickets to faraway Alaska. Few tourists had ever been there. Eliza
wrote reports for the newspapers back home. She loved sharing the fascinating things she saw, such as
huge glaciers, spouting whales, and the native people. Eliza even wrote a book—the first guidebook
about Alaska.
When Eliza went back to Washington, it wasn’t long before she started thinking about traveling again.
She decided to visit her older brother, who was working in Japan. Eliza sailed across the ocean.
In Japan, she rode on trains, carriages, and bumpy rickshaws. She climbed mountains, ate strange foods,
and visited ancient temples. Everything was so different! She studied Japanese art and learned to speak
Japanese. She fell in love with Japan and its people.
Eliza especially loved Japanese gardens. Eliza’s favorite plants, by far, were the Japanese cherry trees.
Eliza called them “the most beautiful thing in the world.” Thousands of the trees were planted in parks
and along the riverbanks. When they bloomed, the trees became clouds of pink blossoms. As the petals
drifted down, it was like pink snowfall. The Japanese people loved the cherry trees as their national
symbol. Crowds gathered for picnics under the trees. People wrote poems and painted pictures to honor
those sakura.
When Eliza came back home, she wrote a book about Japan. She wanted to share her love of Japan with
other Americans. She wanted the nations of Japan and America to be friends.
Even though she was always thinking about her next journey, Eliza loved coming home to Washington,
D.C. She was proud of America’s growing capital and wanted it to look as beautiful as any city in the
world.
She thought about the muddy land from a recent construction project in the swampy area around the
riverbank. Eliza had a wonderful idea. She remembered the beautiful cherry trees in Japan. She thought,
“That’s what Washington needs!”
Eliza told the man in charge of the Washington parks about the wonderful cherry trees. She showed him
photographs that she had taken. She told him about her plan to plant hundreds of cherry trees down by
the water. He said no. He believed that they didn’t need any different kind of tree in Washington.
But Eliza knew that sometimes when you have a good idea, you have to keep trying. So she waited.
When a new parks man was hired, she told him about her good idea. He, too, said no.
Eliza kept traveling. She also met with friends who loved to travel. Some of these friends had started the
National Geographic Society. The society was for people who wanted to learn more about the world.
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Eliza was the first woman to have an important job there, and she helped the society grow. She wrote
many articles and books. Eliza made more trips to Japan, Alaska, and Europe, and she explored India,
China, Russia, and Java, an island of Indonesia.
Eliza also became a photographer. Not many women did that, either. She took pictures for the
Smithsonian Institution and recorded people and places that Americans had never seen.
But Eliza didn’t forget about the cherry trees, and she didn’t give up. She kept trying for more than
twenty years! Every time a new man was hired to be in charge of the parks department, Eliza went to
tell him about her idea. Each one said no.
In 1909, William Howard Taft had just been elected president. Eliza had another good idea. She knew
that sometimes people in politics could help get things done. She wrote a letter to the president’s wife,
Mrs. Taft. Eliza told Ms. Taft about her plan to make Washington more beautiful with the lovely cherry
trees. She was afraid the answer would be no again.
But Mrs. Taft loved the idea! With the help of Mr. Takamine, a generous Japanese scientist, they had the
trees sent from Japan.
Everyone was happily waiting for the trees to arrive. Eliza imagined the beautiful pink clouds of
blossoms that would soon be blooming in Washington.
In January of 1910, two thousand cherry trees arrived. They were given as a gift from Japan’s capital city,
Tokyo. But there was a problem. The trees had diseases and bugs. The inspectors were afraid they
would make American trees sick. The president agreed. He signed an order for all the cherry trees to be
burned to ashes.
Eliza was so disappointed. She was also afraid that the Japanese people would be offended. But the
mayor of Tokyo said they understood. He even joked about George Washington chopping down a cherry
tree.
New trees were carefully grown in Japan. In March of 1912, three thousand new trees arrived. They
were inspected and declared healthy!
On March 27, 1912, there was a small ceremony at the planting of the first two cherry trees. Eliza
watched as her longtime dream was finally coming true.
Over the years, the trees grew, and every spring, they bloomed. People began gathering to enjoy them
and to celebrate their beauty, just like in Japan. Eliza was happy to see how they helped turn
Washington, D.C. into one of the most beautiful cities in the world.
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The Peanut Man
George Washington Carver was always interested in plants. When he was a child, he was known as the
"plant doctor." He had a secret garden where he grew all kinds of plants. People would ask him for
advice when they had sick plants. Sometimes he'd take their plants to his garden and nurse them back
to health.
Later, when he was teaching at Tuskegee Institute, he put his plant skills to good use. Many people in
the South had been growing only cotton on their land. Cotton plants use most of the nutrients in the
soil. (Nutrients provide nourishment to plants.) So the soil becomes "worn out" after a few years.
Eventually, cotton will no longer grow on this land.
This was especially bad for poor African American farmers, who relied on selling cotton to support
themselves. Carver was dedicated to helping those farmers, so he came up with a plan.
Carver knew that certain plants put nutrients back into the soil. One of those plants is the peanut!
Peanuts are also a source of protein.
Carver thought that if those farmers planted peanuts, the plants would help restore their soil, provide
food for their animals, and provide protein for their families--quite a plant! In 1896 peanuts were not
even recognized as a crop in the United States, but Carver would help change that.
Carver told farmers to rotate their crops: plant cotton one year, then the next year plant peanuts and
other soil-restoring plants, like peas and sweet potatoes. It worked! The peanut plants grew and
produced lots of peanuts. The plants added enough nutrients to the soil so cotton grew the next year.
Now the farmers had lots of peanuts--too many for their families and animals--and no place to sell the
extras. Again, Carver had a plan. Do you know what he did?
Carver invented all kinds of things made out of peanuts. He wrote down more than 300 uses for
peanuts, including peanut milk, peanut paper, and peanut soap. Carver thought that if farmers started
making things out of peanuts, they'd have to buy fewer things and would be more self-sufficient. And if
other people started making things out of peanuts, they would want to buy the extra peanuts, so the
farmers would make more money.
Although not many of Carver's peanut products were ever mass-produced, he did help spread the word
about peanuts. Peanuts became more and more popular. By 1920 there were enough peanut farmers to
form the United Peanut Association of America (UPAA). In 1921 the UPAA asked Carver to speak to the
U.S. Congress about the many uses for peanuts. Soon the whole country had heard of George
Washington Carver, the Peanut Man! And by 1940 peanuts had become one of the top six crops in the
U.S.
http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/carver/aa_carver_peanut_1.html Source: Library of Congress
44
Grade 3 Prompt: You have read two texts about famous people in American history who solved a
problem by working to make a change. Write an article for your school newspaper describing how
Eliza and Carver faced challenges to change something in America. In your article, be sure to describe
in detail why some solutions they tried worked and others did not work. Tell how the challenges each
one faces were the same and how they were different.
45
Grade 4 Task
“The Wild Horses of Assateague Island”
A National Treasure
The wild horses of Assateague Island are descendants of domesticated animals brought to the island
over 300 years ago. Horses tough enough to survive the scorching heat, abundant insects, stormy
weather and poor quality food found on this windswept barrier island have formed a unique wild horses
society. Enjoy their beauty from a distance, and you can help make sure these extraordinary wild horses
will continue to thrive on Assateague Island.
“My treasures do not click together or glitter. They gleam in the sun and neigh in the night.” –Bedouin
proverb
Where did they come from?
Were the horses shipwreck survivors…
Local folklore describes the Assateague horses as survivors of a shipwreck off the Virginia coast. While
this dramatic talk of struggle and survival is popular, there are no records yet that confirm it.
or settlers’ horses?
During the 17th century free-roaming horses, cows, sheep and pigs caused expensive crop damage to
local farms. Farmers were required to pay taxes on all mainland livestock and fence them in.
Like people in the 21st century, these resourceful coastal residents looked for ways to avoid paying this
tax. They turned to nearby Assateague Island with its abundance of food, shelter and a natural “corral”
made of water to solve their problem.
It is likely that modern Assateague horses are descendants of those hardy animals turned loose on the
island to graze tax-free.
Living the wild life in Maryland
Assateague’s horses are uniquely adapted to survive on a barrier island. How do they do it?
What do they eat?
The horses spend most of their time grazing on abundant but nutrient-poor saltmarsh cordgrass,
saltmeadow hay and beach grass. The horses’ short stature is a result of hundreds of years of adaptation
to this low quality diet. Genetically they are considered horses, even though they are now pony size.
The Assateague horses drink over twice the amount of water that domesticated horses will due to their
salty food supply. All that drinking combined with a high salt diet contributes to their bloated
appearance.
Where do they live throughout the year?
Spring brings cool, rainy weather and fresh plant growth to the island. Many of the horses live in the
marshes close to their best food sources. Foals are usually born in late spring and live with their mothers
46
in a family group called a “band.” Each band is usually made up of 2-10 mares, their offspring, and a
stallion.
Hot, humid, and full of insects, summer brings a new set of challenges. The horses escape the mosquitos
and flies of the marsh by spending more time on the beach and in the surf, letting the refreshing ocean
breezes carry away airborne pests. Cooler fall weather and fewer insects allow the bands to move from
the beaches back to the marshes and their abundant grasses.
The horses prefer to browse in shrub thickets during the damp, chilly, winter season. Their thick, furry
coats will protect them from ferocious winter winds and the occasional snowstorm.
Do they receive veterinary care?
While action may be taken to end the suffering of a gravely ill, seriously injured, or dying horse, no
measures are taken to prolong the lives of Maryland’s wild horses. As with other species of Assateague
wildlife, horses that are sick or weak do not survive. This helps maintain a hardy, healthy population of
wild horses.
Virginia’s horses are privately owned by the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Department and receive some
veterinary care.
Where can you see the wild horses?
In Maryland
Maryland’s horses are owned and managed by the National Park Service. They are free-roaming wildlife
and could be anywhere in the park. During the summer months many bands can be found on the beach.
You can often see the horses and other wildlife by driving slowly along park roads. Protect island habitat
by parking only in designated parking areas. The “Life of the Forest” and “Life of the Marsh” trails are
good places to look, especially during spring, fall and winter season.
Do not feed or pet the horses. Horses that learn to come up by the road are hit and killed by cars.
In Virginia
Virginia’s horses are privately owned by the Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Department and are fenced in
large enclosures.
Look for the horses in the marsh along Beach Road and from the observation platform on the Woodland
Trail.
From “The Wild Horses of Assateague Island,” National Park Service, U.S. Department of Interior.
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“Wild Ponies of Chincoteague”
by Annika Brynn Jenkins
The last Wednesday and Thursday of every July are amazing days at Chincoteague (SHING-kuh-teeg).
That’s pony-penning time on this island just off the coast of Virginia.
The ponies normally live wild on nearby Assateague Island. To keep the herd from getting too big, some
new foals are sold each year at the auction on Chincoteague. To get there, the ponies are rounded up
and herded across the narrow channel between the two islands.
Wednesday Morning—Really Early!
My family and I woke at 4:30 in the morning to drive to Chincoteague. I was so excited, I jumped out of
bed. The drive from our home in Virginia Beach was just two hours, but it seemed like a week.
After we got there, we took a small boat into the channel. The weather was wet and dreary, and I felt
like an icicle as raindrops fell cold against my cheeks. But in my mind I was dancing! All I could think was,
It’s almost time for the ponies to cross!
First, I heard faint whinnying sounds drifting through the salty air. Then I could see the ponies on the
Assateague shore. The “Saltwater Cowboys” were rounding them up. I loved the ponies at first sight! I
wondered if they were thinking, What’s happening? Where are we going?
The cowboys waited a bit for the tide to change. Meanwhile, I imagined myself flying through the wind
on a black-and-white mare. Oh, how I wished I could have a horse like that! Then, all of a sudden, I
heard a shout from the crowd on the Chincoteague shore. I nearly jumped overboard with excitement!
The ponies were stepping into the channel.
Before I knew it, pony heads were bobbing in the water. The swim across the channel didn’t take long,
but I wish it could have lasted a lifetime. It was so beautiful that I took a photograph of it in my mind.
Going to Town
After the crossing, the ponies had a chance to rest. Some slept, and some of the foals suckled their
mothers’ milk. They were getting their strength back for the next event.
That would be the pony parade to the carnival grounds, where we would watch the auction. I could see
a ferris wheel and a roller coaster, but I kept going. I wanted only to see the ponies. The cowboys were
herding them right down Main Street!
My sisters and I sloshed through the mud to get to the corral where the ponies were held for the
auction. I couldn’t believe it when I got to pet a brown-and-white foal through the fence. It felt like love
itself! His coat was coarse and smelled like a salty sea breeze. I was surprised that his nose felt so soft,
like velvet. I imagined him thinking, Can I go home with you?
Later, I got to ride a tame Chincoteague pony. When I first climbed on, a shiver of excitement went
down my spine. He was ready to go, and I wanted to gallop away with him.
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Day of the Auction
There were so many people at the auction, I couldn’t see what was happening. I had to stand on my
tiptoes to get a glimpse of each foal that was brought out. But I could hear the bidding and the crowd
going wild. When the price was as high as it could go, the auctioneer yelled, “Sold!” Then another foal
would come out, and the bidding would start all over again.
After it was over, we visited Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on Assateague Island. There were
tall grasses, shady trees, sandy beaches, and mosquitoes—lots of mosquitoes. I also saw the corral
where the ponies stayed before their swim.
Going Home
On Friday morning, the ponies that weren’t sold at auction swam back across the channel. I sat on the
rocks on Chincoteague’s shore and looked to Assateague. It’s a nice, peaceful place, I thought. The
ponies are lucky to be home where there’s grass to graze and land to roam.
In the afternoon, I got to ride again. The pony was strong and spirited, and I had to hold him back. Riding
him is something I’ll always remember. And how could I ever forget the gallant ponies swimming across
the channel—their hearts so full of courage and wildness!
“Wild Ponies of Chincoteague Island.” by Annika Brynn Jenkins. Text copyright © 2004 by National
Wildlife Federation. Reprinted from the July 2004 issue of Ranger Rick ® Magazine, with the permission
of the copyright owner, the National Wildlife Federation ®
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“Chincoteague Ponies Make Annual Swim” Video Transcription
Elizabeth Beairsto:
We’re coming to the Chincoteague Pony Swim because we love to watch the pony swim. We’ve been
doing it for a couple years now.
Hana Hawthorne:
Um, I just love seeing the horses catch up, go swimming in the water and then, um, come here on the
land and then see how interested people are in this and I love seeing it.
Walter Marks:
We’re sitting here waiting for the horses to swim and our job on this side is to make sure that they, uh,
don’t go through the back fence. Keep’em in until they get rested and then we take’em down the street
to the carnival grounds. What’ll happen is that the coast guard will set off a red flare when it becomes
slack tide. They swim at slack tide whether it’s high or low water. Once they see the flare they’ll bring
the ponies down the marsh here across the inlet. And, uh, then they’ll run them in the water and they’ll
swim straight across here. They’ll be herded by boats and then when they come aground, come ashore
here they’ll move on up, start eating, settle down, and rest. And then after that then we’ll take them all
outta here, go down on Ridge Road, make a right turn on Bunting and then go down Main Street to the
carnival grounds.
Lisa Fusillo:
I came here to watch the ponies swim and that’s exactly what I did. I didn’t know, um, the path that they
would take so I was really surprised to see that they actually walk them across the very narrow part of
the channel. And we thought that’s all there was gonna be and then when they got back in the water
and they actually swam to the pony swim lane it was phenomenal, it was just phenomenal. You don’t
know how wild they are, you don’t know what to expect. And they were, particularly the foals were
charming and sweet and just trying to find their mamas. Um, it was, it was heart wrenching to think that
they were gonna be sold off, but I understand. But it was the most exhilarating, exhilarating experience
to see nature take its course.
Grade 4 Prompt: Your class has been studying about the survival of the ponies on Assateaugue Island.
Using information from the articles and the video, describe the roles that both the horses and the
humans play in the horses’ survival. Use evidence from the articles and the video to support your
answer.
50
Grade 5 Task
The Amazing Penguin Rescue
by Lauren Tarshis
Imagine you are an African penguin living on an island in the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean. You
live with tens of thousands of other penguins on a rocky beach. It’s a typical day there in June—cold and
windy. The beach echoes with penguin noises, barks and honks and brays. Some of your fellow penguins
fight for territory. Others cuddle with their mates and dote on their chicks.
You’re hungry, so you head down to the water’s edge. You waddle on tiny feet, and your wings are too
stubby for flying. But in the water, you can swim faster and dive deeper than any bird on Earth. As you
plunge into the sea, your wings become powerful underwater propellers. You shoot through the water
at 12 miles an hour, a black-and-white blur, snatching sardines from the surface, swallowing them
whole, then catching more. Your thick feathers protect you from the freezing water.
You stay in the sea for hours until your belly is full. Then you turn to head back to shore.
That’s when something goes wrong.
As you come to the surface for air, the water feels unfamiliar. It is thick, and it burns your eyes. You try
to swim away, but suddenly your wings are too heavy to lift and you can barely propel yourself. Your
body wobbles and rolls. You feel bitterly cold. You shiver and gasp for breath.
What you don’t know is that just hours ago, a cargo ship called Treasure hit a reef and split apart. As it
sank, 1,300 tons of toxic crude oil gushed into the sea. Oil surrounds your breeding ground in the world.
You are not the only penguin that has become soaked with the poisonous oil. Thousands of others have
been trapped in the massive oil slick.
The impact of oil on a penguin (or any bird) is immediate and devastating. You are shivering because the
oil has caused your layers of feathers to separate. Freezing water now lashes at your sensitive skin. Your
eyes hurt because the oil has burned them. Your wings are heavy because they are coated with oil.
But your instinct for survival is strong. Somehow you struggle back to shore, fighting the waves and the
current. The trip, usually effortless, is an agonizing ordeal. You manage to stagger onto the beach and
back to your nest. You lick and peck at your feathers, desperate to clean them. Finally you give up. There
is nothing to do but stand there, terrified, dazed, and silent.
Strange Creatures
Then the beach is invaded by enormous creatures.
They are humans, but you don’t know that. You have never seen a human before. These men and
women know what you don’t: that this oil spill is a catastrophe for you and your species. Some of them
have devoted their lives to helping birds like you, birds caught in oil spills and other human-made
disasters. They have helped with bird rescues around the world. All they care about is saving your life.
But how could you know this?
51
As the humans swarm the beach, you are overcome with panic. A man catches you. You lash out
viciously with your powerful jaws and razor-sharp beak. You bite his arm, ripping his skin through the
fabric of his thick coat. He doesn’t let go. You strike again, biting his leg, inflicting a wound that will leave
a scar for the rest of his life. But he cares more about you than himself. All across the beach, dozens of
people are capturing penguins, enduring excruciating bites and wing slaps as they load you and the
other penguins into crates. It is painful, exhausting work. The sight of all of these scared and injured
penguins is heartbreaking to the humans. Some—grown men and women—fight tears.
But they don’t give up. Tens of thousands of penguins are in danger. And they intend to save every
single one.
Ten miles from the island, outside the city of Cape Town, a team of workers and volunteers has
transformed a warehouse into a penguin rescue center. They have worked with astonishing speed. The
warehouse holds hundreds of round enclosures, each large enough for 100 penguins. There are
additional areas where penguins will be washed. One room is filled with ten tons of frozen fish, the
amount needed daily to feed the penguins. Acquiring this enormous quantity of fish every day will be
one of the workers’ great challenges.
Actually, everything is a challenge. Simply getting one penguin to eat is a monumental task. In the wild,
penguins hunt for sardines and gobble them up while they are still alive and wriggling. These penguins
won’t accept the dead fish offered by human hands; workers have to force-feed them. They must
restrain a penguin, pry its beak open, and shove the fish down its throat. Feeding one penguin can take
an hour. Feeding all of the penguins takes an army of workers 15 hours.
And then there is the smell that fills the warehouse—a combination of penguin droppings, dead
sardines, and human sweat. It is a stench so powerful that many people throw up when they first arrive.
But not even the smell keeps people away.
As news of the rescue effort spreads, hundreds, and then thousands, of volunteers flock to the
warehouse, eager to help. They are a diverse group, including rich women from fancy neighborhoods
and poor teenagers from Cape Town’s streets. Some have experience helping wildlife; some have never
even owned a pet. All of them have one thing in common: a mission to save as many penguins as
possible.
“The Amazing Penguin Rescue” by Lauren Tarshis and map graphic from Storyworks April/May 2011
Issue. Copyright @ 2011 by Scholastic, Inc. Used by permission of Scholastic, Inc.
52
The Amazing Penguin Rescue
By Dyan deNapoli
The summer of 2000, I had just finished my rounds
tending to the New England Aquarium’s 60 penguins
when I got an urgent call from South Africa. The
manager of SANCCOB, a seabird rescue center in
Cape Town, was on the line. The region’s penguins
were in trouble. The cargo ship MV Treasure had
sunk off the coast of Cape Town, creating an oil spill.
Thirteen hundred tons of fuel oil were flowing near
Robben Island, right in the middle of the African
penguins’ primary habitat. In a matter of days, thick,
toxic liquid had covered about 20,000 penguins.
Without swift help, the seabirds would have no
chance for survival.
SANCCOB had launched a massive rescue operation
for the oiled penguins. Volunteers were showing up
by the thousands, but they had no experience. The
center needed penguin keepers to train the
volunteers. Would I help?
Two days later, I boarded a plane to South Africa. I was about to take part in what would become the
largest animal rescue operation ever attempted.
A STARTLING SILENCE
Just outside Cape Town, a large warehouse had been
turned into a rescue center for the oiled penguins. The
rescuers had set up makeshift pools, which held about
100 oiled birds each. Hundreds of pools covered the
floor.
When I first walked into the building, I couldn’t believe
my ears. Normally, African penguins are vocal birds. I
expected to walk in to a chorus of honking and
squawking. Instead, the center sounded like a library. Only the hushed voices of people could be heard.
The penguins were dead silent. I felt overwhelmed. My heart ached for the distressed birds. Cleaning
them all seemed like an impossible task. But we had to carry on like doctors in an emergency room.
There was no time for doubt.
BIRD BATH
Cleaning oil off a penguin isn’t easy. It takes two people—one to hold the penguin, another to do the
washing. The bird is sprayed with a degreaser and scrubbed with warm, soapy water. Delicate areas
53
around the face must be brushed with a toothbrush. Then the bird gets rinsed under a hose. The whole
process takes about an hour. Even with more than 12,500 volunteers, it took a month to bathe all
20,000 birds at the center.
THE SPREADING SPILL
While workers bathed penguins at the rescue
center, another crisis was developing. Oil from the
spill had started moving north toward Dassen
Island. Tens of thousands of penguins were in the
oil’s path. But we already had our hands full with
20,000 recovering birds. Supplies were running low.
If any more birds were oiled, we wouldn’t have
enough resources to save them.
One researcher came up with an idea: What if the
Dassen penguins were temporarily moved out of harm’s way? The method had never been tried before.
Experts decided to give it a chance. Workers rounded up a large number of the penguins on Dassen
Island and released them near Port Elizabeth, 500 miles away. The hope was that by the time the
seabirds swam home, the oil would be gone. The plan worked! Another 20,000 penguins were saved.
AMAZING RESCUE
The entire penguin rescue operation took about three months. In the end, more than 90 percent of the
oiled penguins were successfully returned to the wild. In a previous large-scale penguin rescue, only half
of the oiled birds survived. We could hardly believe that our efforts worked!
But for me, the most inspiring part was the work of the volunteers. Rescuing penguins isn’t glamorous.
The stench of the rescue center—a mix of penguin droppings and dead fish—made people feel sick. The
scratches and bites of terrified birds covered volunteers’ arms. As the Penguin Lady, I’m used to facing
such hazards to care for the animals I love. What I didn’t realize was how many other people care for
penguins too.
This article originally appeared in the January 2012 edition of SuperScience .
54
“Endangered Penguins Caught in Oil Spill” Video Transcription
Nightingale Island in nearby (name of area) is some of the most remote islands in the world. Over a
thousand miles in in any directions of inhabitant lands. As such these are the most least polluted
environments on earth. That was until last week when the (name of ship) traveling from Brazil crashed
head line into the island and spilled over 800 tons of fuel oil into the sea. Nightingale Island is a vital
breeding ground for the already endangered Northern Rockcopper Penguin and now the island’s entire
population is at risk. I arrived over a week after the incident had occurred and yet I was still one of the
very first humans to see the full extent of this horrific event. I saw hundreds of RCP covered in sticky
black fuel oil. Several of them were pruning themselves trying to get the oil off their feathers in the
process of ingesting the oil which is poisonous to the birds. Fortunately a relief crew arrived a few days
ago from South Africa, but still there are only a dozen of them and they are confronting a tragedy that’s
far beyond the scope of a few hands. Luckily yesterday over 750 fuel covered penguins were collected
and in the process of being cleaned now. There is an added element of tragedy for the people of Tristin
with a population of less than 300 who have always prided themselves on the pollution free state of
their islands. I also noticed several baby fur seal pops born this last season with patches of oil on their
fur with obvious effects from the spill. Still it is the penguins who take priority since they are
endangered. The remaining population has been pend to prevent them from going back into the sea.
This was such a difficult thing to witness and I hope I never have to see it again.
Digital Nomad: Nightingale Island Oil Spill. NGS/National Geographic Stock.
Grade 5 Prompt:
Compare how the articles by Lauren Tarshis and Dyan deNapoli and the video describe penguin rescue
efforts after oil spills. Support your essay with information from all three sources.
55
POW + TIDE
Pull apart prompt
Organize my notes
Write and say more
+
T- Topic introduction
ID- Important details
(3 or more)
E- End
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POW + TIDELL
Pull apart prompt
Organize my notes
Write and say more
+
T- Topic introduction
I - Important evidence
D – Detailed examination
E- End
L- Links
L- Language
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Introduce Mnemonic
Essential Components:





Introduce POW+TIDE with enthusiasm
Explain the parts of POW+TIDE (what each letter stands for)
Ask what the purpose of such a strategy would be or how it makes informative writing easier
Encourage generalization by asking: When else might you use this method?
Discuss potential benefits of learning the mnemonic
Introductory note to teacher: POW+TIDE is an example of a mnemonic that serves to help students plan
an essay and recall important parts to include in their writing. There are different versions of TIDE, such
as TIDELL. You can use TIDE or any mnemonic you create. After students master a basic mnemonic, you
can create variations (using the language of the Common Core State Standards for Writing) that are
more advanced.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Introduce the mnemonic and explain the parts. Introduce TIDE advanced (The ID stands for
Important evidence and Detailed examination) with or without an LL. The LL is more challenging
and reminds students to include links and language. Initially, it can be overwhelming for some
students to focus on language and links as well as all the other parts of TIDE. Also, language
goals (goals to use strong vocabulary when writing) are not set for students who struggle right
away. Those can be added in later, such as in Stage 5. So this is another reason why you may
choose to delay showing TIDELL, and just show TIDE instead. Say:
TEACHER: Today I’m going to share a strategy that will help you plan your essay. The strategy is called a
mnemonic. The strategy is POW. P is for Pull apart prompt. O is for organize my notes. W is for write
and say more. When I first see a writing prompt, I’m often confused. What am I being asked to do?
What should I write about? How do I write well in this situation? So I start by pulling apart the prompt.
I underline and circle key words and really ask myself: What am I being asked to write about here?
Sometimes I’ll turn the prompt into a question I can answer. Then, I organize the notes I took when
reading the sources to help me answer that question. Then, I write my essay! But what do I include in
my essay?
To help remember the parts that should go in an informative essay, I use an acronym called TIDELL. Let’s
look at each part of it. (Show students a visual of the mnemonic.) You can see that TIDELL includes the
main parts that should be in an essay. It reminds you to include… (Go through what each letter in the
acronym stands for). These are the main parts to include when writing an informative essay.
2) Discuss the purpose and potential benefits of the mnemonic and generalize to other situations.
Ask:
TEACHER: What would be the purpose of using this strategy? (To remember to include all the parts.)
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Why might it be helpful to know a strategy for this? How might it help you? (Helps organize your
thinking and writing.)
When and where else might you use it? Write down when/where else you might use it. (Begin addressing
generalization/transfer by having students think about using this strategy in other settings such as
another class or discipline. The mnemonic can be used for other forms like lab reports, biographies,
presentations, etc.)
When you write an essay in social studies, you might want to use this mnemonic. How about science
class? This strategy might work for you and help you explain your thinking better. It is a strategy that
really works!
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Evaluate Exemplar Essay, Review Mode Parts and Terms,
and Discuss Key General Writing Concepts
Essential Components:
 Review Common Core State Standards for Writing and refer to these during discussion
 Tell students in advance what to focus on as they listen (mode parts), then read exemplar aloud
 Remind students to think of TIDE/LL as they discuss parts in the exemplar essay
 Ask students what parts they heard in exemplar essay, then discuss each part
 Have students color code or annotate an exemplar essay (either in first day of lesson or a
following lesson)
 Review the general qualities of strong essays
Introductory note to teacher: Review the Common Core State Standards for Writing and Language for
your grade level before holding this conversation. Have a copy on hand as you lead this discussion.
(Students must be familiar with the stimulus documents for the task before reading the exemplars.
Ideally, they will have already read those documents when taking this same task for a pre-assessment.)
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Introduce the exemplar and tell students what to focus on. Say:
TEACHER: Today we will look at an exemplary piece of writing. I’ll first read the prompt that this was
written to, then read the exemplar aloud. Then we will discuss it. As I read it, please pay close attention
to the parts that you hear. Listen for the parts of TIDE(LL) (Review parts of TIDE(LL)). Don’t worry yet
about the topic content from the stimulus source documents. Instead, pay more attention to the
structure of the piece. Just focus on what parts you notice such as a topic introduction or any specific
words that help it to sound well-organized.
2) Read exemplar essay aloud. Students should be able to see the exemplar essay projected, or
have a copy to hold. Read one section at a time. Remind students to listen for TIDE. Stop after
each part of TIDE and discuss that part. Say:
TEACHER: What did you notice as I read? What were the parts you heard in this piece? (Students may do
a thumbs-up check as they hear and identify each part of TIDE. Students should listen for and identify
introduction, supporting details, links, etc. If students do not list all parts of TIDE(LL), then ask them if
they heard an introduction. Ask about each part in turn.)
3) Color code or annotate all parts in the essay that students notice. (You may choose to just have
students discuss the essay on one day, then do this color coding or annotating task the next day,
depending on time and receptivity of students. If students find the color coding overwhelming
or unhelpful, they can just mark their parts in the margin: the T, IDs, and E.) Students will
require highlighters, colored pencils or crayons for this color-coding task, and a hard copy of the
exemplar. Say:
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TEACHER: If you like, you can color code the parts. An easy system to use is blue for the topic
introduction, red for the ending, and yellow for body paragraphs. Alternatively, you can mark the parts in
the margins, putting T next to the introduction, IDs next to the body paragraphs, and E by the ending.
4) Review the general qualities of a strong informative essay. Log student responses on a chart
which can be used throughout the year for a class reference. (At the end of this document you
can find a sample chart). Say:
TEACHER: Now we will overview the general, “big picture” qualities of a strong essay, such as audience
awareness. Good writing should be well-organized and have all the important parts that a reader
expects to see so that readers can understand easily. What else do you think good writing should
include?
5) Ask students to define the terms used in the chart. (See the glossary in the Appendix section of
this book for helpful definitions. Teachers are encouraged to work with students on coming up
with student-friendly definitions.)
6) All students should then save this exemplar for the next lesson where they might map out the
same exemplar into a graphic organizer. They should also save it in general to reference it the
next time they write in this mode.
Chart of Key Elements of Informative Writing
(The following is a chart that you might create or post with your students during this discussion)
A good informative essay has important parts:
 Informs and educates the audience
 Is interesting to read
 Includes transitions
 Makes sense
 Has all the important parts
 Tells the reader the topic or purpose of the essay
 Provides the reader information about the topic
 Gives the readers additional details and examples about the topic
 Demonstrates thorough understanding of the topic/stimulus texts
 Develops topic with textual evidence
 Elaborates on textual evidence to strengthen examination
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Grade 3 Exemplar Essay
Prompt: You have read two texts about famous people in American history who solved a problem by
working to make a change. Write an article for your school newspaper describing how Eliza and Carver
faced challenges to change something in America. In your article, be sure to describe in detail why
some solutions they tried worked and others did not work. Tell how the challenges each one faces
were the same and how they were different.
News articles often cover problems, but today this article will address problems that were wellsolved. The two passages, “Eliza’s Cherry Trees: Japan’s Gift to America” and “The Peanut Man,” feature
newsworthy stories of people who faced challenges in changing something for America. Both people
featured came up with solutions. Some of these worked, and others did not. But both Eliza and Carver
both cared enough about what they did and the people they helped, that they never gave up.
The first story is about Eliza. Eliza wished to bring Japanese cherry trees from Japan to
Washington, D.C.. Her solution was to ask Washington parks directors to plant them, but they all said
‘No.’ Even though they said no and her solution didn’t work, Eliza kept trying. Eventually, she came up
with a new solution. She wrote to the newly elected president, William Taft. “Mrs. Taft loved the idea!”
and cherry trees were ordered from Japan. But this solution didn’t work either. The trees got diseases
and had “to be burned to ashes.” Eliza worried the mayor of Tokyo would think this was a sign of
disrespect, but he understood and sent more cherry trees. Finally, Washington, D.C. now has cherry
blossoms every spring.
Like Eliza, George Washington Carver also ran into challenges when he tried to change America
for the better. George knew of a problem with the constant planting of cotton. Cotton depleted soil of
“most of the nutrients.” These feed the soil so it can be used every year. George wanted to help farmers
who “relied on cotton to support themselves.” Planting peanuts was a solution to add rich nutrients
back into the soil. By planting cotton one year and then peanuts the next, the farmers could keep their
fields’ soil healthier. But this solution had a problem of growing too many peanuts. George then taught
the farmers “more than 300 uses for peanuts.” At first, people may have been skeptical. But, George did
not give up. He taught them about “peanut milk, peanut paper, and peanut soap.” In the end, farmers
were better off. George Washington Carver had accomplished his goal!
In conclusion, although Eliza and George faced challenges in changing something in America,
they were smart enough to overcome those challenges. Eliza was not addressing a problem as big as
George’s because no one was losing income over her problem. But they both cared about others. Eliza
wanted everyone to enjoy the trees and George wanted to help the farmers. But Eliza faced blocks from
people who did not want to listen to her. Carver faced problems not from people saying no, but from
there being too many peanuts. In the end, they both worked hard, cared about others, and kept trying.
Now that’s news worth reporting!
62
Grade 4 Exemplar Essay
Prompt: Your class has been studying about the survival of the ponies on Assateague Island. Using
information from the articles and the video, describe the roles that both the horses and the humans
play in the horses’ survival. Use evidence from the articles and the video to support your answer.
Assateague Island, located near Virginia and Maryland, is known for the majestic and beautiful
wild horses that live there. In the two articles and video, it is clear that both the horses themselves and
the humans there play a role in their survival. Yet, they do so in different ways, with horses relying on
adapting and humans contributing through protecting them from danger.
To begin with, the horses do many things to keep themselves strong and healthy. That is hard
because they live on an island that is not a perfectly suited habitat. Specifically, the article “The Wild
Horses of Assateague Island” states that the horses’ habitat has “scorching heat, abundant insects,
stormy weather, and poor quality food.” To prosper in that environment, the horses have had to adapt.
First off, the horses have adapted to a lower quality diet. They are accustomed to long grasses that are
packed with nutrients. Those are not available on the island. The article states that horses on the island
have a diet of saltmarsh cordgrass, saltmeadow hay, and beach grass. These foods are not a natural
choice of the horses, but they are available on the island. Since the new diet is heavy in salt, these
horses have also changed their drinking patterns. The article also stated that the horses now drink extra
water to flush their bodies of the added salt. A physical adaptation the horses have is a thick furry coat.
This keeps the horses warm in the long winters. It also helps the horses to survive by protecting them
from cold winter winds and snowstorms. To summarize, horses use behavioral and physical adaptations
to meet their needs for survival.
While the horses do many things to keep themselves strong and healthy, they also have help
from the people who live on Chincoteague Island. Some of the ways that humans help are outlined in
the article, “The Wild Horses of Assateague Island.” A main way is by following park rules. Park visitors
use only the parking areas while on the island. This keeps the habitat safe and thriving. The visitors do
not pet or feed the horses. In this way, horses will not learn to come close to the road and risk being
killed or injured. The video, “Chincoteague Ponies Make Annual Swim,” shows what is probably the most
famous way the humans help the horses. That is the annual Pony Swim. As the article, “Wild Ponies of
Chincoteague” says, local residents have horses swim across from Assateague Island and then herd
them to the fairgrounds. Some of the foals are auctioned. The article also explains why this is done. You
see, this helps the herd by keeping their community small. This way, there will be enough food and
water for all the horses that live on the island. Simply stated, humans also help the horses meet their
needs for survival.
As you can see, both horses and humans support the survival of the wild horses on Assateague
Island. Both articles and the video gave evidence that helped build a clear picture of the humans’ efforts
and how they help the horses survive. Human actions keep them safe and prevent overpopulation. Then
the articles also show how the horses’ behavioral and physical adaptations keep them healthy as well.
By working together, the animals and humans have supported the thriving herd for more than three
hundred years.
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Grade 5 Exemplar Essay
Prompt: Compare how the articles by Lauren Tarshis and Dyan deNapoli and the video describe
penguin rescue efforts after oil spills. Support your essay with information from all three sources.
The articles “Penguin Lady” by Dyan deNapoli, “The Amazing Penguin Rescue” by Lauren
Tarshis, and the video “Endangered Penguins” describe an oil spill and the rescue efforts to help the
penguins hurt by this spill, off the coast of Cape Town in South Africa. Each describe in detail the spill’s
effects, the rescue efforts, and the changes to the natural environment.
The authors all used pictures and text captions to support their ideas and provide descriptions of
the spill. Tarshis shows the reader a map of South Africa and where the oil spill happened, and its impact
on the penguins. Told from the penguins’ perspective, it states, “Your eyes hurt because the oil has
burned them.” Through similar details, this author describes the spill’s effects on the penguins. deNapoli
shows pictures of the penguins with the black oil on their bodies and the penguins in the holding pool
with the rescuers helping to clean the oil off the penguins. The video and real life pictures of the
penguins really showed how horribly the oil affected their bodies. They show them just covered in oil,
looking soggy and sad. The pictures suggest how miserable the penguins must have been at that time.
The pictures and the text captions really help bring the words and the story alive and help the reader
understand the impact of the oil spill on the lives of those penguins.
Each author tells how the volunteers came to support the effort and help with the penguins.
Both articles and the video describe how the penguins lashed out at the volunteers because they didn’t
understand the humans were trying to help them, not hurt them. Tarshis tells the reader, “As the
humans swarm the beach, you are overcome with panic. A man catches you. You lash out viciously with
your powerful jaws and razor-sharp beak.” deNapoli shares, “Cleaning oil off a penguin isn’t easy. It
takes two people—one to hold the penguin, another to do the washing.” In the video the narrator
explains, “They must restrain the penguin, pry its beak open, and shove the fish down its throat. The
warehouse stench is so powerful that many people throw up when they first arrive. But not even the
smell keeps people away.” Each author tells how the volunteers did not have experience cleaning
penguins and the penguins were not receptive to their assistance. Yet the volunteers remained
dedicated to making the penguins and their environment safe again. They persisted even when the
penguins lashed out, tried to get away, and refused to take their food.
In the articles and the video it is easy to feel what the island must have been like before the oil
spill, and then after. The picture in “The Amazing Penguin Rescue” shows the natural, uninhabited
environment the penguins lived in. The video described the habitat as “a cold and windy rocky beach.”
Tarshis describes the island located in the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean on a rocky beach with
areas for the penguins to waddle and dive for fish. The video shows this beautiful island and the natural
habitat the thousands of penguins called home. Describing the natural habitat is important to the story
because the oil spill changed their environment from safe to dangerous, from beautiful to ugly. The
articles and the video show the sudden difference the oil spill made for the survival of the penguins.
Each author told the same story in similar ways. The descriptive details make the reader feel like as if the
reader were right there on the island with those endangered penguins. All of the authors described the
event with so much passion not only for the penguins, but for the volunteers who remained so
dedicated as well, as well as for the natural beauty that was there beforehand. The authors described
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the challenges in such detail, it makes the reader want to get on a plane and help those adorable
penguins!
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Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
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Stage 2
Stage 2:
Discuss It
Stage 2:
Discuss It
Goals
Participants will:




Identify and describe the components of Stage 2.
Describe how to provide instruction to students based on the tasks in Stage 2.
Investigate the use of graphic organizers in helping students visualize the structure of an
exemplar essay and in planning their own essays.
Consider the benefit of having students repair weak essays in order to practice revision.
List of Materials:




TIDE and TIDELL Graphic Organizer
Introduce Graphic Organizer and Map Out an Exemplar Essay
Repair Essays (revision)
Weak Essays
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SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
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TIDE Graphic Organizer
T
Topic Introduction
I
__ Important detail:
D
I
__ Important detail:
D
I
__ Important detail:
D
(If more important details, use back)
E
Ending:
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TIDELL Graphic Organizer
T
Topic Introduction
I
Important evidence (usually at least 3). Examine on each:
D
__ Important evidence:
Detailed Examination:
I
__ Important evidence:
D
Detailed Examination:
I
__ Important evidence:
D
Detailed Examination:
(If more important details, use back)
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E
Ending:
L
Links:
L
Language:
Introduce Graphic Organizer and Map out an Exemplar Essay
Essential Components:
 Discuss helpfulness of planning in general to build buy in
 Show students a graphic organizer
 Remind students to think of TIDE as they locate parts in the exemplary essay and summarize
them in the graphic organizer
 Show students how to create their own graphic organizers
Introductory note to teacher:
It is important to provide students with a visual method to organize their notes in preparation
for writing an essay. To this end, we offer examples of graphic organizers you might like to use. We have
found linear graphic organizers easier for students to use than webs. While some students come with
previous experience in making their plans using a variety of methods (e.g., webs, outlines), most will
benefit from using the linear layout and approach taught through SRSD.
Because we are often preparing students for fluid situations (assessments, essays that may
follow different structures), it is imperative that we fade the provided graphic organizer and explicitly
teach students to make their own on a blank piece of scratch paper (or the prompt page provided,
depending on the assessment conditions). When we teach students to make their own, we need to first
ensure we provide them an example they can easily and quickly replicate. Then, after several practice
sessions where they can internalize the steps of the plan, they can be moved to making their own.
Many teachers learning SRSD decide to teach their students to make their own graphic organizer
from the start, never introducing the pre-made organizer. We have seen a lot of success with this
method and realize this reduces the amount of teaching time as well. Therefore, one way to introduce
graphic organizers is to have the entire class draw their own graphic organizer. Note that while most
students will be able to create their own graphic organizer from the start, there may be a few who need
a reduced cognitive load and those students should be provided a pre-made graphic organizer as a
means of scaffolding (when those children understand how to create their own, they can be weaned off
the printed one).
In sum, teachers can make their own choices about the introduction of a pre-made graphic
organizer, but everyone should show ways to create one and set expectations for the parts that should
go in it.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Discuss helpfulness of planning in general to build buy in. Say:
TEACHER: Do you ever plan something in writing? Tell me about that (e.g., essay, grocery list, packing
list). What does your plan look like? (e.g., web, outline, list). Today, we are going to learn how writers
can organize a plan for writing an essay. First we will look again at the exemplar essay. As we look at
each part of the exemplar, let’s put each part into a graphic organizer or planner, which I will show you
how to do.
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2) Hand out copies of the TIDE(LL) graphic organizer to students. (Make sure students also get out
their copies of the exemplar essay for this activity). Discuss each part in this planner. Reread the
exemplar essay again slowly, pausing between each section so that students can pull out the key
elements, summarize them, and write them into their own copies of the graphic organizer
planner in the appropriate section. Say:
TEACHER: First, find the topic introduction. With a partner, summarize the key points in the introduction.
Then, write the key points in the Topic Introduction section of your graphic organizer. (Students should
do this for each part of TIDE(LL). As students do each section, have them share out what they wrote with
the class. The teacher can circulate during this task to listen in on conversations. If students have
difficulty, teachers can pull back and model this process for them on a projector).
At this stage, teachers might decide whether students are ready to begin writing to a new task.
Although SRSD Stage 5 is technically when students plan, write, revise, and publish a new piece of
writing, teachers should be flexible in deciding when students are ready to move on. The decision will
depend on many classroom factors, including whether:
 The teacher feels students have a strong enough grasp of the parts of an informative essay
 Students are exhibiting signs of restlessness and seem eager to try out their new skills with a
new piece of writing
For a new task, teachers might use the same source texts as the pre-assessment but write a new
prompt to go along with those texts, or they might choose an entirely new task. When students are
ready to write to a new prompt, they first learn how to use a graphic organizer to plan their own
writing, as the routine below demonstrates:
1) Support students in learning to use the TIDE(LL) graphic organizer format to plan before they
write. At this point they will have seen the planner/graphic organizer and those can be available
to students who would like to use them. Others can now learn to create their own. Say:
TEACHER: When we plan our own writing, we have a more organized essay and we can be sure to
include all its parts. I will teach you to make your own graphic organizer which will help you arrange your
plan for writing an informative essay.
First, we will write POW across the top of our paper. Do you remember what POW stands for? (Allow
response, regardless of correctness, then review POW). POW stands for Pull apart the prompt, Organize
my notes, and then Write. We write POW across the top of our papers but we do not fill it out. It just
reminds us of the steps we need to take before planning. Next, we will write TIDE(LL) down the left
margin of our paper, and this we will fill out to plan our essay. Do you remember what each letter stands
for? (Allow response, regardless of correctness, then review TIDE(LL)). Which letters might need more
space for you to write? (Elicit I and D) Yes, I and D often need more space when planning. Let’s list the
letters, leaving enough space for what we need to write. (Walk around, assist those who need help, give
specific praise for all attempts. Show good examples to the class so students can see how peers did it.)
(Note that writing TIDELL on one piece of paper or page may not work well for older students who write
longer essays. Students can still use TIDELL as a general framework to plan, but they may need to plan
for more space.)
2) As students practice writing essays using the full SRSD process, fade how often you prompt
them to plan and, instead, begin holding up examples from students who remembered on their
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own to write POW + TIDE(LL) and use it as a planner. As you hold these up in front of class (be
sure to feature students who write at all ability levels), ask students, “How did writing POW +
TIDE (LL) help you? What did you find useful about it?” Have them share this with the class.
Below are a few visual examples to show what student planning might look like at various levels
of development.
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Repair Essays (revision)
Essential Components:
 Explain that we begin reviewing a sample by thinking about the big picture of the piece of
writing
 Define and explain revision and editing
 Explain why we begin repairing writing by focusing mostly on revision, rather than editing
 Explain that editing is important, but that it comes after first focusing mainly on revision
 Have students participate in repairing a weak sample essay by suggesting and making changes
 Have a focus for revision such as adding information or moving elements around
Introductory note to teacher:
For this activity, teachers will need a weak sample essay, ideally written to the same task as the
pre-assessment. Teachers can write essays in need of repair, showing the kinds of difficulties students
often demonstrate, or teachers can ask for volunteers who would like their writing discussed by the
class. Do not single out and ask specific students; rather, offer this invitation to the full class and see
who volunteers. Volunteers should understand that they will get valuable feedback but that it might be
hard to have their classmates read their writing when it is not perfect. Students will often volunteer
because they appreciate the feedback.
It can be helpful to repair samples with a specific focus each day. On the first day, teachers can
focus on adding information or details to make essays stronger. The next day, the class can move
information around, deleting or adding sentences or ideas.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Explain the purpose of reviewing sample essays. Say:
TEACHER: Today we will look at some writing that we will work on improving. You will have a chance to
look it over and think about how it could be improved. This will help you practice how to improve your
own writing. When we want to improve a piece of writing, a helpful way to begin is to look at the big
picture. What is the author trying to communicate? Are all the key parts there? Is the writing clear? Is it
easy to understand? Is there a clear introduction? Is the idea well-supported? Is the organization clear?
(Review Standard W.2 to see what components of an informational essay should be present at your
grade level).
2) Define revision and editing. Say:
TEACHER: Remember that revision should be the main focus, not editing, when you take a first pass to
look for ways to improve writing. Revision includes thinking about the big picture—your ideas. Editing is
about improving your wording and sentences and, eventually, your grammar, spelling, and mechanics.
Editing is important too, but should not be what you focus on first. It is most important to make sure
your ideas are strong before working on the small stuff.
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It can be helpful to read the full piece, aloud softly, if possible. Then look for the parts of TIDE(LL). Are
they all well done? What else can be improved? Will a reader find it interesting and informative? Does
anything need to be moved around? Next, on a second pass, see if there are editing changes that could
improve the sample.
3) As a class, repair an essay collaboratively, with the teacher projecting the weak sample and
marking it up as the class discusses it. Alternatively, or next, students can work in groups or
individually to rewrite sections of the essay, and report back changes to the larger group.
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Grade 3 Weak Essay
Prompt: You have read two texts about famous people in American history who solved a problem by
working to make a change. Write an article for your school newspaper describing how both Eliza and
Carver made important contributions to the USA. Be sure to compare and contrast in detailed how
their contributions differed.
The first story is about Eliza, who liked to travel to many different places, in different types of vehicles
like “trains, carriages, and bumpy rickshaws.” She found things she liked to do everywhere she visited,
just like many other tourists. When she went to Japan, she thought the trees there were really pretty
with cherry blossoms that looked like snow when they feel so she tried to bring them back to America,
but when they finally got to Washington they were full of bugs and diseased and couldn’t be planted,
and all the park directors kept telling her that she couldn’t plant them. The second story was about
George Washington Carver also wanted to plant things but he was much more successful. He was able
to plant peanuts so that the cotton could grow in the soil much more often.
The plants they grew were important in different ways. The cherry blossoms from Japan made
Washington, DC one of the prettiest cities, and the peanuts made the soil strong enough to grow cotton
and became an important crop in America. Eliza and Carver both did things that no one else did. Carver
“wrote down more than 300 different uses for peanuts,” and Eliza became a photographer which “not
many women did, either.” They both followed their dreams and made them come true, both of which
were introducing plants into the USA.
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Grade 4 Weak Essay
Prompt: Your class has been studying about the survival of the ponies on Assateague Island. Using
information from the articles and the video, describe the roles that both the horses and the humans
play in the horses’ survival. Use evidence from the articles and the video to support your answer.
The people and the wild horses of Assateague Island play different parts in the horses’ survival. The
horses are untamed and are descendants of survivors of a shipwreck off the coast of Maryland. They
learned to survive the bugs, the bad food, and the very cold winters by adjusting over time and moving
around the island. They drink a lot of water because the grass they eat is very salty, and not what they
were used to. They are very strong and will probably bite, kick or knock you down if you get too close.
That’s the main thing that people do to help keep the ponies safe, is by staying away from them and not
feeding them, because they could become too tame and get hit by cars to come get food from people.
People food can also make the ponies sick. The two different groups of people that own the ponies, the
Maryland group and the Virginia group, don’t take care of the horses in the same way. In Maryland they
let the ponies get sick and die so that they don’t overpopulate and the National Park Service uses a
“non-hormonal, non-invasive vaccine to prevent pregnancy” and to make sure the mares don’t have
too many baby ponies. In Virginia, they take care of the horses if they get sick but then they sell the foals
every year at Chincoteague Island to help keep the population down.
The people and the horses both want to keep the horses alive, but humans play more of a role in doing
so because the horses have evolved to adapt to their island home, and the humans who own the ponies
and the land watch them very closely to make sure they can survive.
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Grade 5 Weak Essay
Prompt: Compare how the articles by Lauren Tarshis and Dyan deNapoli and the video describe
penguin rescue efforts after oil spills. Support your essay with information from all three sources.
The oil spill off the coast of South Africa was bad for penguins, changed the environment and was the
cause of rescue efforts. In all the articles were pictures that described the spill, like a map of South Africa
and where the oil spill happened. We find out that it hurt the penguins because Tarshis writes from the
penguins’ perspective, and then goes on to describe the effects of the spill, like it burning their eyes.
All the sources give a good idea of what the environment looked like before the spill, and how the
environment was very natural, rocky, and full of fish. The thousands of penguins could play and have fun
on their clean, “cold, and windy, rocky beach,” in the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, in which they
were separated from humans and a dirty environment. Then the articles and video show how it changed
after the oil spill, from safe to dangerous, from beautiful to ugly.
Pictures in the other article and video also show the effects of the spill, like pictures of the penguins with
the black oil on their bodies, and how miserable and sad they look. This makes the reader understand
how horrible the penguins must have felt at the time, but it also shows the penguins being cleaned off
and getting better with the help of volunteers, so those effects might last for a while, but not forever.
The video explains how the rescue efforts worked: “They must restrain the penguin, pry its beak open,
and shove the fish down its throat.”
Each author told the same story in similar ways, but did not talk about how the spill happened and how
it could be prevented. The penguins were hurt because of the spill and the authors’ use of details make
the reader feel very close to them, and want to join the volunteers.
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Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
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Stage 3
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 3:
Model It
Goals
Participants will:





Describe and identify the components of Stage 3.
Describe how to provide instruction to students based on the tasks in Stage 3.
Apply the use of self-talk and think alouds to engage students in self-regulation of thinking when
planning and writing.
Model and practice collaborative writing exercises that will help students improve their own
writing.
Understand the scoring process and look at student growth in writing.
List of Materials:








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Introduce Self-talk
Self-talk Planner
Model a Think Aloud Using Self-regulation and Writing Strategies
Student Form
Think Alouds
Lead Collaborative Plan/Write
Introduce Scoring
Scales
TIDE Scoring Guidelines
Writing Scoring Meeting Preparation, Scoring Meeting Agenda, and PLC Agenda Protocols
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SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
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Introduce Self-Talk
Essential Components:
 Define self-talk
 Convey importance of self-talk
 Ask students what they are good at, and what they say when they do something they are good
at
 Ask students what they say to themselves when they write
 Demonstrate self-talk
 Have students plan positive self-talk statements to use when writing
Introductory note to teacher:
The purpose of discussing self-talk is to introduce students to the idea that what they say in their minds
as they write has an impact on the actual quality of their writing. Research shows that if they speak
confidently to themselves and remind themselves what to do, they will write better. If they disengage or
speak negatively to themselves, they will not write as well. This discussion begins at the general level,
with students discussing what they are good at in general, then quickly moves into self-talk around
writing practices. The goal is for students to use self-talk to think about what they are good at, and
where they can improve specifically.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Introduce and define self-talk. Say:
TEACHER: What is self talk? It is how we talk to ourselves in our minds, what we say in our heads to
ourselves. You may not notice it, but we all do this, all the time. What we don’t realize is how powerful
this is. The great part is that we can control what we say to ourselves and that makes a big difference in
our lives, and we often don’t even realize this! So let’s think about it. We will talk about writing in just
one minute, but for a moment think big picture in your life: what do you like to do or what are good at?
When you do that, what kinds of statements do you make to yourself as you do these activities? Think for
a moment. Share some examples. (Relate this to activities students actually do and feel they are good
at. For instance, if students say “I’m good at basketball,” you can then ask, “What do you say to yourself
when you play basketball?” Students might say things like “I remind myself to keep my eyes on the ball,”
or “I tell myself to stay low to the floor on defense.” Note that a sports analogy may help students
understand self-talk: It’s like having a positive, motivational coach in your head, saying things like “You
can do this! Run hard for five more minutes!” and “Remember to follow-through on your shot and
you’ll make it!”)
Now let’s go back to writing. What do you say to yourself in your mind when you write? What do you
hear yourself saying in your head? Let’s think. Is this the same or different type of talk from other
activities you participate in? Pick up a pencil and imagine you are going to write an essay. What might
you think in your mind?
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In our next lesson, we’ll be looking at the kinds of things we say to ourselves in our minds all the time and
when we write. How does talking yourself down or talking yourself up affect your performance?
2) Demonstrate self-talk. Say:
TEACHER: How many of you paid attention to how you talked to yourself after the last lesson? What did
you notice? I’ll start with an example. (Teachers are encouraged to share their own examples here.
What follows is merely an illustration.) Last weekend, I had to clean the garage. I woke up and thought,
“I can’t do this.” So I went into the garage and decided to try self-talk. So I said, “I can do this.” (Draws
stick figure of herself on board, and writes this self-statement in a bubble above her own head.) I took it
step by step. I kept telling myself that when I was done, I could do other activities. I would feel great
because soon I would have it out of the way. But as I got started, I began to have some fun and that
surprised me. So as I went, I kept telling myself to take it step by step. (Writes this in thought bubble
above her head). I realized I was pretty good at organizing and it went faster than I thought. After I was
done, I felt really proud of myself. I thought I’d done a really good job. I should not have doubted myself.
I turned out to be pretty good at this, and then I was done. It looked great and I felt good.
Now, share out what you noticed about the way I talked to myself. In what way was this self-talk
“positive” and helpful? How might talking “down” to myself—thinking things like “I’ll never get this
done” and “I hate cleaning”—have made it harder for me to complete the job well?
3) Discuss applying self-talk to writing. Distribute the “Self-Talk Planner” from the next page and
say:
TEACHER: Now you have a chance to write some positive self-talk you can use when you write. This
strategy has been proven to help people write better. To plan out some self-talk statements you might
use in the future, fill in the Self-Talk Planner with what you might say to yourself in your mind.
(Optional: Have students paste photos or drawings of themselves on a blank page of paper. Then, have
them draw thought bubbles above their head that list out what they can say to themselves as they
write. Students can post these on or near their desks to motivate themselves when writing.)
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Self-Talk Planner
What am I good at, or like to do?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What do I say to myself in my mind when I do this?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What can I say to myself to encourage myself before writing?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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Model a Think Aloud, Using Self-Regulation and Writing Strategies
Essential Components:
 Model prompt analysis – problem definition
 Model writing in mode, using strategy
 Refer to strategy steps while writing
 Model a planning system to guide the writer
 Model positive statements linking strategy use to success
 Model self-encouraging statements while writing
 Model thinking about goals while writing
 Model managing frustration, idea-generation, focus (or any challenges students face)
 Model self-evaluating writing and making revisions as needed
Introductory note to teacher:
For this task, the teacher should model a think aloud that demonstrates the thinking process and selfregulation and/or self-talk that goes into writing an essay. We have provided sample grade-specific
think alouds in the next pages. However, the best way to model an authentic think aloud is for teachers
to mimic students’ thought processes (Imagine how a stronger writer might start off, but also mimic
difficulties students might face and model how to cope with them). It is important that this be an
authentic moment (Teachers should plan in advance what they want to say in general, but should avoid
reading from notes when modeling for students.). The samples merely provide an illustration of what
this might sound like. Any time you deliver your own think aloud, use the above checklist to ensure it
includes all key elements.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. Teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the
essential components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Model a think-aloud, ideally based on a task students have already written to, like the preassessment, so that they are familiar with the sources and content. If you find it helpful, give
students a copy of the student form on the next page to take notes during your think aloud.
2) As you do a think aloud, remember to watch student engagement, paying attention to body
language to gauge attentiveness. Shorten the think aloud and do it in smaller chunks if
attentions drift. Or, switch to a collaborative think aloud and involve the students more actively,
asking them to share what they might think as they write.
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Student Form for Model a Think Aloud, Using Self-Regulation and Writing
Strategies
I will model how to plan and write an essay. As I do, take notes on what you observe.
I do this!
I don’t do this but want to!
Why are you doing this?
I don’t like this!
You can take notes here first and then separate into the boxes above.
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Grade 3 Think Aloud: Solving Problems
So, what am I being asked to do here? Let me read the prompt slowly and carefully. It says, You have
read two texts about famous people in American history who solved a problem by working to make a
change. Write an article for your school newspaper describing how Eliza and Carver faced challenges
to change something in America. In your article, be sure to describe in detail why some solutions they
tried worked and others did not work. Tell how the challenges each one faces were the same and how
they were different.
So I need to write an article for the school newspaper about how two people faced challenges in
changing something in America. Well, Eliza and George Washington Carver sure met some challenges.
What I am most impressed by is that they kept trying, over and over again to achieve their goals! How
should I begin? I feel stuck. There is so much information. What should I do first? I need to first think
about what kind of writing I’m doing here. My teachers says that once we know the mode, then we know
what kind of writing to do. This looks like informative/explanatory because they want information, not so
much my opinion. I’ll need to write like a reporter too so that it sounds like an article. Hmmmmm, I need
to use the mnemonics, POW and TIDE(LL)i, to make it easier to write this article since TIDE(LL) helps with
this informative/explanatory writing. Those will help. I also have to remember my goals. My goal is to
analyze the prompt really carefully and make sure I understand what I’m being asked to do since last
time I had difficulty with that part.
First, POW! Let me write POW across the top of my paper, then TIDE(LL) down the side. I’ll write T for my
topic introduction, ID for important evidence and detailed examination then E for end. (If you choose to
introduce LL say – “L for links and L for language.”) I’ll leave the most space between the IDs because
they require the most planning space. First, I have to pull apart the prompt, organize my ideas, and then,
write! For P, I really need to pull apart the prompt carefully. I need to describe challenges they faced. But
I also have to describe how some solutions worked but others did not. And I need to find comparisons
between the challenges they faced, and differences between them too. OK I can do this. It is a lot to think
about but I can do this!
Next, I need to organize my ideas. I’ll take out some direct quotes as evidence and use careful vocabulary
from the articles. I want to mention how Eliza discovered the cherry trees in Japan. Then, I’ll mention her
challenges in getting the cherry trees to Washington, D.C. Is this the most important information? Focus
on her struggles, and solutions that worked and didn’t. Yes, she proposed the idea of planting beautiful
cherry blossom trees in Washington D.C.’s parks, but twice the people in charge of planting trees said,
“no.” When after 20 years, she kept asking and asked the president’s wife, who finally said ok, the trees
were diseased so had to be burned, so this solution didn’t work out in the end. She didn’t give up! Finally,
she got them!
Next, I need to discuss George Washington Carver and his plans with the peanuts and crop rotation. Let’s
see. His struggles were that cotton was ruining the soil and he felt sorry for the farmers who could not
re-use the soil. So he recommended they rotate crops so the soil could regain important “nutrients’. I
think it’s good I am staying organized as I plan out my essay, first talking about Eliza and then, talking
about George. But George’s solution didn’t work at first because then there were too many peanuts
grown. But then he invented more ways to use peanuts, so at last it all worked out.
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Finally, I’ll compare them. Well, they both cared about others. Eliza wanted everyone to enjoy the
beautiful trees. Carver wanted farmers to re-use the soil so they could earn better income. But Eliza faced
people not listening to her. Carver faced problems not from people saying no, but from there being too
many peanuts. But in the end, they both worked hard and did not give up.
Now, I’ll write! I am really getting going at this! POW really helped me get started, and TIDE(LL) will too.
First, my topic statement. I can’t forget that my topic statement will need to really answer or ‘respond’ to
the prompt, rather than just only ‘restate’ the prompt in parrot-like fashion. I’ll say that both came up
with ideas, and some worked while others did not. That’s it! I got it! I knew I could do it! I am really
getting good at writing!
Ok, stay focused. Well, I have already listed my ideas. I’ll check each to be sure it’s key and responds to
the prompt. Awesome! Ok, the last part of TIDE(LL) is E for End. Now, I want to finish strong with a great
conclusion. I will wrap up and think of a clever way to tie the information together. Let me give a catchy
ending, the way a reporter of an article would do too.
Did I meet my goal and think really carefully about the prompt before I wrote, then recheck a few times
to make sure I’m sticking closely to answering exactly what it had been asking? Yes, I think I worked hard
to meet this goal, and I did it.
This newspaper article is going to be great! POW and TIDE(LL) helped so much. I knew I could do this if I
just stuck with it and used good strategies.
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Grade 4 Think Aloud: Horses
OK what do I need to do here? How should I get started? I feel a bit overwhelmed but I’ll take a deep
breath and use the strategies I know. Alright, so I need to write an essay on the roles of humans and
horses in horse survival. I love horses! They are so majestic! Ok, focus. I can do a really good job on this
essay if I just use the tools my teacher has given me.
I need to first think about what kind of writing I’m doing here. My teachers says that once we know the
mode, then we know what kind of writing to do. This looks like informative/explanatory because they
want information, not so much my opinion. So I’ll use POW + TIDE(LL) to get going since TIDE(LL) helps
me write informative/explanatory essays. POW says: Pull apart the prompt type, Organize my Notes and
then Write. My goal now in writing is to pull apart the prompt really carefully and think about each part
slowly. When I do this, I then answer it best.
(You may choose to introduce TIDE or TIDELL. TIDELL is slightly more difficult. After looking at your preassessments, if most students have the majority of the parts of TIDE, you can begin with TIDELL. Or you
may introduce TIDELL to some students who seem ready, more quickly, to differentiate. However, when
doing a model think aloud be sure to model looking for and using links and precise language so all
students are exposed to the idea that these are important, even if they are not working to use all this at
first because they do not even have basics of mode down yet.)
Prompt: Your class has been studying about the survival of the ponies on Assateague Island.
Using information from the articles and the video, describe the roles that both the horses and
the humans play in the horses’ survival. Use evidence from the articles and the video to
support your answer.
I read it, but Hmm, I think I’ll read it again more slowly and carefully. Let me pull it apart, then find the
prompt type. Well, let’s see. This is looking for me to write a descriptive piece. I’ll break it into two
sections where I descript the roles of horses, then humans. I should look for key words that will help me
to answer this question. Well, “horses” and “humans” are important words. Also, “horse survival” is a
very important phrase. I need to collect evidence from the articles to illustrate how horses and humans
help horse survival. Got it! That’s good! I am moving right along! Thank goodness for POW!
What is the big idea? Well that’s easy – In the two articles and video, it is clear that both the horses
themselves and the humans there play a role in their survival, though in different ways with horses
relying more on behavioral and physical adaptations and humans contributing more through protecting
them from dangers and overpopulation. Hmm…. Let me reword this so it sounds smoother: In the two
articles and video we have seen, it is clear that both the horses themselves and the humans there play a
role in their survival, though in different ways with horses relying on adapting and humans contributing
through protecting them from danger.
That will be the last sentence I work up to in my introduction since a topic statement is usually the last
sentence in the introductory paragraph. I also have to remember that the topic statement is the road
map for the essay, so I need to include all the major points that I will discuss in my essay in that sentence.
So I’ll do a general introductory sentence, then my topic statement. I can’t forget that my topic
statement will also need to offer an insight in my ‘response’ to the prompt, rather than just only ‘restate’
the prompt in parrot-like fashion.
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Hmmm, this means I will need to think about how the horses help themselves. How do they stay safe,
healthy and warm on the island? Then I will also need to separately consider how humans help the
horses to survive. This is simple when I break it up like that. Good – I’m getting excited to plan now.
Next I need to cite evidence. I’ll be sure to cite direct quotes but just one quote per main point that I
make. I want to be sure to avoid a “retell” and mostly show my own good thinking.
Now I’ll do O in POW - I organize my notes. I’ll take short notes on these two ideas – how horses help
and how humans help and also I’ll try to build a strong introduction and conclusion. I know these notes
are just for me, so they shouldn’t be long sentences or complete paragraphs. That takes TOO MUCH time
and time is so important. (Teacher models note taking and marks up article. Notes should include the
physical and behavioral adaptations made by the horses as well as the protective measures taken by
humans.)
We keep organizing our notes in the O in POW. I’ll write TIDE(LL) down the side of my paper so I see all
the main sections I should include: Topic introduction, Important evidence, Detailed examination and
Ending (If you choose to introduce LL say – “L for links and L for language.”). I have the topic statement.
I’ll write a general statement about the horses and humans both supporting the horses’ survival, then
add: Yet, they do so in different ways with horses relying on adapting and humans contributing through
protecting them from danger.
Now I’ll do the “important evidence” and “detailed examination” for the IDs in TIDELL. There are two
important ideas. 1 – Horses helped themselves. 2 – Humans helped horses. For each ID, I need a clear
topic sentence that is focused and links right back to the main topic statement. I also want to be sure
they have strong transition words to make the flow of my writing the best it can be. So, 1 -- To begin
with, the horses do many things to keep themselves strong and healthy and 2 -- While the horses do
many things to keep themselves strong and healthy, they also have help from the people who live on
Chincoteague Island.
OK, now I’ll find evidence to cite. Hmmm there is so much evidence I can cite. I’ll pick one example for
each point that seems to be representative. Now what evidence do I have to support the idea that
humans support the horses’ survival? I find a lot of that evidence in the “Chincoteague Ponies Make
Annual Swim” video as well as the “Wild Ponies of Chincoteague.” I definitely want to use all of those
sources so my reader feels like she is getting a complete description.
So I’ve planned my two big ideas and I’ve found supporting details. I’m going to read the prompt one
more time to be sure I’ve done everything I was told to do.
Prompt: Your class has been studying about the survival of the ponies on Assateague Island.
Using information from the articles and the video, describe the roles that both the horses and
the humans play in the horses’ survival. Use evidence from the articles and the video to support
your answer.
I’ve planned to talk about how the horses help. I’ve found good details from my source to use to support
my idea. I’ve planned to talk about how the humans help. I’ve found good details from my source to use
to support my idea. So I’ve made a plan for all the parts of the prompt. Yay!
Next in TIDE(LL) is E – ending. I’ll conclude by summarizing these descriptions.
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I need a concluding thought that answers the question, “So what?” So, well I guess the big idea is that
we have to work together to make this world a better place for all of the creatures that live on it. That’s a
pretty big thought.
I have my plan and now I’ll start writing. This is going well. I just check off each thing from my plan after I
put it in my draft. I’m getting really good extra ideas I write. This is becoming so much clearer now! Let
me go back and look it over. Let me see if there is more detail I can add – just precise vocabulary so the
writing is clear all through.
OK I have all my ideas now. Did I meet my goal and think really carefully about the prompt before I
wrote, then recheck a few times to make sure I’m sticking closely to answering exactly what it had been
asking? Yes, I think I worked hard to meet this goal, and I did it.
Let me go back and work in better links because these are important. OK, now I’ll reread it and revise as I
go. I feel good about this. TIDELL and POW really helped me. Planning saved so much time because my
thinking was clear and organized before I wrote so I did not need to do major revising – just did some
polishing.
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Grade 5 Think Aloud: Penguins
OK what do I need to do here? How should I get started? I feel a bit overwhelmed but I’ll take a deep
breath and remember my steps. I know they work. I can do this.
I need to first think about what kind of writing I’m doing here. My teachers says that once we know the
mode, then we know what kind of writing to do. This looks like informative/explanatory because they
want information, not so much my opinion. So I’ll use POW + TIDELL to get going since TIDELL helps with
informative/explanatory writing. POW says: Pull apart the prompt, Organize my Notes and then Write.
My goal now in writing is to pull apart the prompt really carefully and think about each part slowly.
When I do this, I know I can write a good essay. Let me write POW across the top of my paper, then
TIDELL down the side. I’ll write T for my topic introduction, ID for important evidence and detailed
examination then E for end. LL is for links and language. I’ll leave the most space between the IDs
because they require the most planning space. Good, I am getting organized. That helps me do my work.
OK the prompt is: Compare how the articles by Lauren Tarshis and Dyan deNapoli and the video
describe penguin rescue efforts after oil spills. Support your essay with information from all three
sources.
I read it, but Hmm, I think I’ll read it again more slowly and carefully. Let me pull it apart, then find the
prompt type. Well the prompt tells me exactly what type of prompt it is – it wants me to compare the
sources. OK I can do that. Let me look at them again and see what was the same in all three. Now I’ll
think about a first sentence. What is the big idea? Well all three talk about the damage, the rescue
efforts, and the island before and after. OK I can use those three main ideas and compare how each
describe them. So that can be my general introduction. What should my topic statement say? I’ll preview
these ideas. My topic statement will need to offer a ‘response’ to the prompt, rather than just only
‘restate’ the prompt in parrot-like fashion. So I’ll preview the focus of the essay in my topic statement.
I should get started on thinking about the body paragraphs now – what would go in those? Wow, it
looks like so much work. I need to take a deep breath. I can do this. Oh, I have an idea. I will get my
highlighter and highlight the common parts in the articles. Then I can listen to the video to see if the
video also has the same parts in the story. Alright, that doesn’t seem too hard. I am ready to get started.
I can really see the common parts in the stories and the video. Good, that helps me think about my work.
I see the parts I need to include. What is my important evidence? What should I do? Oh, I can look for a
highlighted part that is the same. Well there are a lot of quotes that all talk about the same information.
One tells how the oil bothered and really hurt the penguins. I guess I can pick any of these details to
quote because they all make the same point.
Hmmm there is still so much evidence I can cite. I’ll have to be sure I find the most key points when the
information is now not all making the same point. I need to find that best support that shows what is
similar in the main categories I will write about. Let me keep looking. Actually, I really like what I’m
finding so far. I know writing can be hard, but this planning is starting to flow. I can do this. OK, next the
detailed examination is important also. I think I need to take a deep breath and carefully think about
what analysis or explaining I can do about these pieces of evidence I’ve found. Let me read the quotes I’ll
use a few times and see what common themes come up in my mind. Next in TIDELL is E – ending. I’ll
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conclude by wrapping up and think about so what?, so I can bring together the points I have made and
extend them. I’ll also mention that reading this made me want to go and help them.
OK my outline is ready. What is that banging? Oh, that is the kids playing soccer in PE. I would love to be
playing soccer now! I am a great goalie. OK focus. I need to get this done and resist any distractions.
This is hard, but I will take my time and think. I have my outline and now I’ll start writing. Are my details
all accurate? Did I include all my notes I took? Am I explaining enough? It is going well. I’m getting really
good at writing! This is becoming so much clearer now! Let me go back and look it over. Let me see if
there is more detail I can add. That’s the L in TIDELL –language. OK I have all my ideas now. Let me go
back and work in better links, the last L in TIDELL. OK now I’ll reread it and revise as I go. I feel good
about this. Did I meet my goal and think really carefully about the prompt before I wrote, then recheck a
few times to make sure I’m sticking closely to answering exactly what it had been asking? Yes, I think I
worked hard to meet this goal, and I did it.
TIDELL and POW really helped me. Planning saved so much time because my thinking was clear and
organized before I wrote so I did not need to do major revising – just did some polishing. I am done with
my rough draft! I knew I could do this. I just had to stick with it. I can’t wait for my friends to read this!
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Lead Collaborative Plan/Write
Essential Components:






Explain the purpose of collaborative writing
Ask students to write to a new prompt about the same sources they are already familiar with
Model using POW, especially pulling apart the prompt carefully, and TIDE (LL) to plan
Model and ask for suggestions for how to cope with any difficulties or how to encourage oneself
Use a graphic organizer to structure planning, or sketch one on scratch paper using TIDE
Involve students in the process as you plan, then turn the plan into a complete piece of writing,
together
 Observing student engagement and capability, decide when to release students to write in pairs
or on their own (If students are not generating strong ideas, then continue collaborative work)
Introductory note to teacher:
During this activity, be sure to watch student engagement closely. If students are focused and with you,
you can model your thinking as you take down ideas, and ask them to share ideas as well. If they drift
off, have them play a more active role in driving the collaborative write. If you still notice many drifting,
then switch gears and ask them to pair and share or actually write parts themselves and share those
with the whole group after they write.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Set the context. Say:
TEACHER: We have read several sources about …..
Then you heard me model a think aloud about how I might go about answering a prompt on this topic. I
shared what I might think in my head as I write.
Now we will pick a topic to write about and we’ll begin writing the piece together, using POW and
TIDE(LL). We’ll use the same sources since they are already familiar, but we’ll answer a different prompt
than the one(s) we have already written about. Instead, we’ll write about….
(Teacher selects a new prompt based on the same source texts as the think aloud. Teachers can design a
full set of possible prompts to use for each set of sources—the same content, with each prompt
providing a different spin or analytical angle. This way students can continue to write to sources but will
not need to read new sources each time they write. We have provided some examples at the end of
this document that you might choose or model your own prompts after.)
2) Explain the purpose of collaborative writing. Say:
TEACHER: We will write together (collaboratively) because it is valuable to see how others think when
they plan and write. So as we do this, please feel free to contribute both your ideas and the thinking you
are doing as you decide what to include in your TIDE(LL) outline and in the actual piece of writing.
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3) Lead the collaborative write, starting with POW.
TEACHER: So let’s begin by planning how we might respond to this new prompt. Please take out some
scratch paper and sketch a POW+TIDE planner, as you saw me just do. Now let’s start planning our ideas
together. How do we begin?
Yes, we start with POW. (Go through steps of POW. Take input from students during each step. As you
plan, have students copy it down so they stay with you, or project what you write on a screen. Writing
on chart paper can be slow and kids often lose focus because of this.)
So let’s carefully pull apart the prompt. What kind of prompt type is it? Is it compare and contrast? Or
does it want me to list categories? (This might be a good opportunity to discuss/review possible prompt
types. For a list of possible prompt types, see this book’s appendix section.) OK, now I’ll keep pulling
apart the prompt. I get frustrated sometimes and want to hurry so I can just be finished, but I know I
need to go very carefully at this part because analyzing the prompt is so important. What else can I say
to myself when I am frustrated?
OK, I need to focus again. Hmmm... What else do you think the prompt requires? (Take input). I think I’ll
reread it again, so I’m sure I’m paying attention to all the important parts of the prompt. What else can I
do to help myself slow down and really look carefully at the prompt? What should I say to myself when I
feel impatient?
Now let’s see what comes next. Let me look at TIDE(LL) again and think about my sources. I’m starting to
feel better about this and I’m getting some good ideas down. What can I say to myself when I feel it is
going well? (Continue to emphasize thinking aloud and showing areas of writing that your students
struggle with, even as you do a collaborative write. Just be sure to involve your students more and more
as you go.)
4) Continue the Collaborative Write with TIDELL. In front of the students, and involving them, use
TIDELL to map out an outline to the prompt, taking ideas from students as you go. At this point
you can either use a pre-made graphic organizer to plan, or sketch one on scratch paper. If
engagement is high, you may choose to model and write out the full piece in front the class.
However, if students are losing focus or if they seem ready for more independence, have them
continue outlining in pairs or groups. If students still need support*, complete the outline and
the introduction together, again with students writing down what you create as a class; when
students seem ready to work more independently, have them go off and work in groups or pairs
to continue and complete the essay.
(*Students with disabilities often require far more full essay writing in collaborative practice mode. Do
not release students too soon. Make sure they can succeed before they begin writing alone.)
5) Over the next few days, consider conducting more collaborative write exercises. Provide
students choice by offering them a menu of prompts to select from. Or, they can create and
vote on their own. Allow students to work with increasing independence as you gradually
release them into more responsibility for planning their own writing. Monitor students as they
plan together, providing comments to reinforce use of mnemonics, such as: “I see some of you
using TIDELL before you write. Can a group that used TIDELL to plan explain how that helped
you?
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Alternate Prompts for Collaborative Writes
Grade 1:
How are insects helpful to the environment? Give details from the text to support your answer.
Grade 2:
Why are the octopus and jellyfish not easy prey? (Prey means that other creatures could easily capture
and kill them). Give details from the text to explain your answer.
Grade 3:
Eliza and Carver were both inspired to make changes in America. Describe where Eliza and Carver found
inspiration for their original ideas as well as for the solutions they found when obstacles arose. Cite
evidence from the text to support your answer.
Grade 4:
You have read about the Assateague and Chincoteague ponies. Write an essay that describes both how
the ponies contribute to their communities, and how communities support the horses as well. Cite
evidence from the text to support your answer.
Grade 5:
Describe the challenges faced by the rescuers of the penguins. Cite evidence from the text to support
your answer.
Grade 6:
You have read articles and watched a video about zoos and their animals. Write an essay explaining how
zoos have changed in order to better serve animals using evidence from all three sources. Cite evidence
from the text to support your answer.
Grade 7:
In an essay, discuss the purposes of the three sources and how they achieve those goals. Cite evidence
from the text to support your answer.
Grade 8:
Write an essay that compares and contrasts the intended audience for each article and the video. What
evidence led you to your conclusions? Cite evidence from the text to support your answer.
Grade 9:
Write an essay that explains the point of view in the texts, and how each writer’s position is influenced
by his point of view.
Grade 10:
In the sources, each Justice develops specific points in a clear, logical sequence. Analyze why each
author uses the chosen sequence and how this structure advances his position.
Grade 11:
Compare and contrast the arguments that both print texts offer in support of breaking away from the
British government.
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Introduce Scoring
Essential Components:
 Explain purpose for learning to score writing
 Explain that scoring gives us an opportunity to know how we can best improve our writing
 Explain the scale and the criteria needed to receive each point
 Explain color coding system
 Score the essay together, one section at time, color coding as you go
 Ask students to show (on fingers, white boards, or their scales) how many points they would
give for each element (this is your formative assessment to ensure they understand scoring)
 Pre-empt frustration when students begin their own scoring (What might frustrate your
students?)
Introductory note to teacher:
For the first activity in which you teach students how to score, use either an essay written
collaboratively with students or a pre-made sample. Make sure you choose an essay that has room for
improvement. Beforehand, design a color coding (e.g., blue=topic introduction, purple=important
evidence and detailed examinations, red=conclusion) or marking system (based on the elements of TIDE
or another mnemonic) to help students focus on certain elements of a piece of writing while scoring it.
Post the system for the class to use.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Pass out copies of scales and introduce purpose of scoring:
TEACHER: Today we are going to begin learning to score, so we can eventually score our own work. Why
will we do that? The purpose is to help you become better writers. So one way to get better at writing is
to score our own writing so that we can see increments of growth. You will score it, and you will get a
little better each time you write, because you will be able to say “Oh, I need to do this or that next time.”
You might not have a perfect score the first time. Most students don’t. That’s ok. This is just a first try.
We all get better with practice.
So we will use this scale to score together this piece that we wrote together last time. This way you can
learn how to use the scale.
2) Model the color coding/marking system while using a scale to score the sample piece in front of
the class. Be sure to explain to students why the sample essay received the score in each row.
TEACHER: Use your scoring sheet to score our writing. We’re going to see what it is we need to do to get
better. First, you need an introduction and you get points if you have that and it has all the qualities we
have discussed and looked at in exemplars of good introductions. Let’s review your scoring scale, and go
over how to get points for each element. (Teachers now walk students through the scoring scale for your
grade.) When we score my sample essay with this scale now, let’s say I forgot an introduction, which I
did. So I cannot underline my introduction in blue. If I had one I would underline it in blue. When I set my
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goals, my goal is to clearly include a better introduction next time. Next, my Important evidence and
Detailed examinations. I’ll underline my first quote in purple. Do I think it is key supporting evidence?
What makes it key? Is it relevant in supporting my answer? Did I explain what it means and infer how it
supports answering the central question I address in this essay? I do explain the quote, and since the
quote is relevant, the explanation is too. So, yes, I’ll underline these in purple. (Continue on to score and
color code in front of students for the rest of the scale. During this or future scoring practice, as a
formative assessment to ensure they understand scoring, ask students to show [on fingers, white
boards, or their own scales] how many points they would give for each element.)
In a subsequent lesson, prepare students to color code/annotate and score their own work*.
1) Be sure to think about how you will pre-empt any frustration students may have when it comes
to scoring their own writing. Model how a student might respond to not getting all points so
you can prepare them to respond similarly when they score their own work.
TEACHER: Scoring is a way to help ourselves get better at writing. Sometimes, we make mistakes—for
instance, I forgot an introductory paragraph so I didn’t get that point and I have nothing underlined in
blue. But I’m not going to let that get me down! I’m going to remember next time that I have to do that.
I’m going to think about these areas for improvement and I’m going to really nail it next time and have
an introduction. I have some really clear goals. I know exactly what I need to do next time.
And you will too. After you score your writing, you’ll notice what you need to do to get even better. When
you see what you are missing, are you going to feel like “Oh, I’m the worst writer!”? No! You’re going to
feel empowered. You’re going to say, “Next time I know exactly what I am going to do! I’m going to write
my introduction, elaborate, and write a full conclusion.” That gives you a plan.
Remember, what did the sample essay get on this scale? It only got a 5 or a 6. That is less than half! I
wanted it to be perfect. But that does not make me sad. It makes me strong because now I know just
what to do. And it will not make me want to put this in my folder and never look at it again. It will help
me say, OK, now I know just what to do! No one gets writing right the first time, but if we score, we can
learn how to make it better. So that is how you score.
2) Lead students in scoring their own essays.
TEACHER: Now you have a chance to score your own writing. Please take out your pieces and look at the
scale. We will walk through each item as a class. Let’s look at the first item. Look at your paper and see if
you have an introduction and if it includes all the qualities that we talked about. If so, give yourself the
point(s)…
(*If students have difficulty scoring independently after this first introduction to scoring, model more
scoring. Invite volunteers to have their essays be scored. In some classes, students need to see many
models scored before they can score accurately. Those who can score already can do so in a small group
while the rest of the class practices in a whole-group setting.)
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Informative Writing Grade 3 Scale
Essay Topic:
Points
Topic Introduction
Introduce topic
Important Evidence and
Detailed examinations (related information grouped & ties to
introduction)
ID 1
Topic is developed with key facts, definitions and details
Examination of facts, definitions and details is clear
ID 2
Topic is developed with key facts, definitions and details
Examination of facts, definitions and details is clear
ID 3
Topic is developed with key facts, definitions and details
Examination of facts, definitions and details is clear
Adult
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
This scale does not set the number of sentences or paragraphs. If more than 3 IDs, choose 3 to score randomly.
Ending
Concluding statement or section provided
Language
Chooses words and phrases for effect. Produce simple,
compound and complex sentences.
Links
Linking words and phrases connect ideas
Conventions
CCSS grade level: grammar, punctuation, spelling
Evidence of planning, revising and editing present
Planner and improvements made are visible or attached
1
1
1
1
1
Total
Done Well:
Goals for Next Writing Piece:
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Peer
Self
Informative Writing Grade 4 Scale
Essay Topic:
Pts
Topic Introduction
Introduce topic clearly
1
Focused topic statement
3
Important Evidence and
Detailed examination (related information grouped & tied back to
introduction)
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting information
1
1
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
clearly
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting information
1
2
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
clearly
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting information
1
3
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
clearly
5 paragraph essay not expected. If more than 3 IDs, choose 3 to score randomly.
Ending
Concluding section relates to central information or examination
2
Language
Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary, Produce simple, 2
compound and complex sentences, and use coordinating conjunctions
Links
Link ideas within categories of information using words and phrases
1
Conventions
CCSS grade level: grammar, punctuation for effect and spelling
1
Evidence of planning, revising and editing present
Planner and improvements made are visible or attached
1
Total
Done Well:
Adult
Peer
Self
Goals for Next Writing Piece:
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Informative Writing Grade 5 Scale
Essay Topic:
Pts
Topic Introduction
Introduce topic clearly
1
Focused topic statement
3
Important Evidence and
Detailed examination (related information grouped & tied back to
introduction)
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting key information
1
1
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting key information
1
2
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
ID
Paragraph develops related supporting key information
1
3
Facts, definitions, details, quotes or other information examined
2
5 paragraph essay not expected. If more than 3 IDs, choose 3 to score randomly.
Ending
Concluding section relates to central information or examination
2
Language
Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary, Expand,
2
combine and reduce sentences for meaning, reader interest and style
Links
Link ideas within and across categories with words, phrases and
1
clauses
Conventions
CCSS grade level: grammar, punctuation for effect and spelling
1
Evidence of planning, revising and editing present
Notes, plans, improvements and rewrites made, are visible or
1
attached
Total
Done Well:
Goals for Next Writing Piece:
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Adult
Peer
Self
TIDE Scoring Guidelines Grade 3
Topic Introduction (W.3.2)
Look for key idea stated. Some teachers choose not to award this point if student only “restates the
prompt”, rather than responding to the prompt in a way that shows an understanding of the standard
assessed. There should be at least a complete sentence that introduces the topic, without diving into
specific details because doing so makes it no longer function as ‘topic introduction’. For the topic
introduction, students can use several sentences (hook, main idea, preview facts). Presence of an
acceptable introduction gets 1 point. Topic statement receives up to 3 points, depending on quality.
Important Evidence and Detailed Examination (W.3.2)
Each fact, definition or detail develops ideas about the topic, so they each relate to, and develop, the
topic well. Related information about each idea is grouped together. Each new idea would have its own
sentence (or group of sentences). When students write about more than three IDs, score first 3 (or any
random 3) ideas. We are not striving for a set number of sentences in a paragraph. The writing should
match the topic, not fit in a formula. Therefore, the number of IDs (and support for each) will vary. If the
task only elicits 2 ideas and is answered completely with these, then assume other ideas (and their
support) would be the same quality, and average the points received on the 2 ideas that were conveyed,
to keep scoring consistent across tasks. When the prompt requires 2, 4 or more ideas supported by
facts, definitions or details for an accurate, complete response, teachers can share this with students
before they write. It is helpful for students to eventually discover how to determine what makes a
‘complete’ response to all kinds of prompts independently, though. When writing to sources, students
should refer explicitly to text for all IDs (R.3.1).
Examination of facts, definitions or details shows careful understanding. Common Core switches from
‘introduce’ to ‘examine’ from grade 2 to 3. Therefore, these must be examined carefully, not just
introduced. Each idea examined should be its own sentence at least, but a particularly strong compound
sentence can work to combine conveying multiple ideas at times, though rarely. The word “key”(R.3.2)
means the details are important to the topic.
Each examination of facts, definitions and details receives 1 point for a surface attempt, 2 points if the
examination is done clearly, deeply and well.
Ending (W.3.2)
Concluding statement or section can be very simple, such as wrap up overview summary.
Language (L.3.3.B)
Use varied sentences. If overly simplistic language is used throughout, some teachers don’t give this
point.
Links (W.3.2.C)
Words and phrases connect similar ideas within a group of information, or link to the topic.
Conventions (L.3.1-L3.2)
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Refer to grade level Common Core State Standard requirements for conventions regarding expected
grammar, punctuation and spelling. A class-wide expectation can be set for this point, but goals should
be individualized, as needed. Therefore, students can receive this point if they have shown agreed upon
levels of improvement from baseline. A child who spells with only 80% accuracy might get this point
each time his/her accuracy improves by 5%.
Evidence of Planning and Revision (W.3.5)
A graphic organizer or self-made planner should be attached. A first draft (or carets inserting changes
into a final piece), showing improvements should be visible as well.
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TIDE Scoring Guidelines Grade 4
Topic Introduction (W.4.2)
Look for key idea stated succinctly. Students should respond to the prompt in a way that shows an
understanding of the standards assessed, rather than only “restating the prompt.” There should be at
least a complete sentence that introduces topic, without diving into specific details or examination.
Students can use several sentences (hook, main idea, preview facts) for an introduction. Presence of an
acceptable introduction gets 1 point. Topic Statement receives up to 3 points, depending on quality.
Important Evidence and Detailed Examination (W.4.2)
Each fact, definition, concrete detail, quotation or other information conveys ideas, so they each relate
to, and develop, the topic well. Students should refer to text when explaining what texts says explicitly
(R.4.1). Related information about each idea is grouped together in separate paragraphs, each about a
distinct idea. So each new idea supported would have its own group of sentences that convey and
examine it clearly. When students write about more than three IDs, score the first 3 (or any random 3)
paragraphs only. We are not striving for a pre-determined length essay. The writing should match the
topic, not fit in a formula. Therefore, the number of paragraphs (and support for each) will vary.
However, students do not receive innumerable points for ID paragraphs because the focus is quality, not
quantity. If the task only elicits 2 ideas and is answered completely with these, then assume other ideas
(and their support) would be the same quality, and average the points received on the 2 ideas that were
conveyed, to keep scoring consistent across tasks. Teachers may choose to tell students how many ideas
might be needed before students write, but students should eventually be taught to determine what
makes a ‘complete’ response to varied prompts independently.
Each examination of the relevant facts, definitions, details and quotations receives 1 point for a surface,
satisfactory attempt, and 2 points if the examination provides exceptionally clear explanations or
interpretations.
Ending (W.4.2)
Students should provide a clear concluding statement, or section related to information. Conclusion
should wrap up and not just restate key points, addressing the “so what” big idea.
Language (L.4.2.B and L.4.3.A)
Precise language points are awarded if a range in vocabulary is used and language is not overly
simplistic.
Links (W.4.2.C)
Words and phrases link categories of information.
Conventions (L.4.1-L4.2)
Refer to grade level Common Core State Standard requirements for conventions regarding expected
grammar, punctuation and spelling.
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A class-wide expectation can be set for this point, but goals should be individualized, as needed.
Therefore, students can receive this point if they have shown agreed upon levels of improvement from
baseline in these categories. A child who uses prepositional phrases with only 80% accuracy might get
this point each time his/her accuracy improves by 5%.
Evidence of Planning and Revision (W.4.5)
A graphic organizer or self-made planner should be attached. A first draft (or carets inserting changes
into a final piece), showing improvements should be visible as well. Students should develop and
strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, and editing.
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TIDE Scoring Guidelines Grade 5
Topic Introduction (W.5.2)
Look for key idea stated succinctly. Students should respond to the prompt in a way that shows an
understanding of the standards assessed, and not just restate the prompt. There should be a complete
introduction that does not dive into specific details. Students should use several sentences (hook, main
idea, preview) for an introduction. Presence of an acceptable introduction gets 1 point. Topic statement
receives up to 3 points, depending on quality.
Important Evidence and Detailed Examination (W.5.2)
Each fact, definition, concrete detail, quotation or other information conveys ideas, so they each relate
to, and develop, the topic well. Students should quote accurately from a text when examining what
texts says explicitly (R.5.1). Related information about each idea is grouped together in separate
paragraphs, each about one distinct idea. So each new idea supported would have its own group of
sentences that convey and examine it clearly. When students write about more than three IDs, score the
first 3 (or any random 3) paragraphs only. We are not striving for a pre-determined length essay. The
writing should match the topic, not fit in a formula. Therefore, the number of paragraphs (and support
for each) will vary. However, students do not receive innumerable points for ID paragraphs because the
focus is quality, not quantity. If the task only elicits 2 ideas and is answered completely with these, then
assume other ideas (and their support) would be the same quality, and average the points received on
the 2 ideas that were conveyed, to keep scoring consistent across tasks. Teachers may choose to tell
students how many ideas might be needed before students write, but students should eventually be
taught to determine what makes a ‘complete’ response to varied prompts independently.
Each examination of the relevant facts, definitions, details and quotations receives 1 point for a surface,
satisfactory attempt, and 2 points if the examination provides interpretation rather than just
explanation.
Ending (W.5.2)
Students should provide a concluding statement, or section related to information or examination.
Conclusion should wrap up and not just restate key points, addressing the “so what” big idea.
Language (L.5.3.B)
Precise language points are awarded if a range in vocabulary is used and language is not overly
simplistic.
Links (W.5.2.C)
Information linked by words and phrases both within and across categories of information.
Conventions (L.5.1-L5.2)
Refer to grade level Common Core State Standard requirements for conventions regarding expected
grammar, punctuation and spelling.
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A class-wide expectation can be set for this point, but goals should be individualized, as needed.
Therefore, students can receive this point if they have shown agreed upon levels of improvement from
baseline in these categories. A child who spells with only 80% accuracy might get this point each time
his/her accuracy improves by 5%.
Evidence of Planning and Revision (W.5.5)
A graphic organizer or self-made planner should be attached. A first draft (or carets inserting changes
into a final piece), showing improvements should be visible as well. Students should develop and
strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, and editing, and if need be trying a new approach.
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Writing Scoring Meeting Preparation, Scoring Meeting Agenda, and PLC Agenda
Protocols
Preparation Protocol for ‘Bridge to Practice’ Scoring Meeting
(Steps for facilitating the actual scoring meeting itself, and the PLC to follow, are listed
below)
1. Determine meeting coordinator.
Person
Responsible
2. Set pre-assessment due date.
3. Set scoring date, after pre-assessments are due. 120 min. is ideal.
4. Determine room to be used for scoring for the day.
5. Determine attendees: coaches, specialists, leadership team members,
administrators, and teachers.
6. Collect electronic class lists and enter them in provided excel template, preparing
excel data sheets for each class.
7. Email each person invited to the scoring meeting:
a. Send meeting information (time, place) and Agenda (below) in advance
b. Send pre-assessment directions, due dates and person to give these to
c. Ensure teachers understand the assessment directions. Ask for questions.
8. Bring the following to the scoring meeting:
a. Coordinator brings actual pre-assessment samples (from each teacher)
b. Enough scales for teachers to complete for each student
c. Copies of Common Core State Standards – 1 per adult present
d. Scoring guidelines for each teacher
9. Prepare for following hardware for the meeting
a. Computers for all scorers, with excel sheets loaded into drive
b. To show writing samples, use a doc cam, take phone images that can be
emailed then projected, or make actual copies
c. LCD projector and screen
‘Bridge to Practice’ Scoring Meeting Agenda
(To Prep for actual PLC below)
1. Review Common Core State Standards for writing
2. Review scales
3. Score 2-3 samples together (Make copies or project after taking phone images or with doc
cam)
4. Divide up samples among scorers. Score one class at a time. Or score your own class.
5. Score on printed scale sheets so these can be given to students. (Or use post its, as back up)
6. Whenever uncertain about what score to give a student, check with group and resolve
through discussion.
7. After, or while, scoring – enter data into excel sheets. Total each row to find student totals.
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PLC Agenda
1. Sort data in ascending order so students with lowest scores appear at the top of the list or
rows.
a. Highlight in grey the columns that have lowest scores such as topic introduction or
links… Discuss what to teach first and how, working left to right across excel
template.
i. If all students have mastered certain elements, discuss how you can now
ramp up criteria for getting those points so all students are challenged
2. Complete the Self-Assessment Survey again. This can be done anonymously in groups, given
to meeting leader who shares trends. The purpose is to reflect again on the elements of
SRSD. Teachers can think about which elements they feel confident using and which they
may not have tried yet and/or may want to revisit as they address the writing needs of
students.
3. Discuss next teaching points/ideas – write these up to be distributed to all who attended.
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Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
111
112
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Stage 4
Stage 4:
Memorize It
Goals
Participants will:

Consider strategies to use daily to help students internalize the mnemonics.
List of Materials:

Daily Review of Mnemonic and Strategies
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SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
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Daily Review of Mnemonic and Strategies
The following is a list of strategies to help students internalize the mnemonics, the steps of their selfinstruction plan, and qualities of good writing. Do this through practicing daily. Some students may
need extra support.
1. Student can peer quiz each other on the steps of the strategy.
2. Toss a ball and have students say the parts of the strategy as they pass it around.
Many students will memorize the steps easily with the above strategies. Some will need more support.
The following are additional creative ways to offer this support:
3. Students could unscramble the strategies on cut-up sentence strips or typed pieces of paper and
place the strategies in order. The same activity could be done on a computer in PowerPoint or
with SMARTboard software.
4. Teachers shrink a list of steps and tape it to students’ desks for reference until they have
memorized all of the steps.
5. Create a fill in the blank page where students only complete parts of the steps.
(For example, ______________ what you have to write about.)
6. Students create a chant or song to remember the steps.
7. Students could be audio or video recorded doing a chant or song to remember the steps. This
could be posted on a class website or available for students to listen to in the classroom as a
review.
8. Students select motions that correspond with each step.
9. Students draw pictures to depict the action of each step.
10. Students write out the steps on a blank piece of paper or post it.
11. Students teach a younger peer buddy the steps.
12. Copies of the cue cards are available for students to quiz each other during centers/stations,
morning jobs, when they finish work early, etc.
13. When waiting in line, whisper to a partner the steps.
14. Play concentration with the cue cards.
15. Play jeopardy to review all the steps. (For example, “You do this to identify what you have to
write about.” Answer: What is underlining?)
16. Students create charts of the steps to post around the classroom.
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Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
116
Stage 5:
Support It
Stage 5
Stage 5:
Support It
Goals
Participants will:



Identify and describe the components of Stage 5.
Describe how to provide instruction to students based on the tasks in Stage 5.
Investigate the use of peer feedback to help students improve their writing.
List of Materials:

Introduce Peer-feedback
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SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
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Introduce Peer Feedback
Essential Components:
 Show students a model of students giving each other feedback
 Self-score and color code before peer-scoring (makes peer scoring go more smoothly)
 Remind students to focus on revision before editing
 Remind students of the importance of giving constructive feedback
 Ensure students refer to scales while scoring
 Have a routine posted, such as the model at the end of this document
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Have two students volunteer to peer review in front of the class. Show one of those student’s
pieces to the class. (This piece should have been self-scored and color-coded or annotated for
parts by this student already.) Have first student state current goals, then read paper, one
section at a time. Second student then provides compliments and feedback. They can then
discuss and write down suggestions.
2) Have the rest of the students score their own papers. Say:
TEACHER: Before you meet with your peer, reread your piece on your own, aloud softly if possible. Ask
yourself: Are all the main parts well developed? Score your paper using the scale, color-coding or
marking up each section to show why you did/did not award yourself each point from the scale.
3) Set expectations for peer feedback process. Say:
TEACHER: You will work in teams on giving each other peer feedback to help with revising your pieces.
Remember that revision should be the main focus when you give your peer feedback, not editing.
Revision includes thinking about the big picture, not minor corrections. Remember your personal goals as
you discuss your draft—did you address them?
Also remember that peer feedback can be incredibly helpful for everyone involved, but it only works if
both of you are honest and direct. You can give compliments, but it is the honest, direct, specific
feedback on what can be improved in the writing that helps even more. We give feedback in a kind way,
but we must give helpful suggestions for our partners to improve their writing.
4) Provide directions and have students engage in the peer feedback process. On the next page is
a possible set of directions to share with students.
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Peer Feedback Process
Please complete the following steps in teams of two:
1. Look at one paper, together, at a time. Do not trade papers and read quietly! Pick someone to
go first.
2. The first person who shares his/her writing will state his/her goals for this piece.
3. Read your piece of writing as is, while your partner listens.
4. Read one section at a time, pausing after each major part. After you read a section and pause,
your partner should do the following:
a. Summarize your main points.
b. Offer encouragement, such as a compliment.
c. Score the section on the scale. (Wait until the end of the piece to score language, links,
and conventions.)
d. Provide suggestions to improve your writing. Your partner can also ask questions to see
if this helps you know what to add or do to improve your writing.
e. Write down any suggestions offered by your partner so you remember them.
f. Compare your partner’s score to your own score. Do the scores match? If not, refer to
the color coding you did to explain why you did/didn’t give yourself each point.
5. Complete the same steps for each section until done.
6. Switch roles and review your partner’s piece.
7. When both are done, please return to your seat and begin making revisions based on your
feedback.
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Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
121
122
Stage 6:
Independent Practice
Stage 6
Stage 6:
Independent Practice
Goals
Participants will:



Identify and describe the components of Stage 6.
Describe how to provide instruction to students based on the tasks in Stage 6.
Recognize the importance of moving students toward independent practice over time.
List of Materials:

Use Strategies and Self-regulation Independently
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SRSD Overview
SRSD Stages
Stage 1:
Activate and
Develop
Background
Knowledge
Stage 2:
Discuss it
Stage 3:
Model it
Stage 4:
Memorize it
Key Elements
Collect pre-assessment
Build enthusiasm
Introduce mnemonic (planning)
Evaluate exemplar essay
Review mode parts and terms
Discuss key general writing concepts
Introduce self-regulation
Introduce Graphic Organizer
Map out, or outline, exemplar essay(s)
Repair essays (revision)
Discuss students’ current attitudes about writing
Review benefits of strategy use
Develop understanding of importance of effort
Discuss when/where to use strategies, establish commitment
Introduce self-talk
Model a think aloud, using self-regulation and writing strategies
Analyze modeled think aloud for strategies and self-regulation
Lead Collaborative plan/write
Build collaborative partnership
Introduce scoring
Score samples (option: collaborative writes)
Score with scales (then graph)
Support goal setting
Daily review of mnemonic and strategies
Can add motions, song, etc. to aid memorization
Internalize personalized self-statements
Students given needed time daily to plan, write, revise etc.
Scaffold planning and writing with gradual release of control
Fade graphic organizers, word charts, etc.
Regular scoring practice
Introduce new or higher level goals as appropriate
Introduce peer-feedback
Support internalizing strategy use
Provide feedback on writing, and self-regulation
*Students plan, write,
Discuss and support transfer
revise and publish in
Small group conferring
this stage
Differentiate instruction
Use strategies and self-regulate independently
Stage 6:
Fade overt self-instruction to covert
Independent
Ensure transfer of strategies and self-regulation
Practice
Collect final (post) assessment
Cycle back again with higher level elements as instructional focus, or begin new mode
Stage 5:
Support it*
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Use Strategies and Self-regulate Independently
Essential Components:
 Explain purpose for using self-statements
 Explain when to use self-statements
 Explain the chart with six types of self-statements or allow students to generate self-statements
 Have students generate their own self-statements
 Students internalize self-statements and use them regularly
Introductory note to teacher:
After introducing self-talk, model think alouds, and collaborative think alouds, you can guide students in
designing a fuller self-instruction plan. You can post charts such as the one below to help them
understand the kinds of self-instructions they might use in an overall self-instruction plan whenever they
write. Or, you can guide students in generating responses.
Possible routine for delivering task to students*:
*The following is just one example. The italicized teacher talk below is not a script and should not be
used directly as is. Instead, teachers are encouraged to customize this example and use the essential
components checklist above to design their own lessons.
1) Share the Six Types of Self-statements chart. Say:
TEACHER: When you write, you can think about what to say to yourself before you write, while you write,
and after you write. This chart offers ideas for each kind of self-statement you might use. You can use
statements from this chart to help you complete a list of self-statements you will say to yourself
whenever you write.
Before I Write
While I Write
Six Types of Self-statements
Problem Definition
“What do I have to do here?”
“What is the prompt asking me to do? I
should read it several times and really pull it
apart carefully so I get at what it is asking.”
What is my first step?”
“I want to write an informative, interesting
essay.”
Focus Attention and Planning
“I need to concentrate, be careful and think
of steps.”
“I need to make a plan. First I will, then I
will…”
Coping and Self-control
“Don’t worry. I can handle this. I know the
steps.”
“It is OK to feel nervous. A little nervousness
can actually help me do my best work.”
Strategy Implementation
“I will write down the strategy and check off
each part as I use it in my writing.”
“My goals for this essay are to…”
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After I Write
Self-evaluation
Self-reinforcement
“Did I include all the parts? Whoops, I
missed one. That’s OK--I can revise it.”
“Did I recheck to make sure my answer
responds to the prompt?”
“I’m getting better at this. This feels so
much easier now that I use strategies.”
“I like this ending. Just wait until my teacher
reads it!”
2) Students generate or write their own self-statements. Say:
TEACHER: Let’s think of some more self-statements you can use whenever you write. I will record your
responses. (Alternatively, students can write individual answers on the template called “My Selfstatements.” You can find a blank copy on the next page.) What kinds of things can you say to yourself
before you write to get you started? What kinds of things can you say to yourself while you write? What
kinds of things can you say to yourself after you write to check your work? What kinds of things can you
say to yourself when something is hard to help encourage yourself?
3) During future writing exercises, remind students to use the self-statements generated during
this task. Then, gradually, encourage students to internalize these self-statements as they write
going forward.
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My Self-statements
Things to say to myself before I write to get started:
Things to say to myself while I write:
Things I say to myself after I write to check my work:
Things I say to myself when something is hard to encourage myself:
127
Reflection
1. What was your biggest insight or learning in this Stage? Why was that significant?
2. What one thing will you do differently based on your understanding of this Stage’s content?
3. What do you want to learn more about in order to implement the learning in your practice?
4. What questions do you still have?
128
Appendix
Appendix
Glossary of Terms
Cold Write: This is a writing task that is done with no instruction. Students complete all steps—from
reading sources, taking notes, planning, writing and revising—independently.
Conclusion/Concluding statement: Typically provides a specific summation that then extends to more
general connections or implications on the topic.
Details: Details provide further description and often support ideas.
Editing: A stage of the writing process concerned chiefly with improving the clarity, organization,
concision, and correctness of expression relative to task, purpose, and audience; compared to revising,
editing is a smaller-scale activity often associated with surface aspects of a text. (adapted from CCSS
Appendix A)
Elaborate/Examine: To explain or elaborate on the evidence. In upper grades this would go beyond a
summary of the evidence to include a novel insight. Elaboration often includes analysis of textual details
and language.
Evidence: Facts, figures, details, quotations, or other sources of data and information that provide
support for claims or an analysis and that can be evaluated by others; should appear in a form and be
derived from a source widely accepted as appropriate to a particular discipline, as in details or
quotations from a text in the study of literature and experimental results in the study of science. (from
CCSS Appendix A)
Formal Style/ Standard English: In the Standards, the most widely accepted and understood form of
expression in English in the United States; used in the Standards to refer to formal English writing and
speaking; the particular focus of Language standards 1 and 2 (CCSS, pp. 26, 28, 52, 54). (from CCSS
Appendix A)
Introduction: Typically includes a general overview that leads to the specific focus for the piece of
writing. In grades 1-2, an introduction might consist solely of a topic statement.
Mode: A type of writing (sometimes referred to as genre). The major three modes in the Common Core
State Standards for English Language Arts are opinion/argument, informational/explanatory, and
narrative (these are embodied in Writing Standards 1-3). For further definition of each of these modes,
see CCSS Appendix A (included in the “Introduction to SRSD” section of this book).
Precise language: Marked by exactness or accuracy, often evoked through vivid, concrete diction (word
choice). (from CCSS Appendix A),
Revising: A stage of the writing process concerned chiefly with a reconsideration and reworking of the
content of a text relative to task, purpose, and audience; compared to editing, a larger-scale activity
often associated with the overall content and structure of a text. (adapted from CCSS Appendix A)
Source: A text used largely for informational purposes, as in research. (from CCSS Appendix A)
Thesis statement: A thesis statement sets a focus for an essay. In the middle and especially the upper
grades, we expect the best thesis statements to share a crucial insight into the text(s) or topic under
129
discussion. The best essays demonstrate a careful, thoughtful analysis of the texts(s) encapsulated in a
thesis statement which responds to the prompt with clear evidence of critical thinking. Strong thesis
statements are specific and defendable (can be proven with evidence).
Topic sentence: This sentence overviews what follows in the paragraph or presents the main idea of the
paragraph. In multi-paragraph essays, topic sentences support the thesis and ideally provide important
insights into the evidence analyzed in the paragraph.
Topic statement: This term is often used in grades 1-5 as a pre-cursor to ‘thesis’. It might not have the
same level of insight and sophistication or complexity as a thesis.
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List of Possible Informational/Explanatory Prompt Types
Note to teachers: This is not an exhaustive list but does include types of prompts that might be useful to
practice. These are some common types of informational/explanatory prompt types. Assessments will
differ in how they treat writing prompts, so for more information about a particular test, consult that
test's blueprint.
Writing Prompt
Compare / Contrast
Definition
Tells the reader the differences and
similarities between elements in two
sources.
Example
Compare and contrast how the authors
of the two articles use text features to
help the reader understand the main
idea.
Describe
To provide a detailed account about a
given topic
Explain
To provide information about an idea
that helps the reader understand the
author’s point.
To put elements into a group
Describe how the authors used
metaphors to help the reader
understand the text.
Explain how the volunteers saved the
endangered penguins after the oil spill.
Classify
Classify the animals in the video by
habitat.
What are the causes and effects of
childhood obesity?
Cause Effect
Cause- the reason for an occurrence
Effect- As a result, what happened
Steps in a Process
List sub-processes that list the
sequence or flow of events or details
To tell the meaning
How to be a responsible pet owner?
To examine critically for specific
details
Problem-What went wrong? What
was the challenge?
Solution-How the problem/challenge
was resolved.
Analyze the impact of the colonists on
the lives of the Native Americans.
What were the challenges of the
colonists when they came to this
country? How did they solve it?
Define
Analyze
Problem / Solution
How does the author define racism?
131
Extension Suggestions
Research has found that 12 hours of professional development for learning Self-Regulated Strategy
Development is important. When teachers have this amount of time to learn Self-Regulated Strategy
Development, they implement it in a way that results in significantly raising student achievement.
You’ve now had over 5 hours which is a good start. To add time, we recommend:









132
Follow up coaching. Have coaches or teacher leaders spend another day or so learning SRSD so
they then can better support colleagues, through modeling lessons and offering suggestions.
Before you begin teaching, you might find it helpful to break your students’ pre-assessment
papers into three groups: those that show the most need for help, those that are closer to what
you expect, and those that are exceptionally strong. Keeping in mind where a student scored on
the pre-assessment helps you to differentiate instruction.
Start a PLC lunch group for writing where you can discuss your lessons, your students’ writing
and articles on this approach.
Read articles, books or watch videos on this approach. Powerful Writing Strategies by Karen
Harris and colleagues is an excellent overview book for elementary levels. She has written
others with upper grade focus.
Visit www.thinkSRSD.com for a list of videos to watch and more materials.
Model lessons in each other’s classes.
Read all teacher example lessons. Adapt them, and then rehearse them together. The more you
practice, the better you’ll teach these, and the more comfortable/natural you will feel during
actual instruction. We believe that rehearsing the lessons, after adapting the example lessons to
make them your “own” is one the most effective ways to learn this approach, and research
supports this. If you can’t practice with others, you can do as you have often done, and practice
in your mind.
Research shows 12-14 hours of time spent learning SRSD is ideal, as long as most of this time is
spent adapting and actually rehearsing lessons until they “feel right”. If you continue to meet
and work on rehearsing lessons, you’ll just strengthen how well this goes.
Write about SRSD on blogs. Try your hand at submitting an action research study. Those of us
who are teachers and not researchers found just writing up what we’d done and learned while
using SRSD, was so valuable in deepening our learning of SRSD. We submitted these to teacher
publications and valued the feedback and questions we got from readers enormously.
PARCC Sample Question Site Guide – 3rd Gr Only
1. Use this link to access the site: http://www.parcconline.org/samples/item-task-prototypes
2. Use the menu on the left side of the screen. Select ELA/Literacy Grade 3.
Sample items open in pdf form.
Grade 3

Sample Items are only provided for the Research Simulation Task in the third column of the
table
133
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
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134
Click the “Grade 3 Items and Annotations” link for the Sample Item Questions and Answers. The
prompt is on pg 10 in the document posted here called, “Grade 3 Items and Annotations”.
Click the “Grade 3 Passage 1” link for the reading passage, Eliza’s Cherry Trees: Japan’s Gift to
America, that goes along with the questions.
The second story about G.W. Carver and Peanuts is listed at:
http://www.parcconline.org/sites/parcc/files/PARCC_SampleItems_ELALiteracy_Grade3Passage2_081513_Final.pdf
Guide to PARCC Field Test Resources Site
Use this link to access the website: http://practice.parcc.testnav.com/#
To access full length practice tests for grades 3-12:
1. Click the “Practice Tests” tab at the top of the page. And choose ELA.
2. Scroll down to the table midway down the page.
3. Next choose which grade level. The blue button will bring you to a new page with the practice
test. The gray buttons will link you to grade level rubrics and the practice test answer keys.
4. Clicking on the blue button will bring you to the test. The page will look like this.
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5. Click “Start Test Now” to proceed.
6. You will be brought to a new page where you will click “Start Section”
7. The test will begin.
You will first see the Literary Analysis Task:
136
If you continue clicking through tasks, you will then reach the Sample Research Simulation Task.
Below is an example from Grade 7. This is the task schools might choose to use for the pre-assessment.
We recommend students do answer all the questions about the passages before writing the actual essay
because these questions are designed to support students’ learning from texts as well.
8. Here are some features students can use as they navigate the site.
a. Use the arrows at the top to move to the next question. Use the “flag” button to mark
a question that you would like to return to. Use the “review” button to assess progress
through the test and go back to flagged questions. Use the “x” button to cross out
answers.
137
b. Using “x” tool:
c. When you click the review button this is the screen you will be brought to:
Your “status” will tell you if you haven’t answered a question or it you haven’t viewed any
questions.
Click “view” to go to a particular question. Or to go back to where you where click “return to
question” at the top of the page.
To watch tutorials about the PARCC Field Test:
1. Click the “Tutorials” tab at the top of the home screen
138
You can go through tutorials for how to navigate through the test and using the different tools,
such as using the equation editor, and calculator features. There is also a tutorial for using the
“text to speech” accommodation.
Using the text highlight tool:
1. This tool is not available in the toolbar. The tool will automatically display when you select text
with your cursor.
2. Choose one of the color options from the pop up highlight menu to highlight your selected text.
3. To remove highlighting, select the text with your cursor again, and choose the White/No
Highlight option.
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Using the Video Player:





140
Play/Pause: Used to start and stop the video player
Video time elapsed: indicates the amount of time that has elapsed since the start of the video
Fast Forward/Rewind: Used to fast forward or rewind the video by dragging and dropping.
Video time remaining: Indicates the amount of time remaining in the video.
Audio Controls: used to mute/unmute volume and adjust the volume level.
Bring Powerful Writing Strategies
Into Your Classroom! Why and How
Pre-Publication Copy: In Press at The Reading Teacher
Karen R. Harris and Steve Graham
Arizona State University
Barbara Friedlander
Montgomery County Public Schools, MD
Leslie Laud
thinkSRSD, MA
©The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 7 pp. 538–542 DOI:10.1002/TRTR.1156 © 2013 International
Reading Association, www.reading.org
Harris, K, Graham, S, Laud, L & Friedlander, B (2013). Bring Powerful Writing Strategies into Your
Classroom.The Reading Teacher, 66 (7).
141
Writing is important. A local policeman recently explained to an elementary school class, “In 20
years, I have shot my gun twice. I use my pen every day. If you want to be a cop, you have to learn to
write.”
Why is writing important? The policeman gave this class good advice. We know that writing
plays a key role in learning, as students use writing to gather and organize knowledge and to explore
and refine their ideas. We also know that writing is the primary means by which students demonstrate
their knowledge in today’s classrooms, and that both writing about text read and teaching writing have
a positive impact on reading outcomes (Graham, 2006; Harris, Graham, Brindle, & Sandmel, 2009).
Failure to acquire strong writing abilities restricts opportunities for both post-secondary education and
employment.
The importance of writing is recognized in the new Common Core State Standards adopted by
46 states (CCSS, 2012). These standards focus on the acquisition of foundational writing skills, such as
handwriting and spelling, as well as the following four writing applications: (1) writing for multiple
purposes (narrate, persuade, inform/explain); (2) producing and publishing well organized text
appropriate to task and purpose by increasingly applying processes involving planning, revising, editing,
and collaborating with others; (3) using writing to build knowledge about specific topics or materials
read; and (4) applying writing to extend and facilitate learning in a range of discipline-specific subjects
as well as across purposes and audiences.
Unfortunately, we also know that many students experience difficulty with writing. Data from
the National Center for Education Statistics (2012) reveal that less than a third of students in the United
States have mastered the skills necessary for proficient, or grade-level appropriate writing on the
National Assessment of Educational Progress. The vast majority of students in the U.S. have scored at
the Basic level or below, which denotes only partial mastery of the writing skills needed at each grade. A
deteriorating attitude toward writing across the grades has also been reported.
142
How did we get here? First, writing is challenging, and typically must be developed across K-12
and into post-secondary employment or education. Skilled writing is complex, requiring extensive selfregulation of a flexible, goal-directed, problem-solving activity. In addition to basic skills, students must
also develop knowledge about the writing process, genre knowledge, and strategies for writing and selfregulating the writing process. The National Commission on Writing, however, reported that of the
three ‘Rs’, writing has become the most neglected in classrooms (College Commission on Writing in
America’s Schools, 2003); reading and math have also received priority over writing in both research and
funding for research (Harris et al., 2009). Further adding to this picture, research indicates the majority
of teachers report inadequate pre- and in-service preparation in writing instruction, and often do not
implement evidence-based interventions.
How can we develop better writers? The CCSS (2012) are a strong foundation for improving our
students’ writing. Using evidence-based approaches in our classrooms will make a difference, as will
increasing the time and attention given to writing development. We focus here on one powerful
evidence-based approach making a difference in students’ writing development: Self-Regulated Strategy
Development. SRSD for writing has had the strongest impact of any strategies instruction approach in
writing and has been deemed an evidence-based practice by multiple evaluators (cf. Baker, Chard,
Ketterlin-Geller, Apichatabutra, & Doabler, 2009; Graham & Perin, 2007; National Center for Response
to Intervention, 2011).
What is SRSD, and what is the evidence base? Briefly described, SRSD instruction includes
explicit, interactive learning of powerful strategies for writing both across and within genres, the
knowledge (including vocabulary and background knowledge) needed to use these strategies, and
strategies for self-regulating use of these writing strategies throughout the writing process (e.g., goal
setting, self-assessment, self-instructions, and self-reinforcement). Equally important, SRSD purposively
develops self-efficacy for writing, attributions to strategy knowledge and effort, and motivation for
143
writing. Instruction takes places across six flexible, recursive, and highly interactive stages, with gradual
release of responsibility for writing to students (Harris et al., 2009). Instruction proceeds based on
students’ progress; students are given the time they need to make these strategies their own.
Procedures for maintaining what has been learned and determining how to use this knowledge across
writing tasks are integrated throughout the stages of instruction (these stages are briefly summarized in
Table 1).
Over 80 studies of SRSD (true-experiments, quasi-experiments, and single-subject design
studies) have been conducted across grades 1 to 12 (Graham, Harris, & McKeown, in press). These
studies provide convincing evidence SRSD is an effective method for teaching writing strategies to
students who represent the full range of writing ability in a typical class and students with writing
disabilities. SRSD research has resulted in the development of writing strategies (typically with the
assistance of teachers and their students) for a variety of genres, including personal narratives, opinion
and persuasive essays, report writing, expository essays, story writing, and state writing tests. SRSD
research has also been conducted on the integration of reading and writing strategies to improve each
(Mason, Reid, & Hagaman, 2012).
How can teachers learn to use SRSD in their classrooms? All of us have worked with teachers
learning to implement SRSD, and strongly recommend the practice-based professional development
approach (PBPD), which our research has shown to be highly effective (cf. Harris, Lane, et al., 2012).
PBPD focuses on teacher development of knowledge, understanding, and skills regarding an effective
educational practice before they use it, with support once classroom use begins (cf. Ball & Cohen, 1999).
PBPD has six critical characteristics: (a) collective participation of teachers within the same school with
similar needs; (b) basing professional development around the characteristics, strengths, and needs of
the students in these teachers’ current classrooms; (c) attention to content knowledge needs of
teachers, including pedagogical content knowledge; (d) opportunities for active learning and practice of
144
the new methods being learned, including opportunities to see examples of these methods being used
and to analyze the work; (e) use of materials and other artifacts during professional development that
are identical to those to be used in the classroom, and (f) feedback on performance while learning, and
before using these methods in the classroom, so that understandings and skills critical in
implementation are developed.
Want to know more? If you don’t have access to PBPD for SRSD in writing, we know many
dedicated teachers, coaches, and others who have made use of available resources to begin SRSD in
their schools or classrooms. These resources include two books that contain lesson plans for all of the
evidence-based strategies developed to date across elementary through high school (Harris et al., 2008;
Mason et al., 2012). Two other books provide greater detail on modifying strategies to student needs
and on development of self-regulation (Graham & Harris, 2005; Harris & Graham, 1996). Online, you can
find lesson plans for selected strategies at http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/projectwrite and an excellent
website about strategies instruction at www.unl.edu/csi. Several free, interactive tutorials on SRSD can
be found at http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/. Finally, all of the stages of SRSD instruction can be seen
in an elementary and middle school classroom in a video by ASCD (2002): Teaching students with
learning disabilities in the regular classroom: Using learning strategies [videotape 2];
http://shop.ascd.org/productdisplay.cfm?productid=602084.
Parting words. We interview our students and their teachers as they work with SRSD, and we
thought you might like to hear comments from two recent elementary students in our classrooms. In his
interview, Luke said, “Of course I can write now, somebody taught me how!” Perhaps one of the most
fun comments we’ve gotten over the years came from Chris, “I like food, all kinds of food – but I like
Count and Plan FAST (a state writing test strategy) even better!”
145
References
Baker, S.K., Chard, D.J., Ketterlin-Geller, L.R., Apichatabutra, C., Doabler, C. (2009). Teaching writing to
at-risk students: The quality of evidence for Self-Regulated Strategy Development. Exceptional
Children, 75, 303-318.
Ball, D.L., & Cohen, D.K. (1999). Developing practice, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-based
theory of professional education. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as a
learning profession: Handbook for policy and practice (pp. 3-31). San Francisco: Jossey-Boss.
CCSS. (2010). Common Core State Standards: National Governors Association and Council of Chief
School Officers. Retrieved from: http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy
Graham, S. (2006). Writing. In P. Alexander & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (pp.
457-478). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (2005). Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning
difficulties. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & McKeown, D. (in press). The writing of students with LD, a meta-analysis of
SRSD writing intervention studies, and future directions: Redux. In L. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S.
Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (2nd Ed.). NY: Guilford.
Graham, S., & Perrin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescent middle and high school. Alliance for Excellence in Education. Washington,
D.C.
Harris, K.R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and selfregulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Brindle, M., & Sandmel, K. (2009). Metacognition and children’s writing. In D.
Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 131153). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
146
Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L., & Friedlander, B. (2008). Powerful writing strategies for all students.
Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
Harris, K.R., Lane, K.L., Graham, S., Driscoll, S., Sandmel, K., Brindle, M., & Schatschneider, C. (2012).
Practice-based professional development for self-regulated strategies development in writing: A
randomized controlled study. Journal of Teacher Education, 63 (2), 103-119.
Mason, L., Reid, R., Hagaman, J. (2012). Building comprehension in adolescents: Powerful strategies for
improving reading and writing in content areas.
National Center on Response to Intervention, (2011, July 31). Instructional intervention tools chart: SRSD
for writing. Retrieved from: http://www.rti4success.org/instructionTools/
National Commission on Writing (2003, April). The neglected R: The need for a writing
revolution. Retrieved from: http://www.collegeboard.com
147
Table 1: SRSD Stages of Instruction*
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Develop and Activate Knowledge Needed for Writing and Self-Regulation
*read and discuss works in the genre being addressed (persuasive essays, reports, etc.), to
develop declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge (e.g., what is an opinion?, what are the
parts of a persuasive essay, are they all here?; how do you think the author came up with this idea, what
would you do?; what might the author have done to organize the ideas?; what might the author do
when he gets frustrated?, and so on), appreciation of characteristics of effective writing (how did the
writer grab your interest?), and other knowledge and understandings targeted for instruction. Continue
development through the next two stages as needed until all key knowledge and understandings are
clear.
*discuss and explore both writing and self-regulation strategies to be learned; may begin development
of self-regulation, introducing goal setting and self-monitoring
2. Discuss It – Discourse is Critical!
*discuss students’ current writing and self-regulation abilities, their attitudes and beliefs about writing,
what they are saying to themselves as they write, and how these factors might help or hinder them as
writers; emphasize role of both effort and learning powerful strategies in becoming a better writer
*graphing (self-monitoring) may be introduced, using prior compositions; this will assist with goal
setting (graphing prior writing can be skipped if the student is likely to react negatively – graph only
writing during instruction)
*further discuss writing and self-regulation strategies to be learned: purpose, benefits, how and when
they can be used or might be inappropriate (begin generalization support)
*establish students’ commitment to learn strategies and act as collaborative partner; establish role of
student effort and strategy use
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Model It
*interactive teacher modeling and/or collaborative modeling of writing and self-regulation strategies
*analyze and discuss strategies and model’s performance; make changes as needed
*can model self-assessment and self-recording through graphing of modeled compositions
*continue student development of self-regulation strategies across composition and other tasks and
situations; discuss use here and in other settings (continue generalization support)
Memorize It
*though typically begun in earlier stages, require and confirm memorization of strategies, mnemonic(s),
and self-instructions as appropriate
*continue to confirm and support memorization in following stages, make sure students have
memorized the mnemonics and what they mean before Independent Performance
Support It
*teachers and students use writing and self-regulation strategies collaboratively to achieve success in
composing, using prompts such as strategy charts, self-instruction sheets, and graphic organizers
*challenging initial goals for genre elements and characteristics of writing established collaboratively
with individual students; criterion levels increased gradually until final goals met
*prompts, guidance, and collaboration faded individually (graphic organizer replaced with student
creating mnemonic on scratch paper) until the student can compose successfully alone
*self-regulation components (goal setting, self-instructions, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement) are
all being used by this stage; additional forms of self-regulation, such as managing the writing
environment, use of imagery, and so on may be introduced
*discuss plans for maintenance, continue support of generalization
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Independent Performance
*students able to use writing and self-regulation strategies independently; teachers monitor and
support as necessary
*fading of overt self-regulation may begin (graphing may be discontinued)
*plans for maintenance and generalization continue to be discussed and implemented
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Stages 1 and 2 are often combined in instruction; a stage or combination of stages may take several
lessons to complete; instruction is often recursive across stages; students should progress across stages
as they meet criteria for doing so.
i
You may choose to introduce TIDE or TIDELL. TIDELL is slightly more difficult. After looking at your preassessments, if most students have the majority of the parts of TIDE, you can begin with TIDELL. Or you may
introduce TIDELL to some students who seem ready, more quickly, to differentiate.
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Journal of Teacher Education
http://jte.sagepub.com/
Practice-Based Professional Development for Self-Regulated Strategies Development in Writing : A
Randomized Controlled Study
Karen R. Harris, Kathleen Lynne Lane, Steve Graham, Steven A. Driscoll, Karin Sandmel, Mary Brindle and Christopher
Schatschneider
Journal of Teacher Education 2012 63: 103 originally published online 13 January 2012
DOI: 10.1177/0022487111429005
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429005
05Harris et al.Journal of Teacher Education
JTEXXX10.1177/00224871114290
Practice-Based Professional Development
for Self-Regulated Strategies Development
in Writing: A Randomized Controlled Study
Journal of Teacher Education
63(2) 103­–119
© 2012 American Association of
Colleges for Teacher Education
Reprints and permission: http://www.
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0022487111429005
http://jte.sagepub.com
Karen R. Harris1, Kathleen Lynne Lane1, Steve Graham1, Steven A. Driscoll1,
Karin Sandmel1, Mary Brindle1, and Christopher Schatschneider2
Abstract
In this randomized controlled study, 20 second- and third-grade teachers participated in practice-based professional
development in strategies instruction in either story or opinion essay writing, using the Self-Regulated Strategies Development
(SRSD) instructional model. These teachers worked in schools collaborating with a local university to implement an evidencebased, three-tiered model of prevention and supports targeting academic, behavioral, and social goals. The authors examined
the effects of intensive practice-based professional development and follow-up support on the writing of second- and third-grade
students in terms of quality, length, and inclusion of basic genre elements; integrity of SRSD instruction; and teacher and
student judgments of the social validity of SRSD. Whole-class (Tier 1), teacher-implemented SRSD instruction resulted in
significant and meaningful changes in student writing outcomes for story and opinion essay writing. Teachers implemented
SRSD with fidelity, and SRSD was viewed as socially valid by teachers and students. Limitations of this study and directions
for future research are discussed.
Keywords
practice-based professional development, writing, strategies instruction, SRSD, three-tiered model
Fullan (2001) wrote, “Educational change is technically simple
and socially complex” (p. 69). Nowhere is this astute observation more applicable than to the study and implementation
of professional development for practicing teachers. Furthermore, the importance of teachers as key to student learning
is well recognized; meaningful impact on student outcomes
and school performance cannot be obtained without addressing teacher preparation (D. L. Ball & Forzani, 2009; Bransford,
Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Neuman & Cunningham, 2009). In
this randomized controlled study, we investigated teacher
implementation of strategies instruction in writing (using the
Self-Regulated Strategies Development [SRSD] model; see
Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2006), within the context of
theoretically and empirically based professional development. Student outcomes in writing, integrity of teacher
implementation of SRSD instruction, and student and
teacher perceptions of social validity of the SRSD
instruction are reported.
The schools and teachers involved in this study were part
of an ongoing school–university partnership to implement
and evaluate evidence-based practices. In this introduction,
we turn first to a description of the foundations for the
school–university collaboration in place in these schools,
where a comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered model of
prevention and supports was in place. The need for writing
intervention in the elementary grades is then addressed.
Next, we present the theoretical and empirical framework
for, and major elements of, the practice-based professional
development (see D. L. Ball & Cohen, 1999; Grossman &
McDonald, 2008) undertaken with teachers in this study.
Finally, we present the research questions and hypotheses
addressed in this study.
Three-Tiered Models
Theory and research indicate that school-based preventive
interventions are important for helping all students achieve
and for supporting school change (Buffum, Mattos, &
Weber, 2009, 2010). A three-tiered model for preventing the
development of learning and behavior problems and responding effectively to existing concerns consists of interventions
at Tier 1 (primary level; typically school- or classwide,
delivered by the classroom teacher), Tier 2 (secondary level;
1
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA
2
Corresponding Author:
Karen R. Harris, Department of Special Education, Peabody College of
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203, USA
Email: Karen.harris@vanderbilt.edu
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Journal of T eacher Education 63(2)
typically delivered in or outside of the classroom to small
groups of students who are not responding adequately at
Tier 1), or Tier 3 (tertiary level; typically highly intensive
and individualized for students not responding adequately
to Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions; Sugai & Horner, 2002).
Perhaps the two best known examples are response to intervention (RTI) and positive behavior intervention and support (PBIS). RTI focuses primarily on academic prevention
and intervention, whereas PBIS focuses primarily on
behavioral concerns.
A comprehensive, integrated three-tiered model, such as
the one in place in the schools involved in this study, includes
academic (RTI), behavioral (PBIS), and social intervention
components (Lane, Menzies, Kalberg, & Oakes, 2012).
Central to three-tiered models is the use of evidence-based
practices at each level. In fact, the movement for evidencebased practices in schools, which emphasizes the use of practices with empirical evidence about desired outcomes, has
gained a firm footing in research and practice (Cochran-Smith
& The Boston College Evidence Team, 2009; Cook, Smith,
& Tankersley, 2012). The present study took place in the context of Tier 1 in the schools we worked with, where evidencebased practices were in place to improve instruction and
behavior at the school and classroom level. The teachers
and principals, however, had focused on reading and math
in the academic area, and requested assistance in implementing evidence-based practices in writing, particularly in
composing.
Writing Research and SRSD
The initial academic focus on reading and math in terms of
academics was not surprising; these areas have typically
received priority over writing in research and practice
(Harris, Graham, Brindle, & Sandmel, 2009). Both recent
reports by the National Commission on Writing and the
National Assessment of Educational Progress data in writing
indicate that the majority of 4th-, 8th-, and 12th-grade students demonstrate only partial mastery of the writing abilities needed at their grade level (Graham & Perin, 2007b;
Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003). Despite national concern regarding writing performance across the grade levels, and the
importance of writing to academic success and civic life,
relatively little research has been done on writing intervention at Tier 1 (Graham & Perin, 2007b; Harris et al., 2006,
2009). Further adding to this picture, research indicates that
the majority of elementary-grade teachers report inadequate
pre- and inservice preparation in writing instruction (Gilbert
& Graham, 2010).
A recent meta-analysis of the writing intervention research
indicated that strategies instruction has had the strongest
impact on writing performance among school-age students
of any intervention researched; SRSD has had the strongest
impact of any strategies instruction approach in writing
(Graham & Perin, 2007a, 2007b). Thus, SRSD was selected
as the writing intervention for this study. SRSD is a complex,
multicomponent intervention based on integrating multiple
theories and lines of research (Harris et al., 2009). Briefly
described, SRSD instruction includes explicit, interactive
learning of strategies for genre-specific and general writing,
the knowledge (such as vocabulary and background knowledge) needed to use these strategies, and strategies for selfregulating strategy use and writing behavior (e.g., goal setting,
self-assessment, self-instructions, and self-reinforcement).
Self-efficacy, attributions, and motivation are considered in
terms of goals of instruction and differentiating instruction to
meet differing needs among students, as are students’ writing
characteristics. Instruction takes places across six flexible,
recursive, and highly interactive stages, with gradual release
of responsibility for writing to students (see Harris et al., 2009;
Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008).
The large majority of studies involving SRSD, however,
have involved students at Tiers 2 or 3, with intervention
implemented by research assistants (RAs; Lane, Harris,
et al., 2011). We have conducted only one previous study of
teacher-implemented SRSD instruction, and while student
outcomes were positive, teachers worked with small groups
of students in their classrooms, rather than with the whole class
(Harris, Graham, & Adkins, 2011). While limited research
suggests that classroom teachers can effectively implement
SRSD (see Wong, Hoskyn, Jai, Ellis, & Watson, 2008), little of this research has been done at the elementary level, and
none of the published studies have focused on SRSD at Tier
1, nor on the professional development provided for teachers. We sought to rectify this situation in this study.
Practice-Based Professional
Development in SRSD
Members of our research team have been involved in inservice professional development for many years, including
professional development in SRSD following principles
initially recommended by Harris and Graham (1996) and
later by Harris et al. (2008). Over the years, our approach to
professional development in SRSD has been strongly influenced by many works in the field and is congruent with the
theoretical base of, and elements in, the practice-based professional development approach (cf. D. L. Ball & Cohen,
1999; Grossman & McDonald, 2008). We, like many in our
field, have been concerned with traditional approaches to
professional development that are short-term and top down,
do not allow teachers to actively engage in the practices
they are learning, and do not provide much support during implementation—which is primarily done in isolation
(D. L. Ball & Forzani, 2009; Borko, 2004; Bransford et al.,
2000; Butler, Lauscher, Jarvis-Selinger, & Beckingham,
2004; Cochran-Smith & The Boston College Evidence
Team, 2009; Sargent & Hannum, 2009).
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Harris et al.
In the schools we worked with, school–university partnerships had been established over several years. Theory and
research indicate that such partnerships enhance implementation of evidence-based practices (Cook et al., 2012;
Gallimore, Ermeling, Saunders, & Goldenberg, 2009). In
addition, we strove to create a meaningful learning community around SRSD with the teachers at each of the three
schools. Research indicates that professional learning communities lead to increased involvement, ownership, innovation, and leadership among teachers (Borko, 2004; Butler
et al., 2004; Sargent & Hannum, 2009). This requires providing time and space for teacher learning, collaboration, and
sharing, both during and after initial professional development.
Because of the grade-level teams and school–university partnerships in place in these schools, support and time for collaboration were already in place.
Furthermore, we established critical characteristics of our
professional development in line with research on effective
professional development and the practice-based approach
to professional development (D. L. Ball & Cohen, 1999;
L. B. Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Desimone, 2009; Garet,
Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Grossman &
McDonald, 2008; Sarama, Clements, Starkey, Klein, &
Wakely, 2008). Practice-based professional development is
focused on teacher development of understandings and skills
regarding an effective educational practice, rather than more
narrowly focusing on knowledge about a practice. Theory
and research indicate that the following are important: (a)
collective participation of teachers within the same school
with similar needs; (b) basing professional development
around the characteristics, strengths, and needs of the students in these teachers’ current classrooms; (c) attention to
content knowledge needs of teachers, including pedagogical
content knowledge; (d) opportunities for active learning and
practice of the new methods being learned, including opportunities to see examples of these methods being used and
analyze the work; (e) use of the materials and other artifacts
during professional development that are identical to those to
be used in the classroom; and (f) feedback on performance
while learning and before using these methods in the classroom so that understandings and skills critical in implementation are developed.
Each of these six critical characteristics was carefully
addressed and incorporated in our professional development
approach. At each school, we formed one or more gradelevel and/or genre-specific writing teams for professional
development and ongoing support; teachers shared their students’ current writing performance, strengths, and needs;
teachers read and discussed summaries of research and practice involving SRSD; teachers observed exemplars of SRSD
instruction and participated in practice of the SRSD method
and its stages (using the materials they would use in the classroom) until they met criteria for implementation in the classroom; and support was provided after initial professional
development. We did not have the resources, however, to
provide intensive coaching after professional development.
Based on our previous experiences in professional development for SRSD instruction, we expected that in-depth professional development up-front with observation and support
afterward would be effective.
The Present Study
We investigated the effects of practice-based professional
development followed by teacher implementation of SRSD
instruction, with follow-up support, in this randomized controlled study involving second- and third-grade teachers and
their students. We focused on two text structure genres,
story writing and opinion essays, because both were included
in the schools’ curriculum and were targeted on state and
district writing tests. Furthermore, the teachers and the principals indicated that these were genres they wished to learn
more about and genres the majority or all of their students
were struggling with. The 20 second- and third-grade teachers at the three schools were randomly assigned to one of two
conditions: (a) teaching the whole class strategies for writing
opinion essays using SRSD or (b) teaching the whole class
strategies for writing stories using SRSD.
Thus, in the present study, each SRSD condition served
as the control for the other SRSD condition. This design is
possible because research has established that neither
SRSD instruction nor other forms of instruction in either
one of these genres (opinion essays or story writing) leads
to improvements in the other genre among elementarygrade students (Harris et al., 2006, 2009; Santangelo &
Olinghouse, 2011). This design has the added advantage of
allowing all teachers involved in the study to participate in
professional development, as opposed to the typical experimental versus no-treatment (or business as usual) control
design. Furthermore, this design controls for Pygmalion
and Hawthorne effects, as teachers should have similar
expectations in both conditions and be equally motivated
to prove the worth of each condition, and students in both
conditions are exposed to similar, new teaching and learning conditions.
We addressed three research questions in this study.
Research Question 1: Does practice-based professional
development in SRSD instruction in opinion essay
and story writing, followed by teacher implementation at Tier 1, meaningfully improve the writing of
second- and third-grade students in terms of quality,
length, and inclusion of basic genre elements?
We hypothesized, based on the research reviewed here
and our previous experiences, that significant and meaningful effects would be found for both writing interventions.
Research Question 2: Can general education teachers
implement SRSD at Tier 1 with integrity?
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Research Question 3: Will teachers and students find
SRSD instruction in writing to have acceptable
social validity?
Based again on the research reviewed here and our previous experiences, we hypothesized that the answer to both
questions would be “yes.” These last two questions are
critical, because without high-quality teacher implementation and acceptable social validity, widespread acceptance
of SRSD at Tier 1 is not likely.
Method
Participants and Setting
Setting. Three inclusive rural elementary schools serving
students in kindergarten through fifth grades in one district
in a southeastern state were involved in this study. District
enrollment exceeded 31,000 students in 40 schools (8 high
schools, 8 middle schools, 23 elementary schools, and 1 K-8
school). In this district, 8.5% of students were eligible for
free and reduced price lunch, 1.39% were classified as
English learners, and 9.2% received special education services. Five of the district’s elementary schools received
Title 1 funding.
Total enrollment in the three participating schools ranged
from 131 to 740 students. Students were predominantly
White (range = 94%-99%), and schools’ economic disadvantage rates ranged from 12.1% to 32.9%. All schools were in
good standing as per No Child Left Behind standards. Each
school implemented a primary prevention program that
included academic (RTI), behavioral (PBIS), and social
(Character Under Construction) components.
Consenting/assenting procedures. University and district
approvals were secured before beginning the study. After
consenting teachers, parental consent was solicited for all
students enrolled in participating teachers’ classrooms (N =
443). Among the 314 (70.88%) parental consent letters
returned, 301 (95.86%) granted consent, and these students
were formally assented. Student assent was secured for 286
students. Of these students, 3 moved during the intervention
and 13 were in the classroom of a teacher who withdrew
from the study. Of the remaining 270 students, 8 (7 of whom
received special education services) typically received assistance from a paraprofessional during writing (e.g., dictation)
but did not have such assistance during study testing. For this
reason, these 8 students were removed from data analyses,
resulting in 262 students in data analyses.
Teachers. Teacher participants included 20 second- and
third-grade teachers. Initially, 21 teachers from these three
schools elected to participate and were randomly assigned to
either the story (n = 10) or opinion essay (n = 11) writing
intervention. However, 1 teacher in the story writing condition later withdrew indicating that she did not have sufficient
instructional time to devote to the intervention. Thus, 20
teachers completed the study; 9 teachers (5 at second grade
and 4 at third grade) taught story writing and 11 teachers (5 at
second grade and 6 at third grade) taught opinion writing.
Teaching experience ranged from 1 to 21 years with a
mean of 10.57 years (SD = 5.49). All teachers were certified.
Sixteen teachers provided information regarding education
and teaching credentials; 8 teachers had attained their bachelor’s degree; 8 teachers had attained their master’s degree;
and 1 teacher had attained her master’s +30. Six teachers held
teaching credentials in early childhood education, 9 teachers
held teaching credentials in elementary education, and 1 held
a teaching credential as a reading specialist for K-12.
Students. Student participants were 262 second- (n = 136)
and third-grade (n = 126) students (131 boys and 131 girls).
Of these students, 113 were in the story writing condition
and 149 were in the opinion essay writing condition. The
majority of the students were White (n = 253; 96.56%), ranging in age from 6.93 to 9.61 (M = 8.07; SD = 0.61) years. In
all, 14 (5.34%) students received special education services,
with most receiving services in the language impairment category (see Table 1). Chi-square analyses contrasting Group
× Gender, χ2(1, N = 262) = 0.14, p = .71, and Group × Special
Education Status, χ2(1, N = 262) = 1.18, p = .28, were not
significant.
An estimate of cognitive ability was obtained using a
short form of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–
Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003), which included
two subtests: vocabulary and block design (split half
reliabilities of .82 for both). Sattler’s (1991) formula was
used to compute the estimate for conversion to a deviation
quotient (r = .91). Initial writing performance was measured
using scores from the most recently administered district
writing assessment (description to follow). Independent t
tests revealed no significant differences between groups in
cognitive ability, t(260) = 1.20, p = .23, or initial writing ability, t(232) = −1.83, p = .07. However, there was a significant
difference between groups in terms of age, t(260) = −2.25, p
= .02, with students in the opinion essay group being older
than students in the story writing group. This difference is
due to the withdrawal of one third-grade teacher from the
story writing condition.
Intervention: Self-Regulated
Strategy Development for Writing
Given space constraints and the availability of detailed
descriptions of SRSD instruction elsewhere (cf. Harris et al.,
2008, 2009), we do not provide an extensive description
here. In addition, the lesson plans and instructional materials
used in this study are available online (http://kc.vanderbilt.
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Table 1. Participants Characteristics
Intervention group
Variable level
Gender
Male
Female
Grade
Second
Third
Ethnicity
White
Black
Hispanic
Asian
Age
Cognitive ability
Special education
Specific learning disability
Gifted
Speech impairment
Language impairment
Other health impairment
Developmental disability
Story (n = 113)
n (%)
M (SD)
Opinion essay (n = 149)
n (%)
M (SD)
Total (N = 262)
N (%)
M (SD)
55 (48.67)
58 (51.33)
76 (51.01)
73 (48.99)
131 (50.00)
131 (50.00)
69 (61.06)
44 (38.94)
67 (44.97)
82 (55.03)
136 (51.91)
126 (48.09)
109 (96.46)
1 (0.88)
3 (2.65)
0 (0.00)
144 (96.64)
2 (1.34)
2 (1.34)
1 (0.67)
253 (96.56)
3 (1.15)
5 (1.91)
1 (0.38)
8.07 (0.61)
98.88 (12.87)
1 (0.38)
2 (0.76)
2 (0.76)
4 (1.53)
3 (1.15)
2 (0.76)
7.97 (0.57)
99.97 (12.71)
0 (0.00)
2 (1.77)
1 (0.88)
3 (2.65)
1 (0.88)
1 (0.88)
8.14 (0.63)
98.05 (12.96)
1 (0.67)
0 (0.00)
1 (0.67)
1 (0.67)
2 (1.34)
1 (0.67)
Note: Cognitive ability refers to estimated intelligence quotient Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003).
edu/projectwrite). In brief, SRSD involves six recursive
stages of instruction (e.g., develop background knowledge,
discuss it, model it, memorize it, support it, and independent
performance), which occur at a pace determined by student
progress. Feedback and instructional support are individualized to be responsive to students’ needs. Due to school-level
time constraints, teachers conducted SRSD instruction for 6
to 8 weeks, with a maximum of 24 class sessions. Teachers
typically taught three 30-min sessions each week.
Instruction begins with reading selected exemplars in the
targeted genre; poor pieces are read later, then critiqued and
revised. Throughout instruction, students acquire knowledge,
understandings, and the vocabulary needed. Explicit instruction in genre-specific and general writing strategies and
in self-regulation of the writing process (including goal setting,
self-instructions, self-monitoring and self-assessment, and
self-reinforcement) is provided. Teachers model and students collaboratively practice writing and self-regulation
strategies, with gradual release of responsibility to students.
Students are active collaborators in the learning process; the
role of effort in learning strategies is emphasized, and positive attributions to strategy use and effort are supported.
Throughout instruction, teachers and students discuss other
times the writing and self-regulation strategies can be used
and develop plans to maintain them. Materials provided to
students and teachers included appropriate strategy charts,
structured graphic organizers, graphs (in the shape of rockets) for self-monitoring progress toward goals, strategy parts
cards for practice memorizing mnemonics and their meanings, and writing folders.
In this study, all students learned POW (P: pick my idea;
O: organize my notes; W: write and say more) as a general
strategy for the writing process. Then, students learned a
genre-specific writing strategy for either opinion writing or
story writing as well as general writing strategies such as
beginning with a catchy opening and good word choice. The
genre-specific writing strategy for writing opinion essays
was the early elementary version of TREE (cf. Harris et al.,
2008; T: Topic sentence, Tell what you believe!; R: Reasons,
3 or more, Why do I believe this? Will my readers believe
this?; E: Ending, Wrap it up right!; E: Examine, do I have all
my parts?). The genre-specific writing strategy for writing
stories was WWW, What = 2, How = 2 (W: Who is the main
character or characters?; W: When does the story happen?;
W: Where does the story take place?; What: What does the
main character do or want to do? What do the other characters do?; What: What happens then? What happens with
the other characters?; How: How does the story end?; How:
How does the main character feel? How do the other characters
feel?).
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Professional Development
Professional development teams. SRSD professional development was the same for teachers assigned to the opinion
and story writing conditions. Teachers participated in professional development in small teams in the fall (after preassessments and consenting/assenting) at their respective
schools. All teams included second- and third-grade teachers. Five teams were formed; teams referred to themselves as
a WWW (story writing) or TREE (opinion essay) team. One
teacher, however, was unable to attend the initial team professional development days at her school, and thus received
initial professional development individually and then participated in team meetings that occurred after initial professional development. Teams selected either two school days
(within 1 week, substitutes were provided) or two Saturdays
for professional development. Previous experience with professional development in SRSD indicated that 12 to 14 hr
would be sufficient time for all teachers working in small
groups to reach criterion in SRSD instruction. Teachers
agreed to extend the professional development time if needed
to meet criterion; this, however, was not necessary.
School 1 had two teams. The WWW team included four
teachers (two at second grade and two at third grade). The
TREE team included four teachers (two at second grade and
two at third grade). School 2 had one TREE team of two
teachers (one at second grade, one at third grade; one additional teacher attended the professional development but was
not participating in the study). School 3 had two teams. The
WWW team at School 3 included five teachers (four at second grade, two at third grade). The TREE team at School
3 included five teachers (two at second grade, three at third
grade). Thus, in total, initial professional development was
conducted separately with five teams, two WWW teams and
three TREE teams.
These small teams were formed for multiple reasons. As
noted earlier, critical characteristics of practice-based professional development include (a) collective participation of
teachers within the same school with similar needs and
(b) basing professional development around the characteristics, strengths, and needs of the students in these teachers’
current classrooms. Our experience indicated that small
teams are effective in establishing these characteristics,
allowing a great deal of interaction among team members
and allowing us to come to know the teachers and their students well. Furthermore, as Harris and her colleagues have
noted (cf. Harris et al., 2008; Harris & Graham, 1996), SRSD
in writing is a relatively complex instructional approach, and
teachers find it helpful to work together in learning and
implementing this instruction. This allows sharing effective
instructional adaptations and differentiations for students,
brainstorming, and problem solving. Furthermore, all of the
teachers in these schools met regularly in grade-level and
cross-grade-level teams, making this a natural extension of
current procedures.
Materials and resources provided. Approximately 2 weeks
before professional development began, teachers received
electronic copies of two articles to read (Harris et al., 2009;
Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003). On the first day of professional development, each teacher received a notebook
including detailed lesson plans; copies of all student materials including the appropriate genre strategy chart, structured
graphic organizer with picture prompts, structured graphic
organizer without picture prompts, a sheet for listing favorite
vocabulary words (story writing) or transition words (opinion essays), self-monitoring rockets, and genre parts cards for
memorizing mnemonics and their meanings; writing prompts
to be used throughout instruction; copies of all exemplar stories or essays (strong as well as weak) and their evaluation
information; and a pacing calendar indicating possible
benchmarks for the stages of instruction.
In addition, teachers were given enough copies of all student materials for the students in their classes and a writing
folder for each student. We shared one way of setting up the
students’ writing folders that made the strategy chart and
other critical information readily available. Teachers, however, were free to use our folders and suggested organization
ideas or their own systems. Providing these materials was
important in terms of an additional critical characteristic of
practice-based professional development: use of the materials and other artifacts during professional development that
are identical to those to be used in the classroom. In addition,
our experience indicated that teachers are more receptive to
using SRSD in writing when the materials they and their students need are provided as part of professional development
and these materials are used extensively during the initial
professional development.
Initiating practice-based professional development. Three
members of our research team worked with each of the five
teams for the initial intensive practice-based professional
development. Day 1 of professional development began
with getting to know about each other and the students in the
teachers’ classrooms. Teachers came prepared to talk about
their students’ writing in their assigned genre, the range of
abilities in their classes, and their goals for their students.
As noted earlier, story and opinion essay writing had been
chosen as targets by these teachers and their principals.
Notes were taken as the teachers described their current
writing instruction, their students’ strengths and needs, and
individual student characteristics; we used these notes as a
reference point throughout professional development and
instruction.
Teachers shared their preservice and inservice professional development experiences in writing. Consistent with
the research noted earlier, all of the teachers felt they had not
received adequate preservice preparation in teaching writing; some had received none. Most had received limited
inservice professional development in writing. Approximately
2 years before this study, the teachers in all three schools had
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received professional development in the process approach
to writing, by a leading author in this area, and had received
a manual covering implementing writers’ workshop across
the elementary grades. The teachers indicated that although
they had worked together to follow the writing workshop
principles and suggested activities, their students were not
making adequate progress in writing either stories or expository text.
The professional development leaders shared their previous experiences as teachers and with SRSD instruction.
Examples of student writing before and after instruction,
from classrooms and students similar to theirs, were shared,
as was a brief summary of the research base for SRSD. We
explained to teachers that most studies of SRSD and of professional development in SRSD had focused on Tier 2 or
Tier 3 intervention and had involved RAs as writing teachers. The results of one study (Harris et al., 2011) conducted
with primary-grade general education teachers as SRSD
instructors were shared; this study, however, involved
instruction to small groups at learning centers, rather than
classwide instruction as in the present study. Teachers were
asked, and agreed, to provide us feedback on SRSD and the
professional development over the course of the study, and
in focus groups at the end (McKeown et al., 2011).
We then discussed the writing genre teachers were targeting. Another critical characteristic of practice-based professional development is attention to content knowledge needs
of teachers, including pedagogical content knowledge. We
discussed the essential genre elements of either stories or
opinion essays, as well as general characteristics of effective
writing among second- and third-grade students, and the
teachers’ goals for their students’ writing. We also discussed
current instructional elements teachers were using and found
effective, such as the 6 + 1 traits of writing (ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions,
and presentation; cf. Culham, 2003) and aspects of writers’
workshop, such as peer support. We explained that these elements were all consistent with the goals of SRSD and that
teachers could, and should, integrate these as they desired,
and that in fact they would find many of them already integrated into the SRSD lessons (cf. Harris et al., 2008, 2009).
We then began exploration of the SRSD approach in writing
instruction.
Development of knowledge about, and beginning proficiency
in, SRSD. In many ways, and purposefully, teacher development in SRSD mirrored the six stages in SRSD instruction:
develop background knowledge, discuss it, model it, support
it, and independent performance. As in SRSD, the stages of
development were recursive, paced to meet teachers’ needs,
and highly interactive. “Develop background knowledge”
and “discuss it” were combined, beginning with watching
a commercially produced, 1-hr video of classwide SRSD
instruction in writing opinion essays (with the TREE strategy) in one elementary classroom, and SRSD instruction in
vocabulary development in another classroom (Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2002). The
video follows students and their two teachers through all six
stages of instruction; we stopped the video at several places
to hold discussion and answer questions. Beginning here,
and throughout these 2 days of professional development, we probed for and confirmed understanding of key
vocabulary, constructs, and elements of SRSD instruction.
We also discussed the articles teachers had been sent to read
in advance.
Next, we gave each teacher their instructional notebooks
and copies of all materials for their students. We went through
these, orienting teachers to the contents. We again shared preand post essays or stories written by students either in previous studies or in classrooms where teachers were using
SRSD, and talked about what these teachers could expect
with their students. We emphasized that SRSD instruction is
not a complete writing curriculum, but rather one component
of effective writing instruction. We also briefly discussed the
theoretical basis for SRSD, emphasizing the need for explicit,
scaffolded instruction in writing and self-regulation strategies
and the ongoing development of these strategies over time
and across grades (i.e., instruction in the current study would
be a beginning, not an ending).
We began the modeling and supported practice stages
next. First, the professional development leaders modeled
Lesson 1 (of 10 total lessons) and emphasized that the lesson
numbers did not correspond to number of days in instruction
or stages (Lesson 1 could take one or more days of instruction, depending on their students, and combined the beginning of both “develop background knowledge” and “discuss
it”), but rather to a segment of instruction. We then discussed
the lesson and answered questions. We stressed that although
the detailed lesson plans they had received included suggestions for how to explain what was being learned to students,
teachers were not expected to follow “scripted” lesson plans.
These lengthy, detailed plans were too cumbersome to teach
from, and teachers were, instead, asked to develop their own,
personalized, briefer lesson plans later in professional development. These detailed lesson plans would be there for them
if they needed to consult them later during SRSD instruction.
We also stressed the need to differentiate instruction to students’ differing abilities in writing, and brainstormed together
how this could be done. Then, teachers worked in pairs or
small groups to practice this lesson together, taking turns acting as teacher or student(s). We circulated and observed, and
led discussion of this lesson with the whole group of teachers
afterward.
We typically modeled and did supported practice for two
to three lessons by the end of the 1st day of professional
development. Teachers were asked to read the rest of the lessons before our next day together, develop their own briefer
lesson plans for the lessons covered, and develop a plan for
how they would model, for their students, use of the writing
and self-regulation strategies, as required in an upcoming
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lesson (a detailed discussion of cognitive modeling elements
was held and included in the lesson plans). During the 2nd
day, we followed these same procedures for modeling and
supported practice for each remaining lesson. In lessons
where students would need time to write, we simply “pretended” that they had written. Some of the lessons are much
simpler than others for teachers to become comfortable with;
the lesson requiring teachers to engage in cognitive modeling for their students is often one of the more difficult lessons and was allotted more time and discussion. Taking time
to first model each lesson and then observing teachers practice with each other and providing feedback and holding
group discussions helped meet two additional critical characteristics of practice-based professional development: opportunities for active learning and practice of the new methods
being learned—including opportunities to see examples of
these methods being used and to analyze the work—and
feedback on performance while learning and before using
these methods in the classroom so that understanding and
skills critical in implementation are developed.
Ongoing observation and support. We explained to teachers,
at the end of the 2nd day, that we would have an observer
(RAs separately trained in SRSD instruction) in their classrooms approximately once out of every three lessons, and
how this would be scheduled. The purpose of the observations was twofold: to provide teachers with ongoing feedback
and support (observers could answer questions or discuss the
lesson with the teacher immediately afterward or later by
phone or email), and to collect treatment integrity data. We
gave each teacher a copy of the treatment integrity observation form for each lesson and went through them together.
We explained that we would be talking to observers after
each observation and meeting with all observers weekly and
that we would be discussing with observers any support
teachers might request or need. Once again, we stressed that
teachers should adapt instruction to their students, but that
all major elements and steps should be included. We continued to discuss ways in which teachers might adapt lessons to
meet class and individual needs, and encouraged teachers
to further discuss these issues and share with each other
throughout instruction. We provided teachers with our phone
and email contact information, and stressed that we were
also available throughout instruction to answer questions,
come to their school and meet further if they would like, or
help problem solve.
After professional development and preintervention measures were completed, teachers began instruction. Teachers
were given a pacing calendar to guide their instruction,
although there was flexibility in how students moved through
instruction in accordance with SRSD methods. As noted,
however, teachers were able to conduct a maximum of 24
class sessions of SRSD instruction due to school-level time
constraints. Based on previous experience, we anticipated
that this would be a sufficient number of class sessions.
Treatment Integrity Procedures
For each teacher, treatment integrity data were collected for
25% of instructional sessions. RAs conducted observations
using an instructional component checklist for each lesson.
When RAs arrived to observe a given lesson, teachers told
the RA which components of what lesson they were going
to be teaching that day. The RAs completed the checklist for
that lesson by checking off each item observed and indicating items not observed. Teachers completed checklists identical to those used by RAs for all lessons, regardless of whether
an observer was present. In the results section, we report
treatment integrity in three ways, allowing a stringent test of
whether each SRSD instructional condition was implemented
as intended: (a) teacher self-report for each lesson in its
entirety, (b) RA observations for the 25% of class sessions
observed, and (c) teacher self-reports for the subset of the
components observed by the RAs (as lessons often required
more than one class session to complete).
Outcome Measures
Prior to intervention onset, teachers administered two writing prompts (story and opinion) on consecutive days to all
students in their classrooms. The writing prompts were counterbalanced such that the writing prompt associated with
their assigned instructional condition was administered first.
For example, if a teacher was randomly assigned to the
opinion condition, then he or she administered the opinion
writing condition first followed by the story writing prompt
the next day. It is unlikely that this administration plan
influenced students’ scores, as there is little relationship
between students’ performance in the two genres (Santangelo
& Olinghouse, 2011).
Story writing prompts. Students were given a line drawing
and asked to spend 20 min writing a story about the scene
presented in the picture. Students were allotted extra time to
finish their writing if necessary. Students were encouraged
to plan before they began writing and to ask for assistance
only in spelling a word. If students requested other types of
assistance, they were told “do the best you can.” Previous
studies have established the equivalency of the story writing prompts used in this study in terms of how much and
how well primary-grade students write (Graham, Harris,
& Mason, 2005).
Each story was scored for the following: number and quality
of story elements, overall writing quality, the number of words,
and the number of transition words used. Each paper was typed
into a Word document. Spelling, capitalization, and punctuation
errors were corrected and identifying information was removed.
Electronic versions were scored rather than the student-written
responses to eliminate any potential influence that appearance
of text or surface level features (e.g., legibility, spelling errors)
might have on writing quality and content.
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Each story was scored to ascertain the number and quality
of basic story elements included: main character(s), time,
locale, what the main character(s) does or wants to do
(goals), what happens next, how the story ends, and how the
main character feels. For each element, a score of 0 was
assigned if the element was not present, a “1” if the element
was included and a “2” if the element was highly developed
(see Graham, Harris, & Sawyer, 1989, for a more detailed
description). This was the most proximal measure of student
growth. All prompts were scored by two RAs who received
instruction in the scoring method with an interrater reliability
(IRR) of .92 during training. For analysis, the mean of the
two RA scores was used. IRR between the two RA scores
was .85.
Number of words was scored by using the word count
feature in Word whereas overall quality of stories was scored
using a holistic measure. Scorers were taught to take ideation,
organization, sentence structure, word choice, and grammar
into account in forming a judgment about writing quality,
with no single factor receiving undue weight. Papers were
scored by RAs using a 0- to 8-point scale, with higher scores
representing higher quality writing. RAs used representative
(anchor) papers for scores of 1, 3, 5, and 7 to assist them in
scoring stories. These anchor points were developed in previous studies (see Graham et al., 2005; Harris et al., 2006). The
scorers received instruction in how to use the holistic scoring
system, with IRR of .95 during training. Each rater independently scored all stories written by students for quality, with
IRR of .90.
Opinion essay writing prompts.. Students received a question
asking their opinion on school or home issues (e.g., Do you
think school rules are necessary?). Teachers instructed them
to respond by writing an essay. Previous studies have established the equivalency of the opinion essay writing prompts
used in this study in terms of how much and how well
primary-grade students write (Graham et al., 1989, 2005;
Harris et al., 2006).
Teachers administered the opinion prompts using the
same procedures described previously for story writing
prompt administration (e.g., time allotted, planning, and
requesting assistance). Scoring procedures were also consistent with those described for story writing prompt scoring
(e.g., typing prompts; removing identifying information,
correcting spelling, capitalization, and punctuation errors;
scoring; and data entry, including reliability). When scoring
basic elements of opinion writing, RAs scored the following:
topic sentence (statement indicating what the author believed),
reasons (explanation as to why an author believed a particular premise or explanation of why they refuted a counter
premise), conclusion (a closing statement or a statement that
brings the author’s ideas together), and elaboration (additional information or examples for a premise, reason, or
conclusion). For topic sentence and conclusion, “0” was
allocated if the element was absent and a “1” if it was
present. For reasons and elaborations, 1 point was awarded
for each individually unique reason or elaboration included
or 2 points were awarded if the reason or elaboration was
particularly strong. Again, this was the most proximal measure of student performance. As with story writing prompts,
all opinion writing prompts were scored by two RAs who
had been trained in the scoring method with an IRR of .97
during training. The mean of the two RA scores was used for
analysis, with IRR of .76.
Number of words and overall quality of opinion papers
were scored using the same procedures described for story
writing papers. The scorers received extensive training in
applying the holistic scoring system, with IRR during training of .82. Each rater independently scored all stories produced by the students, with IRR of .82.
All opinion essays and stories were scored for number of
transition words (e.g., first, second, therefore, next, and last).
All papers were scored by two trained RAs, with IRR of .98
during training. IRR for all papers was .95.
Social Validity
Social validity was assessed from the homeroom teacher’s
perspective during pre- and postintervention phases as homeroom teachers spent the majority of time with their students
(Table 2). It should be noted that in some instances, students
received writing instruction from teachers other than their
homeroom teachers; although all homeroom teachers also
acted as writing instructors. Homeroom teachers completed
the Intervention Rating Profile (IRP-15; Witt & Elliott,
1985) to obtain their opinions regarding the social significance of the intervention goals, the acceptability of the procedures, and social importance of the intervention outcomes.
Students’ perspectives on social validity were collected using
the Children’s Intervention Rating Profile (CIRP; Witt &
Elliott, 1985), a parallel version of the IRP-15.
IRP-15. The IRP-15 assesses teachers’ perceptions of treatment acceptability. Teachers rate 15 statements about procedures and outcomes (e.g., “I liked the procedures used in this
intervention.”) on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
= strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. Total scores range
from 15 to 90, with higher scores indicating high acceptability. Internal consistency estimates range from .88 to .98.
Teachers completed one rating profile for their entire class
rather than for individual students.
CIRP. The CIRP assesses students’ perceptions of treatment
acceptability. Students rate seven items on a 6-point Likerttype scale ranging from 1 = I do not agree to 6 = I agree.
After reflecting negatively worded items, total scores range
from 7 to 42, with high scores indicating high acceptability.
The wording of the CIRP was modified as in previous studies to increase readability. Internal consistency ranged from
.75 to .89. The CIRP had been administered individually by
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Table 2. Social Validity and Treatment Integrity
Intervention group
Story
instruction
Opinion essay
instruction
M (SD)
M (SD)
Effect sizes
Variable level
Phase
Teacher (IRP-15)
Pre
Post
Δ
(n = 9)
75.00 (9.51)
78.00 (12.00)
3.00 (11.94)
(n = 11)
73.18 (9.44)
78.18 (9.69)
5.00 (11.26)
Pre
Post
Δ
(n = 113)
35.27 (4.04)
36.93 (5.61)
1.66 (6.74)
(n = 149)
34.49 (4.65)
36.49 (6.06)
2.00 (7.06)
Teacher (all sessions)
Teacher (observation)
RA (observation)
(n = 9)
94.20 (5.01)
90.04 (11.49)
91.54 (7.27)
(n = 11)
97.06 (3.87)
99.23 (1.72)
88.63 (7.99)
Student (CIRP)
Treatment integrity
0.17
0.28a
0.52b
0.05
0.34a
0.37b
0.64
1.39
−0.38
−0.16c
2.18d
Note: IRP-15 = Intervention Rating Profile-15; CIRP = Children’s Intervention Rating Profile; RA = research assistant. Scores for IRP-15 range from 0 to 90;
Scores for CIRP range from 0 to 42.
a
Compares story pre and story post.
b
Compares persuasive pre and persuasive post.
c
Compares story teacher (observation) and story RA (observation).
d
Compares persuasive teacher (observation) with persuasive RA (observation).
RAs during preassessment; however, teachers administered
the CIRP to their whole class following intervention completion and completion of both postintervention writing prompts
to avoid disrupting the class by removing students to complete this brief measure. Teachers provided directions for
completing the short survey and read each item aloud. The
project director instructed teachers to avoid guiding students’ answers.
quality, length, and transition words for (a) opinion essay
writing and (b) story writing genres. Specifically, these Time
1 variables for both genres were analyzed using a series
of two-level hierarchical linear models. In these analyses,
students were nested within teacher’s classrooms, and
classrooms were treated as a random factor. Analyses of
these Time 1 variables indicated no statistically significant
differences for any of the eight pretest variables examined.
Experimental Design
and Statistical Analysis
Treatment Integrity
The experimental design was a 2 × 2 (group × time) repeated
measures model. Group (intervention and control) was the
between-participants factor and time was the repeated measure (preintervention and postintervention).
Results
Examining Preintervention Scores
Students in the story and opinion essay writing conditions
were compared on the number and quality of elements, overall
Statistical analysis. Treatment integrity data were analyzed
using descriptive procedures (e.g., means and standard deviations). We report the mean session integrity scores for (a)
the teacher self-report of each whole lesson, (b) the portions
of sessions observed by the RA, and (c) the portions of sessions from teacher self-reports that correspond to the portions observed by RAs. Effect sizes (ES) were computed
using the pooled standard deviation in the denominator [(M1
– M2) / SDpooled] to determine the magnitude of differences
between groups compared. According to Cohen small, medium,
and large effect sizes are 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8, respectively.
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Findings. Overall, treatment integrity was high (greater
than 85%) from all three perspectives for both intervention
groups (see Table 2 for mean scores). Teacher self-report
scores for the entire lessons were relatively comparable for
the story writing (M = 94.20, SD = 5.01) and opinion essay
writing groups (M = 97.06, SD = 3.87). Effect sizes suggest
medium magnitude differences (0.64), with integrity higher
for the opinion essay writing condition.
In terms of direct observation sessions, RA observations of treatment integrity were slightly higher than
teacher ratings of the same components in the story writing condition (ES = −0.16) and lower than teacher ratings
of the same components in the opinion essay writing condition (ES = 2.18).
It should be noted that teachers’ self-reports for the full
lessons and for the direct observation sessions both indicated
that—from the teachers’ perspective—treatment integrity
was higher for the opinion essay writing group relative to the
story writing group. Effect sizes suggest medium to high
magnitude difference for the full session (ES = 0.64) and
partial session (ES =1.39) scores.
Student Outcomes
Statistical analysis. To test the effects of the interventions
on different measures of story writing and opinion essay
writing, a series of hierarchal linear models were fit to the
data. In these analyses, students were nested within teacher’s
classrooms, and teachers were considered a random effect.
Specifically, a total of eight models were fit for the four
story outcome measures (number and quality of elements,
overall quality, length, and transition words) and the four
opinion essay outcome measures (number and quality of
elements, overall quality, length, and transition words). In
each statistical model, intervention group (story or opinion
essay writing) was treated as a fixed effect. Change in student
performance for each outcome measure (postintervention
minus preintervention) was used as the dependent variables.
Effect sizes were computed using the pooled student-level
standard deviation in the denominator [(M1 – M2) / SDpooled]
to determine the magnitude of the differences in change
scores between the two treatment groups. Mean scores over
time as well as change scores are presented at the student
level in Table 3 and instructor level in Table 4. Results of the
eight models are presented in Table 5.
Story writing. The story writing group was compared with
the opinion essay writing group on four story writing measures: number and quality of elements, overall quality, length,
and transition words. Results revealed statistical significance
only for the number and quality of elements in the story
prompts, t(19.3) = 2.29, p = .03, with students in the story writing condition scoring 1.52 more elements than students in
the opinion essay writing condition. The magnitude of the
improvement between pre- and postintervention element
scores for students in the story writing condition was large
(ES = 1.82). Also, the magnitude of the differences in change
scores between intervention groups was also large (ES = 1.09).
Opinion essay writing. The opinion essay writing group
was compared with the story writing group on four opinion
essay writing measures: elements, quality, length, and transition words. Results revealed statistical significance for the
number and quality of elements in the opinion essay writing
prompts, t(19.8) = −4.14, p = .0005; ES = 2.02, the overall
quality of opinion essay writing, t(17.1) = −9.14, p < .0001;
ES = 4.00, and the number of transition words used in opinion essay writing prompts, t(18.4) = −7.40, p < .0001; ES =
3.78. Students in the opinion essay condition scored 3.1
additional elements compared with students in the story
writing condition. Furthermore, students in the opinion
essay condition scored 5.83 points higher on quality and
2.75 points higher on transition words than students in the
story writing condition.
Social Validity
Social validity data were analyzed using descriptive procedures. Mean preintervention and postintervention social
validity were computed from the teacher (IRP-15) and
student (CIRP) perspectives prior to intervention onset for
all students. Effect sizes were computed to determine the
magnitude of differences in teacher and student ratings
between the story and opinion essay writing groups prior to
intervention onset and following intervention completion
(see Table 2).
Findings. Prior to intervention onset, teachers rated the
intervention moderately favorable for students in the story
writing (M = 75.00; SD = 9.51) and opinion essay writing
(M = 73.18; SD = 9.44) conditions. After intervention completion, mean teacher ratings for students in the story and opinion
essay writing conditions increased to 78.00 (SD = 12.00) and
78.18 (SD = 9.69), respectively, suggesting the intervention
exceeded their expectations, with low-to-medium magnitude
in improvement (ES story = 0.28; opinion essay = 0.52).
Similarly, students in the story (M = 35.27; SD = 4.04) and
opinion essay (M = 34.49; SD = 4.65) groups also rated intervention favorably and comparably. Social validity ratings of
students who completed the story or opinion essay intervention also increased slightly to 36.93 (SD = 5.61) and 36.49
(SD = 6.06), respectively, suggesting the intervention also
exceeded students’ expectations, with medium magnitude in
improvement (ES story = 0.34; opinion essay = 0.37).
Discussion
We addressed three research questions in this study: (a)
Does practice-based professional development in SRSD
instruction in opinion essay and story writing, followed by
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Table 3. Performance of Student Participants by Class at the Instructor Level
Intervention group
Writing style
Story
Elements
Quality
Word count
Transition words
Opinion essay
Elements
Quality
Word count
Transition words
Phase
Story instruction
(n = 9)
Opinion essay instruction
(n = 11)
M (SD)
M (SD)
Effect size
Pre
Post
Δ
3.85 (1.24)
5.62 (0.70)
1.77 (1.41)
3.46 (1.56)
3.69 (1.36)
0.22 (1.43)
Pre
Post
Δ
3.05 (1.17)
3.99 (0.63)
0.94 (0.95)
2.82 (1.36)
3.01 (1.23)
0.20 (0.96)
Pre
Post
Δ
100.18 (28.48)
96.02 (20.84)
−4.16 (20.46)
97.16 (37.41)
90.47 (31.96)
−6.69 (17.27)
Pre
Post
Δ
1.35 (0.89)
1.24 (0.62)
−0.11 (1.07)
1.03 (0.58)
1.54 (0.63)
0.51 (0.87)
Pre
Post
Δ
5.12 (0.85)
4.99 (1.55)
−0.13 (1.39)
4.74 (2.04)
7.76 (1.24)
3.02 (1.73)
Pre
Post
Δ
1.34 (0.27)
1.82 (0.57)
0.48 (0.52)
1.20 (0.50)
3.62 (0.62)
2.42 (0.45)
Pre
Post
Δ
78.37 (18.70)
71.99 (15.78)
−6.38 (17.71)
82.86 (37.70)
70.23 (18.83)
−12.68 (27.87)
Pre
Post
Δ
0.41 (0.40)
0.35 (0.24)
−0.06 (0.46)
0.51 (0.37)
3.22 (0.96)
2.70 (1.00)
1.09
0.77
0.13
−0.64
2.02
4.00
−0.28
3.78
Note: Effect sizes from persuasive writing scores were calculated using Persuasive Δ (M) − Story Δ (M); effect sizes from story writing scores were
calculated using Story Δ (M) − Persuasive Δ (M); Students receiving story writing instruction serve as the control group for persuasive writing prompts;
Students receiving persuasive writing instruction serve as the control group for story writing prompts.
teacher implementation at Tier 1, meaningfully improve
the writing of second- and third-grade students in terms of
quality, length, and inclusion of basic genre elements? (b)
Can general education teachers implement SRSD at Tier 1
with integrity? and (c) Will teachers and students find
SRSD instruction in writing to have acceptable social
validity? Each of these research questions is addressed in
turn, followed by a discussion of the limitations of this
study and directions for future research.
Writing Outcomes
We hypothesized that initial intensive, practice-based professional development in SRSD for writing at Tier 1, with
follow-up support, would lead to significant and meaningful
effects in both conditions (story and opinion essay writing).
As predicted, students who received whole class, teacherimplemented SRSD instruction in opinion writing evidenced
significantly and meaningfully greater improvements in
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Table 4. Performance of Student Participants at the Student Level
Intervention group
Story instruction
(n = 113)
Writing style
Story
Elements
Quality
Word count
Transition words
Opinion essay
Elements
Quality
Word count
Transition words
Phase
Opinion essay instruction
(n = 149) M (SD)
M (SD)
Pre
Post
Δ
5.53 (1.93)
1.57 (2.91)
3.96 (2.48)
3.72 (2.61)
0.15 (2.81)
Pre
Post
Δ
3.18 (2.04)
3.88 (1.42)
0.71 (2.00)
2.91 (2.06)
3.07 (2.20)
0.16 (2.07)
Pre
Post
Δ
102.86 (49.36)
92.88 (45.52)
−9.97 (45.73)
97.50 (59.60)
90.97 (53.38)
−6.54 (48.84)
Pre
Post
Δ
1.36 (1.73)
1.20 (1.46)
−0.16 (2.19)
1.04 (1.63)
1.47 (2.06)
0.43 (2.59)
Pre
Post
Δ
5.23 (3.30)
5.06 (5.07)
−0.18 (5.04)
4.83 (3.59)
7.79 (2.73)
2.96 (3.97)
Pre
Post
Δ
1.35 (.74)
1.73 (1.09)
0.38 (1.09)
1.21 (0.85)
3.61 (1.14)
2.40 (1.11)
Pre
Post
Δ
82.03 (54.78)
72.35 (46.98)
−9.68 (46.12)
83.97 (50.65)
70.86 (32.59)
−13.32 (43.88)
Pre
Post
Δ
0.44 (1.13)
0.37 (0.92)
−0.07 (1.16)
0.53 (1.13)
3.15 (2.11)
2.62 (2.30)
Effect size
3.57 (2.57)
0.50
0.27
−0.07
−0.25
0.70
1.84
−0.08
1.55
Note: Effect sizes from persuasive writing scores were calculated using Persuasive Δ (M) − Story Δ (M); effect sizes from story writing scores were
calculated using Story Δ (M) − Persuasive Δ (M); Students receiving story writing instruction serve as the control group for persuasive writing prompts;
Students receiving persuasive writing instruction serve as the control group for story writing prompts.
number of opinion essay elements, quality of opinion essay
elements, overall essay quality, and number of transition
words used than students in the story writing condition.
Length of essays, however, did not differ between conditions.
Students who received whole class, teacher-implemented
SRSD instruction in story writing evidenced significantly
and meaningfully greater improvements in number of story
elements and quality of story elements. Neither overall story
quality nor length, however, differed between conditions. As
expected, these students did not show improvement in use of
transition words, as this was taught only in the opinion essay
condition.
The lack of effect on length of compositions for opinion
essays and story writing was not predicted, but is not surprising. There was considerable variability among students in
terms of length of compositions at each assessment point.
Previous SRSD research at Tiers 2 and 3 included mixed
results on length among primary-grade students (Harris et al.,
2009; Lane, Harris, et al., 2011). Students in this study, as in
several previous studies, typically wrote better, but not
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Table 5. Results of Student Outcomes Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling
Values
Story writing
Estimated group difference
t value
df
p value
Estimated mean for opinion essay group
Estimated mean for story group
Opinion essay
Estimated group difference
t value
df
p value
Estimated mean for opinion essay group
Estimated mean for story group
Elements
Quality
1.52
2.29
19.3
.0334
0.21
1.73
0.69
1.53
19.2
.14113
0.19
0.87
0.06
0.01
18.1
.9946
−6.74
−6.68
−0.60
−1.44
16.1
.1691
0.47
−0.13
−3.1
−4.14
19.8
.0005
2.98
−0.17
−1.97
−9.14
17.1
<.0001
2.4128
0.4430
5.83
0.53
18.8
.6030
−12.79
−6.96
−2.75
−7.40
18.4
<.0001
2.68
−0.066
longer, compositions. Their compositions included most or
all of the critical elements for the genre, and less inappropriate text. Length, or writing more, was not a goal for students
in this study; this goal might be addressed once initial competency in a genre is established.
The lack of effect on overall story writing quality was
unexpected, as previous research has typically shown strong
effects for overall quality after SRSD instruction (Graham &
Perin, 2007b; Harris et al., 2009). Future research is needed
to determine how to obtain overall quality effects at Tier 1
for story writing. Harris and her colleagues have argued that
story writing is more difficult for primary-grade students
than opinion essay writing (cf. Lane, Harris, et al., 2011). In
addition, although all of the teachers in this study finished
the SRSD lessons, several teachers in the story writing
condition indicated that some of their students would have
profited from a few more class sessions before post testing
(not possible due to school-level time constraints). Further,
teachers in this study noted that the story writing strategy
was more complex and more difficult to teach, and that this
genre was harder for their students than opinion essay writing. This corroborates the observations made in previous
research and has implications for future research, including
consideration of how important story writing is as a major
goal in the early primary grades.
Treatment Integrity and Social Validity
Results for treatment integrity and social validity were positive, as hypothesized. Treatment integrity was high across
three aspects: (a) teacher self-report of each whole lesson,
(b) the portions of lessons observed by RAs, and (c) the portions of sessions from teacher self-reports corresponding to
the portions observed by RAs. Teachers rated SRSD instruction in writing positively before implementation, and even
Word count
Transition words
more highly after completing SRSD instruction with their
classes. The positive results for both treatment integrity and
social validity are important in setting the stage for larger
scaling up studies.
Limitations and Future Research
A limitation of the present study was the need to end SRSD
instruction within 24 class sessions, due to school-level time
constraints. One implication for future research is not to
limit the total number of class sessions in SRSD instruction,
but rather, as typically preferred in SRSD instruction, to
continue instruction with students who need it until they
have met criterion. Thus, future studies should address how
long this would take as well as how classroom teachers at
Tier 1 might accomplish this goal. Further research is also
needed to determine how best to support teachers in differentiating SRSD instruction for students with varying writing
abilities in their classrooms (Sandmel et al., 2009). Teachers
in this study reported and were observed using a number of
accommodations and adaptations for students, such as teaching small groups as needed, providing mini lessons with
individual students, and use of additional visual and verbal
supports (such as songs, hand movements, and rhymes).
Another limitation of this study was the lack of resources
for full-fledged coaching of teachers after initial, intensive
professional development. Such coaching, however, was not
needed for these teachers to achieve impressive results. We
believe it is promising that investing in practice-based professional development up-front was successful in this study,
as this can be far less costly than ongoing, intensive coaching. Future research is needed to compare the intensive, initial practice-based professional development, followed by
observations and support, implemented here to other professional development approaches, such as coaching. Finally,
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we noted throughout instruction that 2 of the 20 teachers in
this study, while implementing SRSD instruction adequately,
were not implementing it as enthusiastically or as well as the
other 18 teachers. Future research needs to closely examine
how to support all teachers in high levels of implementation
and more closely follow individual teacher implementation.
We did not have the resources to investigate whether
SRSD instruction in writing was sustained after this study;
anecdotal information, however, indicates that many of these
teachers continued SRSD instruction into the next school
year. Sustainability needs to be investigated in future studies.
Teachers indicated that they would be more able and willing
to modify SRSD instruction now that they had used SRSD
once. Studies of how teachers adapt SRSD, both successfully
and in unsuccessful ways (cf. Garet et al., 2001), as well as
larger scaling up studies, are needed.
The literature on professional development suggests a
number of other important areas for future research as well.
Teacher and school culture characteristics are important considerations in professional development (cf. D. L. Ball &
Forzani, 2009; Cochran-Smith & The Boston College
Evidence Team, 2009; Desimone, 2009; Garet et al., 2001;
Grossman & McDonald, 2008; Sargent & Hannum, 2009).
In this study, all of the teachers and their principals had targeted writing as an area for professional development, had
chosen to be involved, and worked in small groups to
develop initial competence in SRSD. All of the teachers
were credentialed; most of the teachers had worked together
for some time and knew each other well. Furthermore, this
study took place in the context of rural schools already working collaboratively with a local university to implement an
evidence-based, three-tiered model that supported academic, behavioral, and social development. Future research
must continue to examine cultural and individual teacher characteristics and how they interact with professional development models and approaches. Based on this study, investing
in intensive, but relatively short-term practice-based professional development in SRSD for writing in the primary grades
is worthwhile.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This
research was supported by the Institute for Educational Sciences
Grant (R324B060018) from the Serious Behavior Disorders
Competition (84.324B) to Vanderbilt University. For additional
information, please contact Karen Harris at Peabody College of
Vanderbilt University; Department of Special Education; Nashville,
TN 37203 Karen.harris@vanderbilt.edu.
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About the Authors
Karen R. Harris is the Currey-Ingram Professor of Literacy at
Vanderbilt University. Her research interests are writing, strategies
instruction, self-regulation, and professional development.
Kathleen Lynne Lane is a professor in the School of
Education at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
and principal investigator for Project WRITE, a Goal 2 grant
funded by the Institute for Educational Sciences. Her research
focuses on preventing the development of emotional and
behavioral disorders within the context of comprehensive,
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Harris et al.
integrated, three-tiered (CI3T) models of prevention, with an
emphasis on academic interventions.
Karin Sandmel is an assistant professor at the School of Education
at Johns Hopkins University. Her research areas include self-regulation,
writing, and English language learners.
Steve Graham is the Currey-Ingram Professor of Literacy at
Vanderbilt University. His research interests focus on writing
development, assessment, and instruction, especially in terms of
children who find writing challenging.
Mary Brindle is a doctoral student in special education at Vanderbilt
University. Her areas of specialization include self-regulated strategy
development, writing, and professional development.
Steven A. Driscoll was a research coordinator at Vanderbilt
University where he received his master of education degree. His
areas of interest include early childhood education and educational
research methods.
Christopher Schatschneider is a professor of psychology at
Florida State University and is an associate director of the Florida
Center for Reading Research. His research focuses on early reading
development, methodology, and statistics.
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Department of Education May 20, 2014; Publication Authorization No. 331959; 2192 copies.
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