The Cross-Relationship Between Jazz and Classical Music
An Honors Program Thesis
by
Laura Fallon
Spring, 2015
Department of Music
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Faculty Advisor, Carl Strommen
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Faculty Reader, Richard Iacona
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Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction and Early Influences to Jazz
1
Jazz and the Music Scene in France
2
American Composers and the Influence of Jazz
6
Jazz Interpretations of Classical Repertoire and the Inclusion of Quotations
10
The Works of Charles Mingus
12
The Works and Influence of Charlie Parker
16
European Composers Who Have Had a Significant Impact on Jazz Musicians
21
Theoretical Contributions and the Harmonic Influence from Jazz
26
Miles Davis and His Works with Gil Evans
27
Controversies Regarding the Melding of Styles
35
The Development and Works of the Third-Stream
37
Contemporary Examples of the Crossover in Styles
42
Specific Examples of this Crossover Within the Low Brass Repertoire
47
Conclusions and What This May Mean for the Development of Compositions Today
51
Bibliography
52
Discography
53
Abstract
This thesis will discuss the influence that jazz and classical music have had on one another. The
primary focus will be on material from the past fifty to sixty years, including specific examples to
demonstrate this influence. This would include symphonic pieces from the 1920's which were greatly
influenced by early jazz and ragtime, to the development of the third-stream style of jazz in the 1950's.
The focus of these examples is on a select few whose works have had a major impact on the
development of a co-influenced style.
Through providing examples from musicians and composers such as Charlie Parker, Igor
Stravinsky, Gunther Schuller, Leonard Bernstein, John Lewis, Miles Davis, Gil Evans, Charles Mingus,
and Claude Debussy; it is demonstrated just how significant the influence between these two styles
have been. These examples involve the compositions they have written, contributions they have made
to the development of jazz and twentieth century music, as well as what they have contributed in terms
of performance. As presented through these examples, it is clear how influential musicians from both
the jazz and classical elements have been towards each other.
Introduction and Early Influences to Jazz
The relationship between jazz and classical music is one where both have significantly
influenced one another, especially within the past 50 to 60 years. This is demonstrated by symphonic
pieces written in the 1920s which were greatly influenced by both jazz and ragtime, and that
contributed to the development of the third-stream style of jazz in the 1950s and 60s. Given this, there
are numerous composers and performers whose music falls within this co-influenced style.
This provides a broad range of works to examine, including those of Gunther Schuller, Charlie
Parker, Igor Stravinsky, and John Lewis, as well as several contemporary artists such as Yusef Lateef
and Wynton Marsalis. When referring to classical music within this context, it is not limited to the
period between 1760-1820 of Western music, but serving as a general term for thoroughly notated and
composed works.
Jazz in general developed as a melding of traditional African folk music and slave songs, with
European harmonies and instrumentation, most of which occurred in the area of Congo Square in New
Orleans, Louisiana, a seaport town that attracted many different cultures which led to the popular
predecessors of modern jazz, including ragtime, blues, and dixieland. It is from these styles, and
traveling musicians, that introduced these ideas and musical concepts throughout America.
Several of the musicians involved in the early developmental stages of jazz also had classical
training, either compositionally or instrumentally. Through their additional studies in these areas, they
were able to expand even further the development and popularization of jazz.
1
Jazz and the Music Scene in France
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel helped pioneer
the development of impressionistic music. This style would focus on extended harmonies by changing
the central focus from the melody to harmony color, overall tonal palate, textures, and motifs. The
extended harmonies which Debussy and Ravel were working with included expanding chords by using
7ths, 9ths, 11ths, and 13ths, which were defining features of their impressionistic works. These
compositional ideas were key within the categorization of impressionism1, which ultimately aimed to
create an entirely new sound in 19th century France. This was to follow an aesthetic which was more
flowing, almost mirroring the art impressionistic movement.
Debussy was influenced to some extent by ragtime; he applied this influence to his “Golliwog's
Cakewalk” which was part of his 1908 six-movement suite for solo piano, Children's Corner. This
piece was composed as a parody of blackface minstrel shows which were popular at the time.
Cakewalks were a type of dance performed within minstrel shows, and a golliwog was a type of
wooden doll from the late 1800's that parodied the blackface persona. Debussy's “Golliwog's
Cakewalk” incorporates these elements into his music, and presents itself within the six-movement
suite.
1 Impressionism was the aesthetic that became associated with musical works in the 1880's. The term came from Claude
Monet's 1873 painting Impression, Sunrise.
2
Illustration 1: m.10-14 of 'Golliwog's Cakewalk'
This excerpt from “Golliwog's Cakewalk” demonstrates the characteristic ragtime rhythm,
which includes a sixteenth-note preceding an eighth-note to create that syncopated rhythm over a bass
line of constant eighth-notes. A typical demonstration of this characteristic rhythm that is in ragtime
would be through Scott Joplin's The Entertainer (1902).
Illustration 2: m.5-8 of 'The Entertainer'
The group known as Les Six2 was mostly associated with a combination of neo-classicism and a
more light-hearted sound. A notable French poet, Jean Cocteau, wrote the essay “Cock and Harlequin”
in 1918 which stressed the idea that French music needs to move away from impressionism, German
romanticism, Russian paganism, and overly theatrical elements.
2 The six composers involved with Les six consisted of Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), Darius Milhaud (1892-1974),
Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), Germaine Tailleferre (1892-1983), Georges Auris (1899-1983), and Louis Durey (18881979). Most of the group met while attending as students at the Paris Conservatory.
3
According to Cocteau, the composer Erik Satie3 was a perfect example of writing a more
simplistic and “easy to listen to” sound, which he thought other styles did not convey. What is
significant about this is that Satie was a major influence for the group Les Six. Among the composers
in Les Six, Milhaud knew Satie best, and had met him in 1918.
The members of Les Six did not stay together for a long period of time. They began to give
concerts together under the name “Les Nouveaux Jeunes” in 1917, then in 1920 they were referred to
as Les Six after an article from Henri Collet4. They would then remain together collaborating until they
split up in 1922.
It was through Les Six that Darius Milhaud was first introduced to jazz while in London at the
Hammersmith dance hall. Upon being introduced to this new style, he made it a point to seek out
multiple jazz clubs and speakeasies5 in Harlem to hear the music at its source. He understood the
significance of jazz as related to the development of both European and classical music.
Two of his works, Le boeuf sur le toit Op.58 (1919) and La Création du Monde Op.81 (1923),
are ballets that incorporated the elements of jazz. La Création du Monde was composed based on a
scenario by Blaise Cendrars6 and began with a jazz fugue that was meant to represent a typical jazz riff.
This piece also served as one of the first concert works to be significantly influenced by jazz.
Another example of Milhaud's use of jazz would be within his piano work Caramel Mou Op.68
(1920). The rhythmic characteristics within this piece are most reminiscent of ragtime, which also
serves as a harmonic influence for the work.
3 Erik Satie (1866-1925) was in influential French composer, as well as pianist, and was an influence to a multitude of
subsequent composers.
4 Collet intended the name to be as a parallel to the Russian composers known as the Mighty Five.
5 Speakeasies were a type of nightclub in the 1920's.
6 Milhaud met Cendrars through his association with Les Six, as well as another collaborator for La Création du Monde,
Ferdinand Légar.
4
Illustration 3: m.1-4 of 'Caramel Mou'
An influential person that brought jazz to France and Europe was James Reese Europe (18811919; an important composer, arranger, and bandleader and was primarily associated with ragtime and
early big-band music. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, he was tasked with
organizing a band for the 369th Infantry Regiment that would be known as the Harlem Hellfighters, a
band of 60 African American musicians who were selected by audition.
While stationed in Europe, the Hellfighters performed numerous concerts throughout France
including a week of concert duty in Paris in September of 1918. In addition to performing for other
soldiers, Europe's band also performed for the people who lived in the towns where they were
stationed.
Prior to the performances with the Harlem Hellfighters of the 369th Infantry, Europe had another
group that he organized and directed which performed at Carnegie Hall in 1914. This was
unprecedented for the time due to racial segregation within the classical performance world. Europe's
group performed with the Clef Club, an orchestra formed in 1910, consisting of over 125 of the best
African American musicians in New York City.
5
American Composers and the Influence of Jazz
There were several American composers who were significantly influenced by the development
of jazz, and they incorporated this new sound into their own compositions. Three prominent examples
of this would be George Gershwin, Aaron Copland, and Leonard Bernstein. These composers not only
included jazz elements into their music, but through their works developed a unique American sound.
This resulted in American composers being more prominent, compared to European composers, in the
concert halls.
George Gershwin lived between 1898-1937 and wrote numerous popular songs as well as
several serious compositions which were heavily influenced by jazz including Rhapsody in Blue
(1924), Three Preludes (1926), An American in Paris (1928), and Porgy and Bess (1935). His other
influences included Stravinsky, Debussy, and Satie.
Rhapsody in Blue served as a breakthrough piece for both Gershwin and other American
composers, allowing their works to be performed in concert halls. Commissioned by Paul Whiteman,
Rhapsody in Blue premiered at Aeolian Hall in New York City, as part of the 1924 concert “Experiment
in Modern Music.” What led to Rhapsody in Blue being such a breakthrough piece was that it was
Gershwin's first attempt combining jazz and popular styles in such a large scale work.
Gershwin had described An American in Paris as being written as a symphonic tone poem7, that
is meant to portray an American visiting Paris. Through incorporating the element of blues, it is meant
to represent a sense of American culture.
Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess had first opened on Broadway in the fall of 1935, where it ran
for 124 performances. What led to its composition was Gershwin's desire to write an opera combined
7 A tone poem, or symphonic poem, is an orchestral work in which a poem or program is the basis and serves as the
overall narration of the piece.
6
with his interest in DuBose Heyward's novel Porgy8.
Aaron Copland was a Brooklyn composer who lived between 1900 and 1990. In his
compositions, Copland tried to create what he considered to be an American “sound,” which would
often include influences from folk melodies and jazz, while also making use of syncopation and
harmonic dissonances to create music that could be clearly distinguished as his. He studied with Nadia
Boulanger9 while he was in France, where his focus was on developing his own unique sound.
Regarding the influence from jazz, the best examples of this would be in his Music for Theater
(1925) and Piano Concerto (1927). Copland's Piano Concerto served as his last direct pursuits of
implementing jazz elements within his compositions.
Leonard Bernstein, who lived between 1918-1990, was a composer and conductor who wrote
several symphonic works which were clearly influenced by jazz. Some examples of this would be
Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs (1949), Symphony No.2 “The Age of Anxiety” (1949), Candide (1956), West
Side Story (1957), and Divertimento (1980). Bernstein intended the jazz influence within his works to
represent and reflect aspects of American culture and daily life. Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs was written
for Woody Herman and references Igor Stravinsky's Ebony Concerto. Similar to Stravinsky's Ebony
Concerto, Bernstein's Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs was also commissioned by Woody Herman. However,
Bernstein's piece was never performed by Herman's big band orchestra, since they disbanded by the
end of 1946. Instead, the piece was recorded by Benny Goodman and the Columbia Jazz Combo in
1963.
Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs is a three movement work scored for big band, in which each of the
movements features different instrumental combinations. The first movement, Prelude, features the
8 DuBose Heyward (1885-1940) published Porgy in 1925. It was adapted into a play in 1927 by Dorothy Heyward, and
then into an opera in 1935 by Gershwin.
9 Boulanger (1887-1979) had taught many of the major 20th century composers, as as being a composer, conductor, and
performer as a pianist and organist herself. Some of her most famous students include Aaron Copland, Ástor Piazzolla,
Philip Glass, Elliot Carter, and Quincy Jones. She was also the first woman to conduct several major orchestras in both
America and Europe.
7
brass and rhythm sections, the second movement, Fugue, features the saxophones, and the third
movement, Riffs, features a solo clarinet with the entire big band.
Illustration 4: m.97-105 from the 1st E♭ Alto Sax part of 'Prelude, Fugue, and Riffs'
This particular melodic line which is extracted from the second movement, Fugue, exhibits a typical
syncopated jazz rhythm.
Symphony No. 2 “The Age of Anxiety” was composed over two years between 1947-1949 and
was dedicated to Serge Koussevitzky, a composer and conductor with the Boston Symphony Orchestra.
One of the primary jazz influences in this work was from Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which is most
heard in the section, “The Masque.”
The title “The Age of Anxiety” comes from both W.H. Auden's poem of the same name and
refers to the sense of anxiety associated with McCarthyism10 of the 1950's. The association of anxiety
and McCarthyism was the blacklisting of artists with leftist ideas, and the general atmosphere
surrounding the “red scare.”11 Among the composers who were associated with Bernstein, Aaron
Copland was primarily affected. He described how this atmosphere, which was associated with the
10 McCarthyism involved accusations of disloyalty and treason within the United States. This ideology was against
anything remotely pro-communism and was also used as a means of restricting media and criticism against the
government.
11 The red scare was a sense of hysteria and fear of a potential rise in communism.
8
Cold War, proved to be detrimental to his artistic creativity.
Artists, by definition, hate all wars—hot or cold. But lately I've been thinking that the
cold war is almost worse for art than the real thing—for it permeates the atmosphere
with fear and anxiety. An artist can function at his best only in a vital and healthy
environment for the simple reason that the very act of creation is an affirmative gesture.
An artist fighting in a war for a cause he holds just has something affirmative he can
believe in. That artist, if he can stay alive, can create art. But throw him into a mood of
suspicion, ill-will, and dread that typifies the cold war attitude and he'll create nothing.12
In the article “The Age of Anxiety: A Great American Symphony during McCarthyism,” the
author Philip Gentry suggests that Bernstein's Symphony No. 2 “The Age of Anxiety” creates a cynical
and “antiheroic” piece which could represent the overall emotional tone of the United States. Later,
Bernstein would describe this piece as “my most American work.”13 This particular article goes on to
explain how Bernstein's Symphony No.2 embodies this feeling of anxiety which is demonstrated by
how Bernstein does not follow the typical form of the symphony or allow the work to fully reach a
climax, typical of symphonies.
“The Masque” movement has a strong jazz influence. The first movement was written during
Bernstein's concert tour of Israel. The other movements of the piece, however, were written in haste
when compared to “The Masque.” In this movement, Bernstein writes musical lines that are similar to
jazz riffs, which are exchanged between the piano and the celesta. It has been suggested that the
celesta is also used as a means to represent a sense of time running out; this adds to the overarching
theme of anxiety present throughout the entire symphony. The piano parts were inspired by John
Mehegan, a student of Art Tatum.
12 Gentry, Philip. "Leonard Bernstein's The Age of Anxiety: A Great American Symphony During McCarthyism."
American Music Fall Vol. 29.No. 3 (2011): 308-31. JSTOR. 309. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.
13 Gentry, Philip. "Leonard Bernstein's The Age of Anxiety: A Great American Symphony During McCarthyism."
American Music Fall Vol. 29.No. 3 (2011): 308-31. JSTOR. 310. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.
9
Jazz Interpretations of Classical Repertoire and the Inclusion of Quotations
One popular aspect of the combination of jazz and classical styles was the appearance of jazz
renditions of classical works. Many artists experimented with this, including Duke Ellington, Charles
Mingus, Miles Davis, the Swingle Singers, as well as many others. While their instrumentation varied,
their works employed the jazz idiom either rhythmically, harmonically, or through embellishing the
initial melodic content.
Looking as far back as the Baroque period, both the a cappella group, the Swingle Singers, and
the jazz pianist Donal Fox were influenced by Johann Sebastian Bach. In the case of the Swingle
Singers, they recorded jazz renditions of various Bach pieces for their debut album in 1963, Jazz
Sébastien Bach. Their arrangements on this release include the “swing” feel and syncopated rhythms, a
walking bass line, and drum set. Harmonically the main difference is in the walking bass line, as
compared to the original which was an alberti bass14. Donal Fox, as well as other musicians, have used
Bach for the basis of some jazz works. Fox specifically worked with blending baroque elements from
Bach with that of bebop.
There were several other composers whose works were used as the basis for a jazz
interpretation. Two examples of this would include Duke Ellington's version of Pyotr Tchaikovsky's
Nutcracker Suite and Miles Davis and Gil Evans' version of Porgy and Bess. While Porgy and Bess
was initially an opera composed by George Gershwin with a jazz influence, Davis and Evans'
arrangements illustrate the jazz element even more so, particularly in regards to the added element of
improvisation.
In addition to Ellington and Davis, Jelly Roll Morton also recorded Giuseppe Verdi's opera Il
Trovatore, as did Eubie Blake in regards to Richard Wagner's Tannhäusser and Frédéric Chopin's
14 An alberti bass is a left hand piano accompaniment distinguished by the use of arpeggios.
10
Funeral March. A later example would include the flautist Hubert Law, who in 1971 released an LP
titled The Rite of Spring, which would include multiple jazz renditions from composers such as Garbiel
Fauré, Debussy, Stravinsky, and Bach. Hubert Law also recorded his own version of Debussy's
“Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun.”
11
The Works of Charles Mingus
Charles Mingus' The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady (1963) includes quotes and references to
Edvard Grieg's Peer Gynt (1888), including the motif that is presented in “Morning Mood.” This work
was a multi-movement piece with six movements divided among four tracks on the album. The liner
notes were written by Mingus' psychologist, Dr. Edmund Pollock. Mingus had wanted him to act as an
alter ego and discuss his musical psychologically as compared to Mingus' own essay, which extensively
talks about the music.
Charles Mingus lived between 1922-1979 and was an accomplished bassist, composer, as well
as pianist. He had studied bass at age sixteen with Red Callender15, and then with Herman
Reinshagen16 for five years. He was also formally trained in orchestration, and had studied
compositional techniques with Lloyd Reese. While Mingus had initially studied singing and trombone
before switching to cello, he was convinced by Buddy Collete17 to switch to bass after being told that
he would never make it as a classical musician due to racial discrimination.
The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady is written as if it were to be accompanied by dancers,
which makes this a particularly distinct jazz album, in that its composition and construction is most like
programmatic music, where the focus is on the overall composition and what it is trying to convey. In
addition it is most like programmatic music because of its similarity to symphonic tone poems.
The six movements the piece are divided into include: “Track A – Solo Dancer,” “Track B –
Duet Solo Dancers,” “Track C – Group Dancers,” “ Mode D – Trio and Group Dance,” “Mode E –
Single Solos and Group Dance,” and lastly “Mode F – Group and Solo Dance.” Each of these
movements has a subtitle to them; “Stop! Look! And Listen, Sinner Jim Whitney!,” “Hearts' Beat and
15 George Callender (1916-1992) was a jazz bassist and tuba player, commonly known as Red Callender.
16 Herman Reinshagen (1854-1944) was the principal bassist for the New York Philharmonic.
17 Buddy Collete (1921-2010) was a woodwind player who specialized in tenor sax, flute, and clarinet.
12
Shades in Physical Embraces,”, “(Soul Fusion) Freedwoman and Oh, This Freedom's Slave Cries,”
“Stop! Look! And Sing Songs of Revolutions!,” “Saint and Sinner Join in Merriment on Battle Front,”
and “Of Love, Pain, and Passioned Revolt, then Farewell, My Beloved, 'til it's Freedom Day.” The last
three movements (modes D through F) of the piece were combined into the final, and fourth, track of
the album.
In the liner notes, Mingus and Pollock each include essays describing the developmental
process or an analysis of The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. In Mingus' essay, he discusses the
developmental process of the album as well as the musicians involved in it's recording.
Pollock discusses how he interprets the album, and the meanings that he sees behind each
section of the overall work. Within the opening of the first track, “Solo Dance,” the solo saxophone
represents a sense of deep mourning, and an intense loneliness. Pollock describes that line as of it were
speaking, “I am alone, please, please join me!”18
He describes the second movement as being more tender, and then changes the mood to
represent the conflict between love and hate. He then mentions how the trombone and saxophone lines
grabs the listeners attention with ideas regarding personal identity and how one can achieve this
accomplishment of acceptance.
In the third movement, he mentions how it begins almost sweetly and happy, but then “shifts
into tonal despair and brooding anguish.”19 This is first demonstrated through the piano opening and
the inclusion of the quote from Grieg's “Morning Mood” of Peer Gynt. As the movement progresses,
the texture becomes even more layered with a variety of different melodic lines played consecutively
creating elements of dissonance. When talking to Mingus he describes how his choice of using
Spanish guitar was meant to “mirror the period of the Spanish Inquisition and El Greco's mood of
18 The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. 20. CD/Print.
19 The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. 21. CD/Print.
13
oppressive poverty and death.”20 With the guitar playing an almost somber line into the texture, which
would be in the same nature as the mood associated with the Spanish inquisition and the themes which
El Greco portrays in his paintings.
Lastly, Pollock describes the last track of the album, or the last three movements, as
“develop[ing] all these themes in a very carefully worked out musical composition in concert style,
repeating and integrating harmony and disharmony, peace and disquiet, and love and hate.”21 This last
section of The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady culminates all of the ideas presented earlier on in the
album, and takes them to an entirely new level of depth.
Throughout the album there are several references to Grieg's Peer Gynt, most of which are
written through the inclusion of the primary motif from the movement “Morning Mood:”
Illustration 5: Primary motif from "Morning Mood" of Peer Gynt, excerpt from IMSLP.
The inclusion of this motif, and it's variations on it, are predominantly present within the third
movement “Group Dancers.”
In addition to The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, other works of his that were either more
orchestral or could be described as being closer to concert music include “Half Mast Inhibition” (1946),
20 The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. 21. CD/Print.
21 The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. 20. CD/Print.
14
“Meditations on Integration” (1965), “Music for 'Todo Modo'” (1976), “Three Worlds of Drums”
(1979), and “Something Like a Bird,” which was released posthumously in 1981 on the album of the
same name. For “Three Worlds of Drums” and “Something Like a Bird,” Mingus completed these and
supervised their recordings within the last year of his life. During this time he was confined to a
wheelchair.
15
The Works and Influence of Charlie Parker
In addition to creating jazz interpretations of classical works, jazz musicians would also
incorporate quotes from classical works into their improvisational solos, most notably done by Charlie
Parker. Compositions which he quoted include Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, Chopin's Minute Waltz,
Rossini's William Tell, Grofé's Grand Canyon Suite, Grieg's Peer Gynt, and Wagner's Tannhäusser. In
one of his performances in 1951, Parker had quoted part of the Firebird Suite upon spotting Igor
Stravinsky in the audience, during the solo in one of his own pieces, “Koko.”
Parker's love and interest in classical music led him to studying the scores of composers, such as
Stravinsky, which he would incorporate into his improvisational solos. One of the reasons which led to
Parker's increased interest in classical music was to expand his musical horizons and his own desire to
expand his art to a new level.
As an extremely influential saxophonist and composer, he was one of the leading figures in the
development of bebop. This interest and use of extended harmonies, as well as his desire to expand
upon his melodic lines and improvisational solos, would become a major focus point of bebop.
Charlie Parker was born August 29, 1921 in Kansas City, and as a child he listened to the
saxophonists Lester Young and Buster Smith. In regards to his early influences, Parker cited five
saxophonists, two of whom were not jazz players, Rudy Wiedoeft and Rudy Vallee, and three jazz
players including Frank Teschemacher, Jimmy Dorsey, and Bud Freeman. By the time he was fifteen,
he was learning jazz in the typical way by imitation. During this time that Parker would frequent the
area near the Reno Club in Kansas City so he could listen to the Basie Band perform.
In 1939 that Parker first came to New York City, with the intention of finding new jam sessions
in which to participate, listening to new music, and learning from these experiences. The first combo
he played with in New York was at Clark Monroe's Uptown House with the Jay McShann Band. In
16
1942 he would play tenor sax in Earl Hines' band, after being highly recommended by Billy Eckstine
and Bud Johnson. In 1944, Parker would have his first job as a bandleader at the Spotlight Club in
New York City. It was also the year that he began his association with Miles Davis.
As a result of drug and alcohol use, Parker saw that it was affecting him and making his playing
decline. Knowing the consequences, he would then try to constantly advise against others from doing
the same thing. After his daughter Pree died of pneumonia, his health declined until his death on
March 12, 1955 at age thirty-three.
Throughout his life, Parker was commonly known as either Yardbird, or just Bird. According to
Jay McShann, this name originated from when he was heading to a gig, his car hit a chicken which he
then preceded to take with him and then have it cooked for dinner.
During the late 1940's, Parker became dissatisfied with his soloing. He had always been
interested in advanced harmonies, and it was through these expanded harmonies that he developed his
distinct style. As a result, he continued to pursue the study of classical music and its related saxophone
techniques. From the late 1940's and his death in 1955, he made several public statements indicating
how classical music was a significant artistic inspiration for him, and how it presented a means for him
to expand upon his playing and to reach new artistic goals he had set for himself.
While Parker wanted to pursue the techniques of classical music, it did not at all take away from
the importance of jazz on it's own. An important point that Parker wanted to stress was the artistic
validity of jazz when compared to classical music, and that it wasn't any less valid of an art form. In
1953 as part of an article interview by Nat Hentoff22, Parker states; “They're different ways of saying
things musically, and don't forget, classical music has that long tradition. But in 50 or 75 years, the
contributions of present-day jazz will be taken seriously as classical music. You wait and see.”23 This is
22 Hentoff (b. 1925) has written and published several books on jazz, as well as being an associate editor of Down Beat
Magazine, which focuses on jazz, between 1953 and 1957.
23 Woideck, Carl. Charlie Parker: His Music and Life. United States of America: University of Michigan, 1996. 206. Print.
17
important to note because the study of these different styles, and reincorporating aspects of both within
a piece does not take away its validity, but does present a new way in which to bring across and state
new ideas through music.
Charlie Parker had admired several classical composers, most notably Igor Stravinsky and Béla
Bartók. During the 1950's he was introduced to the composer Stefan Wolpe24 through the clarinetist
Tony Scott. Parker would later approach Wolpe to write music for him with the idea that Norman
Granz25 would fund the commission. However Granz was not favorable towards the idea.
What drew Parker to these composers, such as Stravinsky, Bartók, and Wolpe, was that their
works, which were more avant-garde with their disjunct melodies similar to the types of melodies
presented in bebop. In bebop, the chord structures were based upon well known chord changes on
which musicians would improvise. Due to these disjunct melodies, bebop did not have the same level
of popularity as swing.
During this period, the musicians that Parker was working with included Dizzy Gillespie, Miles
Davis, Sarah Vaughan26, and John Lewis. Working with Gillespie, they practically dominated the jazz
scene between 1945 and 1950. Their particular collaboration was so influential because of their
performances and recordings. The collaboration between Gillespie and Parker resulted in the works
such as “Confirmation” and “Moose the Mooche” which were both written in 1946.
Two notably influential compositions from Parker include “Koko” (1945) and “Ornithology”
(1946). “Koko” was considered to be a turning point for jazz due to the immense popularity that it
gained upon its release. This recording was also Parker's first record as a leader of a group. As a bebop
tune it was based on the changes for “Cherokee,”27 which was written by Ray Noble in 1938, and was
24 Wolpe (1902-1972) was a German composer, who also taught at Long Island University's Post campus in the late 1950's
25 Granz (1918-2001) was a major figure in jazz as promoter who worked to getting venues integrated, starting the Jazz At
the Philharmonic, and having formed several record labels which published many significant jazz albums.
26 Vaughan (1924-1990) was a jazz vocalist who was also commonly known as “Sassy” and “The Divine One.”
27 “Cherokee” was a popular jazz standard written in 1938 by the English composer Ray Noble (1903-1978)
18
also recorded by Parker's idol Lester Young in 1939 with the Count Basie band.
“KoKo” and “Ornithology” served as major contributors to the development of bebop. While
“KoKo” is performed over the changes for “Cherokee”, “Ornithology” is performed over the chord
changes for “How High the Moon.”28
Illustration 6: m.25-32 from "Koko" (end of the head before the solo break) transcribed by Fred
Parcells.
“Koko” featured Parker on saxophone as well as Dizzy Gillespie on trumpet, where the head29
of the tune starts with them playing the melody together, followed by short section by each of them,
and then a return to the main melody before the piece goes into the improvisational solos. After their
improv solos, the chart returns to the head and then concludes, a typical format of bebop.
In 1949, Parker began recording sessions with strings, which included an ensemble of violins,
viola, cello, harp, oboe, and a rhythm section. He faced some criticism, since working with strings
became popular, and that by doing so he was accused of going “commercial.” However, with the
inclusion of strings Parker implemented a completely different approach to harmonic voicing as
compared to the typical jazz arrangements.
28 “How High the Moon” is a jazz standard that was written in 1940 by Morgan Lewis, and with lyrics by Nancy Hamilton.
It originated from the Broadway musical revue Two for the Show.
29 The “head” is a musicians term referring to the beginning of the tune.
19
Parker had a major influence on several musicians in regard to his tone quality, as well as his
harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic ideas. Some of these musicians included Miles Davis, J. J. Johnson,
Buddy DeFranco, Fats Navarro, Dexter Gordon, and Stan Getz.
In addition to emulating his playing, he also provided an inspiration for composers. One
example would be George Russel's “A Bird in Igor's Yard” which was recorded on April 23, 1949 by
Buddy DeFranco and his Orchestra30. This piece was designed as a tribute to both Charlie Parker and
Igor Stravinsky, and included polytonal harmonies, accented syncopations, as well as a polymeter
section of 3/4 against 4/4.
30 This 1949 recording, released as Buddy DeFranco – A Bird in Igor's Yard / This Time The Dream's On Me through
Capitol Records, consisted of:Paul Cohen, Jack Eagle, Bernie Glow, and James Pupa on trumpet; Earl Swope, Ollie
Wilson, and Bart Varsalona on trombone and bass trombone; Buddy DeFranco on clarinet; Lee Konitz, Frank Socolow
on alto saxophone; Al Cohen and Jerry Sanfino on tenor saxophone; Serge Chaloff on bari sax; Gene DiNovi on piano;
Oscar Pettiford on bass; and Irv Kluger on drums.
20
European Composers Who Have Had a Significant Impact on Jazz Musicians
As one of the most influential composers of the twentieth-century, Igor Stravinsky was also a
fan of jazz. Several of his compositions included prominent jazz influences, most notably his Ebony
Concerto (1945) which was written for and commissioned by Woody Herman and his orchestra.
Stravinsky was a Russian composer who lived between 1882 and 1971. Throughout his life, he
wrote numerous compositions which would be categorized within several compositional periods. This
would include his periods of nationalism, neoclassicism, and serialism.
The Ebony Concerto is a three movement (Allegro moderato – Andante – Moderato Con moto)
work with the instrumentation being that of a typical jazz ensemble31 with the addition of a solo B♭
clarinet, French horns, and harp. A distinct feature of this piece that, although it was commissioned for
a jazz ensemble, it does not include any improvisation.
31 A typical jazz ensemble would consist of E♭ alto saxophones, B♭ tenor saxophones, E♭ baritone saxophone, B♭
trumpets, trombones, piano, guitar, bass, and drums.
21
Illustration 7: Con moto at rehearsal mark [3] from the third movement of the Ebony Concerto.
Other compositions of his with this influence included Ragtime for Eleven Instruments (1918),
L'Historie du Soldat (1918), Piano Rag Music (1919), Symphony in Three Movements (1945), and The
Rake's Progress (1951). The three pieces between 1918 and 1919 had more of an influence from
ragtime, which was popular at the time (and a predecessor to jazz) while the later pieces between 1945
and 1951 had more of an influence from following the construction of eighteenth-century works with
contemporary harmonies.
On March 25, 1946, the Ebony Concerto premiered at Carnegie Hall and was performed by the
Woody Herman Orchestra. This piece would be categorized as being within his neo-classical period in
addition to also being considered within his modernist period.
Stravinsky's compositions have had an immense impact and influence on a multitude of jazz
musicians. What is likely the most notable influence from his works would be from his 1913 ballet,
22
The Rite of Spring. Upon it's debut in Paris as Le Secre du printemps at the Théâtre des ChampsÉlysées with Serge Diaghilev's dance company, Ballets Russes32, this piece has sparked controversy,
and even a riot at it's premiere. The intense rhythmic figures and dissonant harmonies, that when
paired with Vaslav Nijinsky33's choreography represent and depict a pagan Russia, the idea of creation
that is associated with Spring, and sacrifice that would be required for that creation to be possible.
Jazz musicians have since recorded and performed their own versions of The Rite of Spring, or
have included quotes from it within their own pieces and improvisations. Hubert Laws had recorded
his own rendition of The Rite of Spring, which was included on his 1971 album also titled The Rite of
Spring, this album was created with the arranger Don Sebesky34.
Returning to Charlie Parker, he also included direct quotes from The Rite of Spring within his
solos. In the 1947 recording of “Repetition” with Neal Hefti35, both Parker and the ensemble he is
playing with quote the French horn solo that starts at the rehearsal number 25 in the “Augurs of Spring”
segment of The Rite of Spring.
Illustration 8: Corno I in FA from rehearsal 25 in Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, excerpt from IMSLP.
This segment is first quoted within the melody of the ensemble almost half-way through the
recording, which then leads into Parker quoting the same excerpt at the beginning of his solo. The
32 Ballets Russes was a ballet company established by Serge Diaghilev (1872-1929), between 1909-1929, disbanding after
Diaghilev's death.
33 Vaslav Nijinsky (1889-1950) was a Russian ballet dancer and choreographer.
34 Don Sebesky (b.1937) is a jazz trombonist and arranger.
35 Neal Hefti (1922-2008) was a jazz trumpet player, composer, as well as a songwriter and arranger. He had composed the
original theme for the 1960's Batman TV series.
23
incorporation of this motif, as well as Parker's and other jazz musicians interest in of Stravinsky's
works and scores, demonstrates just how influential Stravinsky's compositions have been.
Another example of a classical composers being commissioned by a jazz musician would be
Béla Bartók. In 1938 Bartók had written and dedicated the three movement work Contrasts for Benny
Goodman and Joseph Szigeti. In 1940 it was recorded by Goodman on clarinet, Szigeti on violin, and
Bartók on piano. The instrumentation of this piece consisted of viola, clarinet in A, and piano. This
piece exhibits dance melodies primarily from Hungary and Romania, although the work doesn't really
exhibit elements reminiscent of jazz. Contrasts is split into the three movements; I. Verbunkos
(Recruiting Dance), II. Pihenő (Relaxation), and III. Sebes (Fast Dance).
Within Bartók's Mikrokosmos36 which was composed between 1926-1939, No.151 Six Dances
in Bulgarian Rhythm IV demonstrates some influence from Gershwin. Throughout the entire
Mikrokosmos collection, there are prominent influences from folk music. Many of the piano pieces
included within Mikrokosmos were first performed in 1937.
Illustration 9: m.1-4 of 'Mikrokosmos' Book 6, No.151, excerpt from IMSLP.
Bartók was a notable Hungarian composer who composed several works which often did not
36 Mikrokosmos was written between 1926-1939, it consists of 153 progressive piano pieces that were initially compiled
within six volumes.
24
follow the standard diatonic system of harmony. He was one of the developers of ethnomusicology, as
noted through his collections and studies of folk music. He considered it an important goal to
transcribe transcribing folk music, as well as recording it for further reference and study. He would
also frequently include aspects of folk music, as well as various sounds from nature into his
compositions.
25
Theoretical Contributions and the Harmonic Influences from Jazz
Harmonically, a prominent aspect that is characteristic of jazz is the use of seventh chords,
potentially including extensions of the authentic cadence of the chord progression, as well as the
inclusion of augmented, diminished, and major-minor chords. Another crucial harmonic aspect of jazz
is its use of tonality through modes, which also goes beyond the Ionian mode to include the use of the
pentatonic scale, whole-tone scale, mixolydian, dorian, and the half-diminished scales.
In 1953, George Russell published the book Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization
which was the first major published theoretical contribution from jazz, that had provided an
introduction to modal improvisation. The main concept behind this is that instead of the
improvisational solos being based upon multiple changes, it is instead being based on the modal scales,
such as dorian or lydian, with the chord changes being more infrequent. This would play a key factor
in modal jazz, as well as the related categories of “Cool” and third-steam.
As the book focuses on the lydian mode, Russell goes to describe the significance of this:
The Seven Principal Scales of the Lydian Chromatic Scale produce all the traditionally
definable chords of Western music theory. In Concept terms, they can be understood as
the parent scales—scales of origin and unity—for all traditionally definable chords. The
first of these seminal scales on which the Lydian Chromatic Concept is founded ad the
most ignoring of Principal Scales—the Lydian Scale.37
Through this excerpt from Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Harmony, Russell goes on to how the
lydian scale itself has seven modes, one to each scale degree, similar to the modes which are relative to
the major scale.
37 Russell, George. Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization. 4th ed. Vol. One: The Art and Science of Tonal
Gravity. Brookline, Massachusetts: Concept, 2004. 11. Print.
26
Miles Davis and His Work with Gil Evans
Miles Davis was influential in the development of multiple styles within jazz, and was the
leading figure within “Cool” and “Fusion.” He was born May 26, 1926 in Illinois, and grew up in East
St. Louis. In 1944, at age eighteen he moved to New York and briefly attended Julliard before
dropping out to pursue the jazz scene.
While Davis was attending Julliard, he had made it a point to borrow and study various scores
from composers such as Sergei Prokofiev, Alban Berg, and Igor Stravinsky. He did this so that he
would be exposed to a multitude of different styles and musical ideas.
During the early part of his career, Davis worked with many musicians including Colman
Hawkins, with whom he performed and recorded. It was in 1945 that he started to perform and record
with Charlie Parker, a collaboration that lasted until The Birth of the Cool which was released in 1957.
By 1948, Davis had put together a group that would be known as the Birth of the Cool band,
which would subsequently lead to the development and recording of the album which was eventually
released in 1957. Much of the compositions during this period were much more orchestral in their
nature. This would be demonstrated through their orchestrations, and the way in which the melodic
lines were composed and presented.
“Most of the early-to-mid 1950s experiments with modality came from musicians who
were primarily composers, like George Russell, or virtuoso performers, like bassist
Charles Mingus and vibraphonist Teddy Charles, with serious compositional
aspirations.”38
The Birth of the Cool marks a distinct transition into a new style of jazz, where the focus is now
38 Davis, Miles. Kind of Blue. Comp. Rob DuBoff, Mark Vinci, Mark Davis, and Josh Davis. Milwaukee, WI: Hal-Leonard
Corporation, 2001. 8. Print.
27
on the use of modal scales rather than chord changes for improvisation. When the album recordings
were first heard by George Avakian39, he compared the music to that of French impressionistic
composers, such as Ravel and Debussy.
For recording the album, Miles Davis worked with musicians such as J.J. Johnson, Kai
Winding40, Bill Barber, Lee Konitz, John Lewis, Max Roach41, Gunther Schuller, Gerry Mulligan, and
several others. The instrumentation for this recording, which took place between 1949-1950, went
beyond what was typical of jazz at the time. This involved the inclusion of French horn, tuba, and how
the other instruments were employed and voiced. The use of these orchestrations, is one signature
aspect of “Cool” jazz.
Miles Davis first met Gil Evans in 1947, which during this time Evans was writing for the
Claude Thornhill Orchestra. Evans was born in Canada in 1912 and began his career as a self taught
musician and arranger. Between 1941 and 1948 he was arranging for Thornhill's Orchestra, which
which would result in arrangements such as Anthropology, Donna Lee, Yardbird Suite, and Robbin's
Nest. It was through these arrangements that Evans was expanding upon the typical big band
instrumentation, adding two French horns and a tuba into the group and overall sound of the music.
Evans demonstrated his ability as a gifted arranger by his unique use of voicing, and exploring
using sounds and instruments that were uncommon to jazz. Several of his arrangements dealt with a
more orchestral approach, both with which instruments were included within the overall texture and
how the lines for these parts were written. Through his work with Miles Davis he also adapted the
more classical works Porgy and Bess, as well as Concierto de Aranjuez into a jazz setting, while
maintaining a sense of the original works.
His collaborations with Gil Evans was one that resulted in a multitude of influential releases.
39 George Avakian (b.1919) was an American record producer.
40 Kai Winding (1922-1983) was a jazz trombonist, he had worked extensively with J.J. Johnson.
41 Max Roach (1924-2007) was an influential percussionist, drummer, and composer, particularly during the bebop period
acting as a pioneer of it's development.
28
This includes Miles Ahead (1957), the interpretation of George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess
(1959), and Sketches of Spain (1960). These three recordings would be categorized within thirdstream, as well as “Cool,” and modal jazz. This is due to the more orchestral approaches to these
albums, both through their instrumentation and compositional aspects.
Miles Ahead was recorded and released in 1957, and was also Davis' first collaboration with Gil
Evans. For this album, Miles Davis plays flugelhorn throughout the entire recording. Miles Ahead is
commonly referred to as the most famous release within the third-steam style, and features works from
Dave Brubeck, Kurt Weil, J.J. Johnson, among several others.
Kind of Blue was recorded and released in 1959, in addition to Miles Davis on trumpet, it
featured Julian “Cannonball” Adderly on alto sax, John Coltrane on tenor sax, Bill Evans on piano,
Paul Chambers on bass, Jimmy Cobb on drums, and Wynton Kelly on piano for “Freddie Freeloader.”
The entire album references elements from multiple styles of jazz including modal jazz, third-stream,
cool, bebop, swing, blues, and ballads. This combination of all these elements within the album
created new opportunities on how to approach playing jazz.
In an interview with Len Lyons, editor of Down Beat42 in the 1970s, Bill Evans describes Miles
Davis' Kind of Blue as organizing and clarifying these various ideas that were already present in jazz.
Most iconoclasts are contributors to progress, but usually it's the person who organizes
things – an eclectic who comes along and organizes the work of a few iconoclasts. It
really happens a lot in music. One example would be Debussy and Ravel who
crystallized and brought to real refinement the raw conception that Satie had.43
The opening track of the album, “So What,” has become an extremely well known jazz chart, in
addition to being one of the most famous third-stream charts. It begins with a prelude and then follows
42 Down Beat is an American jazz magazine that has been in publication since 1934.
43 Kahn, Ashley. Kind of Blue: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece. New York: Da Capo, 2000. 187. Print.
29
an AABA form where the A sections are based on the D dorian mode and the B sections on the E♭
dorian mode. The prelude is written almost as an impressionistic opening that is played on the
recording as somewhat out of tempo when compared to the rest of the piece.
The prelude introduction was written by Gil Evans, which was then performed and recorded by
Bill Evans on piano and Paul Chambers on bass, before the rest of the ensemble enters with the main
tune. This opening can be compared to Claude Debussy's Voiles, which was part of his Préludes for
piano.
Illustration 10: m.10-17 of “Voiles,” excerpt from IMSLP.
Debussy's Violes begins with a theme of an eighth-note followed by thirty-second notes to a
30
quartet note, all of which are augmented thirds. This is repeated several times, and the particular
section starting at measure 10 can be most connected to the opening of “So What.”
Within the first measure of “So What,” Evans implements a similar harmonic aspect, of also
using and presenting augmented thirds in succession for the harmonization of the introduction. Both
works use this element of tension in a very similar way before resolving, and then implementing it
again.
Even within the nature of the bass, they are including at least to some extent, aspects of
chromaticism and the use of dissonances in a way that is not necessarily harsh, but closer to an
impressionistic way of obscuring the tonality.
Illustration 11: m.1-3 of "So What," from the transcribed folio of 'Kind of Blue'.
The similarities between “So What” and Violes are also demonstrated through these examples of
extended chord structures, with the nature of how they are presented imitate the impressionistic style.
A further example of how Evans demonstrates this impressionistic aspect is through a following
section in measures 7-8 of the opening. Through this excerpt, Evans is predominantly using seventh
31
chords which are presented over a sustained bass of a D throughout this whole chord progression.
Illustration 12: m.7-8 of "So What," from the transcribed folio of 'Kind of Blue'.
This part in particular is most reminiscent of typical impressionistic harmonies, creating the
dream-like aesthetic that composers such as Debussy sought to achieve. Evans achieves this through
obscuring the tonality as far as the key, with the use of extended harmonies within the chord structures.
Using these elements, Evans is able to emulate aspects of the impressionistic aesthetic.
Additionally, in 1961 there was an orchestral performance of “So What” at Carnegie Hall,
which involved twenty one performers. In this version, the opening prelude is expanded as far as
instrumentation where brass and woodwinds are playing with the bass line, in contrast to the original
recording being just the bass and piano. Another change in regards to this version is the drastic tempo
change from the original, with it being a lot faster in comparison.
Sketches of Spain features a recording of the second movement to Joaquin Rodrigo's44
Concierto de Aranjuez, the Adagio. It was Rodrigo's piece, which was introduced to Davis through Joe
Mondragon45, that was the inspiration and ultimately the reason for the album's creation. Within this
piece, as well as throughout the entire record, Davis uses both the trumpet and flugelhorn.
For this album, Gil Evans includes an extensive range of instruments to create the texture that
would most clearly represent the atmosphere of the works, such as Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez.
44 Rodrigo (1901-1999) was a Spanish composer, the Concierto de Aranjuez was written for classical guitar and orchestra.
45 Mondragon (1920-1987) was a jazz bassist.
32
This includes flute, clarinet, bass clarinet, oboe, bassoon, French horn, flugelhorn, trumpet, trombone,
tuba, string bass, and percussion.
Davis was also featured on the recording of Jimmy Giuffre's Pharaoh, which was originally
released on Music for Brass (1957). This piece centers around a similar modal area as Davis' own
Sketches of Spain. Throughout both of these works, there is an overarching orchestral element present,
that when combined with the similar tonalities presented, allow for these two pieces to have distinct
atmospheres within third-steam.
The arrangement of Porgy and Bess that Miles Davis and Gil Evans did together takes the
opera's music and arranges it for a smaller ensemble than the original instrumentation, and allowing
room for improvisational solos to occur. One example of how Gil Evans did this was with “I Loves
You Porgy,” where Evans takes the melody of the song and just has two chords for the accompanying
voices and scales for Davis to solo over.
In Miles Davis' autobiography he describes this specific example;
He wrote an arrangement for me to play on “I Loves You Porgy” and he wrote a scale
that I was supposed to play. No chords. He had used two chords for the other voicing,
and so my passage of scales with those two chords gives you a lot of freedom and space
to hear other things.46
He describes that he was listening to several composers such as of Aram Khachaturian, introduced to
him by Bill Evans who made use of different scales and modes in their pieces. These compositional
devices allowed the performer and listener to hear these scales and modes, and also comment on how at
the time most jazz musicians were still more focused on the chord changes. Davis goes on to say “The
musicians were giving me tunes with chords all the time, and at the time I didn't want to play them.
46 Davis, Miles, and Quincy Troupe. Miles: The Autobiography. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo: Simon and
Schuster, 1989. 230. Print.
33
The music was too thick.”47
The arrangements of Miles Davis and Gil Evans, while they were more orchestral, allowed for a
more open sound through the use of scales and modal improvisation. This same concept also applies to
the other albums which Miles released during this time period.
47 Davis, Miles, and Quincy Troupe. Miles: The Autobiography. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo: Simon and
Schuster, 1989. 230. Print.
34
Controversies Regarding the Melding of Styles
This melding of styles, however, did face some controversy, with people who could be
considered purists from both sides having their own opinions. Primarily this was regarding the idea
that combining these elements would make the music less valid as “serious” composed music, or less
valid as far as jazz. What led to these thoughts on the crossover in styles and the ideas that these works
are somehow less valid was the idea that a melding and fusion of styles would make it less authentic in
some ways. This would be with the idea that by incorporating elements from other styles, it would take
away from it's initial style.
In 1947, the Esquire Jazz Book published the conflict that Leonard Bernstein and Gene Krupa
had regarding this subject of melding styles and techniques. This particular subject, which is pursued
by both Bernstein and Krupa, is in regards to the question of “has jazz influenced the symphony?”
The main idea that Krupa was expressing was that the approach to jazz from a classical
musician would not be fully grasping the concept, when compared to a jazz musician. He also states
that “And jazz cannot be approached from the outside. It cannot be approached synthetically and
artificially. Above all, it cannot be approached unsympathetically.”48 Krupa also goes on to discuss
how he has not heard any orchestral works which would have a clear influence from jazz. For this he
cites Stravinsky, Milhaud, and even Gershwin who would be typically considered one of the more
recognized composers for having a jazz influence on their works. However, Krupa describes and
criticizes these works as not being a genuine derivative of jazz.
Regarding Bernstein's view on the matter, he advocated how jazz played an integral role in
influencing symphonic works. While he does admit that works from Stravinsky (in regards to his
Ebony Concerto) and even Gershwin may not have been the most fluid crossover in styles, jazz has still
48 Albright, Daniel. Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004. 400. Print.
35
had a major influence on them. Bernstein describes those works as, “In neither case was a real
integration attained.”49 but it was through these works that composers went towards developing an
American sound. Prior to this, most American composers were trying to imitate the styles of 19th
century European composers. He describes how during the 1920s composers were having distinctly
jazz influences, which were presented by having syncopated rhythms over a steady bass line. When
this article was published in the late 1940s, these similar rhythmic influences were incorporated in
sections that were not as forward with it's jazz influence, however still display an influence within the
context of the piece.
Even if a jazz influence is not as clearly there, Bernstein says how it still plays a distinct impact
on the composition and development of the piece. In regards to his own work, he describes that while
the scherzo of his Symphony No.1 “Jeremiah” (1942) does not display any attributes of jazz for the
listener, “...and yet it could never have been written if jazz were not an integral part of my life.”50
49 Albright, Daniel. Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004. 403. Print.
50 Albright, Daniel. Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004. 403. Print.
36
The Development and Works of the Third-Stream
Third-stream was a style which served more as being a direct fusion of jazz and classical
elements, where it had the improvisational, rhythmic, and harmonic aspects of jazz combined with
techniques and the instrumentation of thoroughly composed works. The term itself was coined by
Gunther Schuller, one of the main composers involved with its development, at a lecture he was giving
in 1957 at Brandeis University.
In addition to Schuller, other notable musicians involved with the development of this style
include John Lewis (and the Modern Jazz Quartet), George Russell, Mike Zerewin, Dave Brubeck,
Jimmy Giuffre, Lenny Tristano, Lee Konitz, Miles Davis (and his collaborations with Gil Evans), and
J.J. Johnson. One purpose of this style was to bring jazz and classically composed works together in a
way in which their influences balanced each other out, and trying to avoid one style being more
prominent than the other.
Schuller considered third-stream to primarily be a balanced fusion of those two elements. In an
article published by Bruce Brubaker in 2011 through Perspectives of New Music, “Surrounded By This
Incredible Vortex of Musical Expression: A Conversation With Gunther Schuller,” Schuller mentions
the following;
But there are so many ways of doing third stream … Insofar as one combines or fuses or
cross-fertilizes two mainstreams, two traditions, my only criterion was that this must be
done with the utmost respect of both traditions. This was in the original vision that I
had. And that it be done at the highest creative level and with almost perfect balance of
the two things that are being merged. So it isn't a lopsided affair where you have an
overbalance, let's say of the classical element and not very effective, or not
37
quantitatively enough use of the jazz side, or vice versa.51
The album The Birth of the Third Stream, which was recorded and compiled from various
performances between 1956 and 1957, included works from John Lewis, J.J. Johnson, George Russell,
Charles Mingus, Jimmy Giuffre, and Gunther Schuller. The specific works included are “Three Little
Feelings,” “Poem for Brass,” “All About Rosie,” the first movement of “Revelations,” “Suspensions,”
“Symphony for Brass and Percussion,” “Transformation,” and “Pharaoh.”
J.J. Johnson, born in 1924, was an innovative and revolutionary trombonist in his playing, that
through his technique was able to maintain the trombone as a major instrument in the bebop period.
Early influences on his playing, and overall music in general, included Lester Young, Charlie Parker,
and Dizzy Gillespie. Fred Baker was also a major influence to Johnson, as he was the first trombonist
which he heard to be playing more linear lines within his improvisation. This was in contrast to how it
would typically be more common to hear some licks as far as the focus of the solo. This lyrical
approach to improvisation, which was also present within Young's playing, served as a major influence
for Johnson.
In addition to his contributions to bebop with his distinct trombone technique, he also wrote
several compositions which delved into the third-steam style. This would include his “Poem for Brass”
(1956) which was for a twenty one-person ensemble, as well as his later more orchestral works Sketch
for Trombone and Orchestra and “El Camino Real.” The two later pieces were both commissioned by
the Montery Jazz Festival in 1959.
Johnson had done a lot of work with the trombonist Kai Winding, that between their
collaboration had released a number of albums together. While their group would initially break up
during 1956, they would then have several reunions in the future. Their first album, Jay and Kai, was
51 Brubaker, Bruce. "Surrounded by This Incredible Vortex of Musical Expression: A Conversation with Gunther Schuller."
Perspectives of New Music Winter 49.1 (2011): 172-81. JSTOR. 176-199 . Web. 26 Oct. 2014.
38
released in 1954 while their last album, Stronebone, would be released in 1969. From this
collaboration with Winding, the J.J. Johnson – Kai Winding Quintet would gain a massive amount of
popularity. While the trombonists had completely different styles and overall sound to their playing,
they blended together for a unique sound.
In addition to doing much work with Kai Winding and the quintet that they co-lead, Johnson
also had worked with many musicians who were also innovators in their own musical pursuits. His first
recorded solo was on “Love for Sale,” which was with Benny Carter in 1943. In the following year he
would be part of the Jazz at the Philharmonic, being in the lineup for The First Concert that was also
recorded on July 2, 1944.
Because of his “rapid” style of playing on slide trombone, it was compared to the technique
used on valve trombone. However, in an interview with Bob Bernotas that was published through the
Online Trombone Journal, Johnson sates how he had no intention of imitating a valved instrument. His
playing demonstrated how virtuosic the trombone could be, where at points in his career he was able to
play “as fast as physically possible”52 for the instrument. In another interview that was published in
Jazz Spoken Here: Conversations with Twenty-Two Musicians, Bob Brookmeyer describes how
Johnson was able to project his lower range and darker timbre of the trombone, which sometimes with
other musicians can be almost swallowed up by the rest of the band. Brookmeyer also attributes
Johnson to being the one responsible for translating the bop style to the trombone, as well as comparing
him to other artists such as Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker.
Towards the end of his life, Johnson was dealing with a multitude of heath problems in addition
to having been diagnosed with prostate cancer. On February 4, 2001 he committed suicide. Through
his life he had influenced numerous musicians, and his work continues to do so for composers and
52 Bernotas, Bob. "An Interview with J. J. Johnson." An Interview with J. J. Johnson. Online Trombone Journal, 1995,
1999. Web.
39
performers to this day.
John Lewis, who lived between 1920-2001, was a major figure as a composer, pianist, and
arranger, as well as being a crucial figure in the development of third-steam. He was the musical
director of The Modern Jazz Quartet, and had co-founded the Modern Jazz Society with Gunther
Schuller. From having been in Dizzy Gillespie's band, John Lewis had taken to following the examples
of the importance of rehearsing on a strict time schedule, presentation of the ensemble for a
performance, and overall respecting the audience. It was these aspects which were just some of the
contributions that he brought towards the Modern Jazz Quartet.
The Modern Jazz Quartet was founded by John Lewis, Milt Jackson, Percy Heath, and Kenny
Clarke in 1952. They were distinct in their performances and recordings of multiple third-steam works,
as well as it being responsible in a sense for bringing jazz to be performed in a wider variety of venues
than were previous unavailable. Some of the albums that they recorded include Concord (1955),
Django (1956), Fontessa (1956), and Pyramid (1959).
As one of the leading figures in the development of third-stream, Gunther Schuller (b. 1925)
had a prominent background in both jazz and classical studies. This is through his works as a
composer, performer, and his multiple written scholarly works regarding jazz, it's history, and elements
on it's musical construction.
As a French horn player, in 1943 he performed with the American Ballet Theatre, between
1943-1945 with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, and also with the Metropolitan Opera until 1959.
He also played on the recording sessions for Miles Davis' The Birth of the Cool, which took place
between 1949-1950, and was ultimately released in 1957.
In an article published in Perspectives of New Music, Bruce Brubaker conducts an interview
with Gunther Schuller in which one of the topics discussed is the possible crossover of twelve-tone
music and third-steam. Schuller describes hearing at the 1953 Donaueschingen Festival, among
40
hearing The Edelhagen Band performing Stravinsky's Ebony Concerto, a young musician Franz von
Klenk performing. Klenk was fascinated with twelve-tone music, and had set a project for himself of
studying a specific twelve-tone row for approximately half a year and would work towards improvising
on that row. To improvise over a twelve-tone row, he would take a few notes from the row and alter the
playing sequence. While this would not directly follow the strict confines of a tone row in twelve-tone
music, it uses the row as a method of experimenting and improvising with a thematic idea. Schuller
described this as a possible direction in which third-stream could go, as in the article he indicates that it
may not be limited to just jazz and classical, but more as a balanced fusion between two different
idioms.
Further example of third-stream works would include Dave Brubeck's Dialogues for Jazz
Combo and Symphony Orchestra (1959) and Points for Jazz (1960). Both of these pieces exhibit the
harmonic aspect of jazz, while their construction and instrumentation is within the classical and
orchestral area. The performances of these pieces include Dialogues for Jazz Combo and Symphony
Orchestra with the New York Philharmonic with Leonard Bernstein conducting, and Point on Jazz
being performed with the American Ballet Theatre.
41
Contemporary Examples of the Crossover in Styles
Within contemporary music, the inclusion of jazz harmonies and rhythms had become much
more popular, resulting in numerous pieces within this co-influenced style between jazz and classical
compositional forms.
John Zorn, born in 1953, is a saxophonist and composer whose focus is primarily within the
avant-garde. In 1999 he released an album of four pieces, The String Quartet, which were all with a
more contemporary classical style. All of the pieces were initially commissioned by the Kronos String
Quartet53, as well as being performed by them. The four pieces on the album include “Cat O' Nine
Tails,” “The Dead Man,” “Memento Mori,” and “Koi Nidre.” Each of these pieces demonstrates a
variety of string techniques, which demonstrate the extensive range of sounds which the instruments
can produce. While harmonically they do not include elements from jazz to create a melded style,
these do serve as example of a composer who primarily works within avant-garde jazz creating a work
that is avant-gard in the classical modernist sense but with no elements of jazz influence for the listener.
Even within the “Fusion” style, which is primarily the combination of jazz and rock elements,
there are several groups which also include elements of more classical or orchestral influences. One
distinct example of this would be Mahavishnu Orchestra's 1974 album Apocalypse. This album
exhibits a orchestral instrumentation with their own instrumentation of guitar, bass, keyboards, and
drums, layered alongside them recording with the London Symphony Orchestra.
This combination of orchestral elements with the characteristics typical of “Fusion” create a
unique sound which itself is much different than just the combination of jazz and classical elements.
Other performers and groups within the “Fusion” style which also expresses this include a variety of
53 The Kronos Quartet formed in 1973 and has been a driving force in chamber music and contemporary compositions.
42
releases from the group King Crimson54.
Yesef Lateef was a multi-instrumentalist and composer, who lived between 1920-2013. The
instruments which he focused on were primarily woodwinds, including flute, tenor saxophone, oboe,
and bassoon. In addition to being a notable performer and composer, he was also an avid educator for
jazz and music in general. He possessed three post-graduate degrees including a masters in music
education from Manhattan School of Music in 1969, and a doctorate degree from the University of
Massachusetts in 1975. Lateef advocated that young and aspiring musicians partake in both thorough
academic studies of music, as well as get experience through workshops and seminars.
In 1993 he wrote the work, which is considered as a tone poem, African American Epic Suite.
This originated as Adam Rudolph suggesting to the German producer Ulrich Kurth in 1992, that Lateef
be commissioned to wrote a work for orchestra and quintet. This would end up including Lateef
performing with the Eternal Wind Quintet.
African American Epic Suite is a four movement work that is meant to represent three centuries
of African and African American history. In the earlier parts of the piece, the sounds that Lateef uses
are meant to represent the African background in regards to the slave trade and voyage across the
Atlantic Ocean. As the piece progresses, Lateef describes how, “The later movements are more
triumphant, showcasing black resistance and creativity.”55
One current example of this cross relationship between the two styles is the work of composer
and multi-instrumentalist, Toby Driver. He studied under Yusef Lateef while attending Hampshire
College. He is most known for his involvement in the avant-garde bands Kayo Dot and maudlin of the
Well56. The influence of the harmonic and rhythmic aspects of jazz with the compositional and
54 King Crimson is a progressive rock group which was initially active between 1968-1974, and has since had multiple
reunions, and changing of personnel, up to the present day.
55 Lateef, Yuseff, and Herb Boyd. The Gentle Giant: The Autobiography of Yuseff Lateef. Irvington, NJ: Morton, 2006.
165. Print.
56 maudlin of the Well was an American avant-garde metal band which was active between 1996-2003, which also
explored chamber music elements and extended harmonies within their sound.
43
thoroughly written out aspects of classical composition are most prominent through some of the
releases of Kayo Dot. The specific releases where this is the case are Dowsing Anemone with Copper
Tongue (2006), Blue Lambency Downward (2008), Coyote (2010), and “Stained Glass” (2011). In
addition to these specific releases, there are elements from a jazz harmonic structure included on other
albums in varying degrees.
Regarding “Stained Glass,” in an article published through ASCAP57, Toby Driver discusses the
compositional process to the development of the piece. This piece was through-composed58, with the
intent of creating a sound that signifies stained glass; and as Driver writes in the article “reverberated
clusters of glassy minor and major seconds perpetually hung over the music like licensed air.”
Harmonically, “Stained Glass” makes use of extended chord structures, which create an atmospheric
sound with the inclusion of chords and other harmonic aspects that would be characteristic of jazz.
The album Blue Lambency Downward includes a multitude of harmonic influences that are
distinctly influenced by the harmonic approach primarily implemented within jazz. This album
involves a prominent use of woodwinds, including flute, soprano and bass clarinets, as well as alto,
tenor, and baritone saxophones. This combination of textures in addition to the vocals, guitar, violin,
and extended percussion section, create a unique atmosphere. Out of Kayo Dot's releases, Blue
Lambency Downward has the most prominent harmonic influence from jazz.
Similar influences to these two releases, Blue Lambency Downward and “Stained Glass,” are
also present within their releases of Coyote and Dowsing Anemone in Copper Tongue. Regarding the
tracks on Dowsing Anemone in Copper Tongue, this is accomplished through the use of extended
chords, but also in the nature of how certain intervals are presented. One example of this would be
with the first track, “Gemini Becoming The Tripod,” where the harmonies presented from the brass,
57 American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers which was founded in 1914.
58 Through-composed music can refer to works that have a continuous musical thought, that unlike strophic works does not
divide into different sections, but instead flows and develops smoothly based on the composers ideas.
44
when played over the sustained guitar chords. These same thematic characteristics are present within
the following tracks “Immortelle And Paper Caravelle,” “Aura On An Asylum Wall,” to some extent
will within the “__ On Limpid Form,” and the final track “Amaranth The Peddler.”
Other works of Driver which also exhibit similar qualities with the presence of a jazz influence
include is releases which were under the moniker Tartar Lamb. This would include the albums Sixty
Metonymies (2007) and Polyimage of Known Exits (2011).
Wynton Marsalis is an example of someone who is a trumpet player and performer in both the
jazz and classical idioms. In addition, he is known for speaking out and advocating for jazz to be
accepted as America's classical music.
Marsalis was born in 1961 in New Orleans, Louisiana, and as a young musician at age fourteen
he had performed with the New Orleans Philharmonic. In 1979 he moved to New York City to attend
Julliard, and then in 1980 would join the Jazz Messengers to study with Art Blakey59. Throughout his
career Marsalis has also performed with the New York Philharmonic, Los Angeles Philharmonic,
Boston Pops, Cleveland Orchestra, Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra, and the London Royal
Philharmonic.
In 1987 Wynton Marsalis co-founded Jazz at Lincoln Center, which, since it's establishment,
has grown to be recognized as among the top performing groups including the New York Philharmonic
and the Metropolitan Opera. Currently he is also the musical jazz director of the Jazz at Lincoln Center
Orchestra.
In addition to being a performer and musical director, Marsalis has also written multiple
compositions which demonstrate both jazz and classical styles. Most notably including Jazz: Six
Syncopated Movements (1993), Blood on the Fields (1994), and Blues Symphony (2009), and Swing
Symphony (2010).
59 Art Blakey (1919-1990) was a jazz drummer and bandleader.
45
Wynton Marsalis' brothers, Branford who is a saxophonist and Delfayeo who is a trombonist,
are also jazz musicians who follow some of the same ideals as Wynton regarding their focus on the
study of the development of jazz. This would include the music from early New Orleans bands leading
up to bop, although their approach excludes the jazz periods which were more commercialized.
Branford Marsalis had recorded the album Creation in 2001, consisting of classical works
which were for the most part clearly jazz influenced. The pieces that he included on this album were
from composers such as Satie, Debussy, Ravel, Milhaud, Fauré, and Ibert. Within the album, these
pieces are not altered to create a jazz interpretation, but presented as originally composed. This
provides a demonstration of pieces which, to varying extents, are influenced by jazz being performed
on the saxophone with the appropriate accompaniment.
46
Specific Examples of this Crossover Within the Low Brass Repertoire
Alec Wilder, who lived between 1907-1980, was an American composer who wrote both
popular songs and compositions that had a notable influence from jazz. One example of this would be
his Sonata for Euphonium and Piano (1971), which is a five movement work that is completely notated
but harmonically is influenced by jazz. The movement in which this is most clearly shown would be
the third. Which in addition to the harmonic influence is also intended to be played in a swing feel.
Even within the other movements that are not directly noted to be played in a swing feel of
“jazz eighths,” the other movements implement other elements that would be typically more
characteristic of jazz. This is especially the case for the repertoire written for the euphonium, where
rips or flares between notes are much more uncommon, compared to the trombone where that type of
notation is almost expected at times.
Illustration 13: m.82-88 of the third movement to Wilder's 'Sonata'
The third movement of the Sonata has sections alternating between the swing eighths and
sections that have straight eights. This alternating stylistic approach, combined with the harmonic and
47
rhythmic aspects which Wilder uses really encompass the idea of a sense of fluidity between jazz and
classical elements.
David Amram, who was born in 1930, is another example of a composer who integrates jazz
elements and characteristics into his compositions. In 1996 he composed the solo trombone piece,
Trombone Alone, which extensively implemented a multitude of jazz rhythms. In contrast to Wilder's
Sonata where he gives the stylistic directions of “jazz eighths,” he instead directly notates the rhythms
with the use of harmonies similar to those in jazz.
Illustration 14: m.1-12 of 'II. Variations on a Theme for the 21st Century' from Trombone Alone
While this removes some interpretive freedom from the performer, requiring them to strictly
follow the notated rhythms, the end result of the piece being performed mirrors the types of rhythms
and syncopation that would be expected in a jazz piece.
Another example, while not as prevalent throughout the whole piece, is Jerry Owen's Variations
for Euphonium and Band (2006). This piece was written for, as well as representing the playing style
48
of Rich Matteson60, which has also been recorded by David Werden61 with the United States Coast
Guard Band.
Variations is primarily a straightforward brass feature that centers around a theme and its
variations. It is within the fourth variation (rehearsal marking H) that a jazz and blues element is truly
present. Aside from the stylistic directions of performing it “bluesy,” harmonically this influence is
also expressed the blue element of including a raised fourth scale degree.
Illustration 15: Variation 4 of Owen's 'Variations'
Continuing with this melding of styles present within the low brass repertoire, another example
of this would be Daniel Schnyder's Rhythm in Blue for Tenor Trombone and Piano (2009). This
particular piece was written in memoriam to the trombonist, J.J. Johnson. In doing this, Schnyder
writes the solo as emulating Johnson's playing style, which results in a lot of fast technical passages.
Throughout the piece, the rhythmic aspects are similar to those in jazz, and being most
reminiscent of those within bebop. This would be representative of how J.J. Johnson's virtuosic
playing allowed for the trombone to remain as an important instrument within bebop. That even
60 Rich Matteson (1929-1993) was a jazz euphonium player, in addition to playing tuba, bass trumpet, and valve trombone.
He recorded with Louis Armstrong and The Dukes of Dixieland, and was also the co-founder of the Matteson-Philips
Tuba-Jazz Consort.
61 David Werden (b.1947) is a euphonium player who is currently a freelance performer, educator, and clinician. Between
1970-1996 he was the solo and principal euphonium with the United States Coast Guard Band, and the founding
member of both the United States Coast Guard Tuba Quartet and the Atlantic Tuba Quartet.
49
though the trombone may have a disadvantage in terms of speed for technical passages due to having a
slide rather than valves, Johnson's playing proved that the instrument could keep up with the fast pace
that was characteristic of bebop.
Illustration 16: m.30-36 of 'Rhythm in Blue for Tenor Trombone and Piano'
50
Conclusions and What This May Mean for the Development of Compositions Today
Jazz has had a profound impact on the development of classically composed works since it's
origins and popularity. It has been influential to numerous composers who were crucial in the
development of 20th century music in addition to how music is composed today.
This cross influence of styles creates a unique sound through expanding the musical palate,
which allows the musicians from both stylistic ends to more thoroughly articulate their thoughts and
emotions. This allows for even more exploration and creativity, allowing themselves to not be limited
by some preconceived separation of ideologies and musical expression. This also allows for the
potential to include some improvisation, as well as aspects of general spontaneity, within what would
otherwise be categorized within fully composed music that would generally lack improvisation.
The influence exchanged between jazz and classical music has been going on for approximately
nearly the past 90-100 years, when looking back towards the early examples from the 1920's and the
influence that ragtime and early big-bands played. In these examples ranging from jazz interpretations
and symphonic or orchestral jazz, to third-steam, to modern compositions today, all exhibit this fusion
between the two idioms.
Ultimately, jazz has had a significant impact on the development of modern composition, this
includes the works from composers whose background may be in a variety of styles as well as varying
types of ensembles. Returning to what Bernstein had stated in regards to the impact jazz has had on
symphonic music, even if the piece itself doesn't overtly express characteristics that are similar to jazz,
the presence of jazz within daily listening or the composers life plays a crucial role and influence on the
development of a piece. This then implies that several pieces would not have been composed, been the
same or even nearly as groundbreaking, if not for the impact jazz has had on it's composition and
development.
51
Discography
Davis, Miles, perf. Porgy and Bess. Orch. Gil Evans. Rec. 1958. 1959, 1997. CD.
Davis, Miles. Kind of Blue. 1959.
Davis, Miles. Sketches of Spain. 1957.
Davis, Miles. The Birth of the Cool. 1957.
Kayo Dot. Dowsing Anemone With Copper Tongue. Driver, Toby. 2006. CD.
Kayo Dot. Blue Lambency Downward. Driver, Toby. 2008. CD.
Kayo Dot. Stained Glass. Driver, Toby. 2011. CD.
Kilpatrick, Barry M., and Phyllis East, perfs. American Music for Euphonium. 1997. CD.
Laws, Hubert. The Rite of Spring. 1971. CD.
Mahavishnu Orchestra. Apocalypse. George Martin, 1974. CD.
Marsalis, Branford. Creation. CD. 2001.
Mingus, Charles. The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady. 1963/1995. CD
National Public Radio. Preludes, Fugues and Riffs - Jazz in Classical Music. 1999. CD.
Parker, Charlie. “KoKo.” 1945.
Parker, Charlie. “Ornithology.” 1946
Parker, Charlie. Hefti, Neal. “Repetition.” 1947.
Russell, George. “A Bird in Igor's Yard.” Buddy DeFranco and His Orchestra. Rec. 1949.
Swing Singers. Jazz Sébastien Bach. 1963. CD
Tartar Lamb. Sixty Metonymies. Driver, Toby. 2006. CD.
Tartar Lamb II. Polyimage of Known Exits. Driver, Toby. 2011. CD.
Taylor, Cecil. Unit Structures. Alfred Lion, 1966. CD.
Zorn, John. The String Quartets. 1999. CD.
52
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