S E C T I O N  .
Addition of “Helping” e: esnob ⴝ snob
The Vulgar Latin grammarians noted an inconsistency in the Latin phonetic
system. In the interior of a word, the combination s consonant was always
divided between different syllables and was never pronounced as a single
“sound”. Thus,
PA R T I I I
P O P U L A R VO C A B U L A RY:
T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
justitia
monstrum
Language 
Language 
English
viejo
escuela
verde
bueno
puente
público
libertad
harina
seguro
vieux
école
vert
bon
pont
public
liberté
farine
sûr
vecchio
scuola
verde
buono
ponte
pubblico
libertà
farina
sicuro
old
school
green
good
bridge
public
liberty
flour, farina
sure, secure
English
jus•ti•cia
mons•truo
jus•tice
mon• ster
As the example shows, this is not a feature of English, where in many words
like monster the consonant combination st is pronounced jointly.
If a syllable within a word could never begin with s consonant, why
should it be any different at the beginning of a word? The Vulgar Latins decided
that there was no good reason for such difference, and that what was required
was the addition of a “helping” (prothetic) vowel to permit s and the following
consonant to be placed in separate syllables:
Consider the following lists of words:
Language 
jus•ti•ti•a
mons•trum
Spanish
spi•na S es•pi•na
Spanish
English
espina
thorn, spine
Italian subsequently gave up the initial e, Spanish has maintained it, while
French has generally eliminated the s, which was the justification for the e in
the first place.
Even if one has not already studied a Romance language, it is not too difficult to
guess that Language  is Spanish, Language  is French, and Language  is Italian. All languages have a certain “feel” to them, and the Romance languages
are no exceptions.
The aim of Part III is to further develop this inherent “feel” for the nature
of Spanish so that it can effectively be used as a tool in the acquisition of new
vocabulary.
Latin
Spanish
French
Italian
English
scala
scutum
spiritus
sponsa
status
escala
escudo
espíritu
esposa
estado
échelle
écu
esprit
épouse
état
scala
scudo
spirito
sposa
stato
scale
escutcheon, shield
spirit
spouse, wife
state
Examples:
esbelto
escala
T4311.indb 93
svelte (slender, graceful)
ladder, scale, proportion, port
of call, stop (airplane)
8/31/07 6:43:01 AM

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
—escalera
—escalar
—escalador
—escalada
—escalón
—escalafón
escalpelo
escama
—escamoso
escándalo
—escandaloso
—escandalizar
Escandinavia
—escandinavo
escandir
escápula
escarbar
escarlata
—escarlatina
escarnecer
—escarmentar
—escarmiento
escarpa
—escarpado
escatológico ()
—escatología ()
—escatología ()
—escatológico ()
escayola
escena
—escenario
—escénico
escéptico (adj. & n.)
—escepticismo
esclavo
—esclavitud
—staircase, stairs
—(to) climb, (to) scale
—(mountain) climber
—climb, rapid increase, rise,
escalade
—step (of a stair), stepping stone
—roster of employees (by rank)
scalpel
scale (of fish, snake), flake (of
soap), squama
—scaly, flaky, squamous
scandal
—scandalous
—(to) scandalize
Scandinavia
—Scandinavian
(to) scan (verse)
scapula (shoulder blade)
(to) scrape, (to) scratch, (to)
dig into
scarlet
—scarlatina, scarlet fever
(to) mock, (to) ridicule
—(to) punish severely, (to) learn
one’s lesson
—lesson, punishment
scarp, steep slope, escarpment
—steep, sheer, craggy
scatological
—scatology
—eschatology
—eschatological
plaster, plaster cast, scagliola
scene, stage
—stage, scene, setting
—scenic (of or relating to the
stage)
skeptical, skeptic
—skepticism
slave
—slavery
[echelon]
[scarify]
—esclavizar
—eslabón
—eslavo
—Eslovaquia
—eslovaco
—Eslovenia
—esloveno
esclerosis
—esclerosis
múltiple
esclusa
escoba
—escobilla
Escocia
—escocés (-esa)
escolar (adj. & n.)
—escuela
escorbuto
escoria
—El Escorial
[scorn]
escribir
—escriba (m.)
—escribano
—escrito (p.p.)
—por escrito
—escritor
—escritorio
—escritura
[fish scale]
[scenario]
escrúpulo
—escrupuloso
—sin escrúpulos
escrutar
—escrutinio
—escudriñar 
(see appendix)

Formerly escrudiñar.
—(to) enslave
—link (of a chain)
—Slav
—Slovakia
—Slovak
—Slovenia
—Slovene, Slovenian
sclerosis
—multiple sclerosis
(canal) lock, sluice, sluice gate
broom
—brush
Scotland
—Scottish
scholastic, school (adj.), student,
pupil
—school
scurvy
scoria (slag, dross, lava
fragments)
—Escorial (monastery & palace
near Madrid)
(to) write
—scribe
—scrivener, notary
—writing (report, etc.), writ (law)
—in writing
—writer, author
—desk, office
—handwriting, Scripture (cap.,
freq. pl.)
scrupule
—scrupulous
—unscrupulous ( inescrupuloso)
(to) scrutinize, (to) count votes
—scrutiny, (official) vote count
—(to) scrutinize
[scopula]
[scorbutic]
[scribble]
[script]
[scriptorium]


ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
escuadra
—escuadrón
escuálido
escudo
—escudo de armas
—escudar
—escudero
esculcar
escultura
—escultor
—esculpir
escupir
—escupidera
esfera
esgrimir
—esgrima
—escaramuza
esmalte
—esmalte de uñas
—esmaltar
esmoquin ( Eng.)
esnob ( Eng.)
espacio
—espacioso
—despacio
esparcir
—esparcimiento
espátula
especia
—especie
triangle (for drawing), squad,
squadron, fleet
—squadron (military) 
skinny, emaciated,
squalid
shield, escutcheon,
escudo
—coat of arms
—(to) shield
—squire, shield-bearer
(to) delve into, (to) spy
sculpture
—sculptor
—(to) sculpt, (to) engrave
(to) spit
—spittoon, cuspidor, urinal
(Amer.)
sphere, dial or face (e.g., watch)
(to) brandish, (to) fence
—fencing, swordplay
—skirmish, dispute
enamel
—nail polish
—(to) enamel, (to) adorn
tuxedo, dinner jacket
snob
space
—spacious, slow, deliberate
—slowly ( lentamente)
(to) scatter, (to) spread, (to) amuse
—scattering, recreation, leisure
activity
spatula
spice
—species, kind, sort
[skulk]
[scrimmage]
[Scaramouch]
[smelt]
[smoking]
[of space]
[sparse]

An army escuadrón is generally larger than an escuadra; the former is commanded by a
capitán (captain), the latter by a cabo (corporal).

Scrimmage was previously scrimish, itself a “deformation” of skirmish. Thus, both Spanish
esgrimir and English scrimmage have “moved” the r from its “original” place (cf. Section ., no. ).
especial
—especialidad
—especialista
—especializar
específico
—especificación
—especificar
espécimen (pl.
especímenes)
espectáculo
—espectacular
—espectador
espectro
especular
—especulación
—especulativo
—especulador
esperma (m./f.)
espeso
—espesor
—espesura
espina
—espina dorsal
—espina bífida
—espinal
—espinazo
—espino
espiral (adj. & n.f.)
espíritu
—espiritual
esplendor
esponja
—esponjoso
espontáneo
—espontaneidad
esporádico

special
—specialty
—specialist
—(to) specialize
specific
—specification
—(to) specify
specimen
spectacle, show
—spectacular
—spectator
specter, spectrum
(to) speculate (meditate, think
about, buy and sell)
—speculation
—speculative
—speculator
sperm, spermaceti 
thick, dense
—thickness
—denseness, thicket, dense wood
thorn, fish bone, splinter, spine
(bot.)
—spine, backbone, spinal column
—spina bifida
—spinal
—spine, backbone
—hawthorn, thornbush
spiral
spirit
—spiritual
splendor
sponge
—spongy
spontaneous
—spontaneity
sporadic
[inspissate]

Spermaceti is a white waxy substance found in the head of sperm whales (the whale name arising from either a deficient anatomical understanding or a somewhat off-color sense of humor).

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
espuma
—espumoso
esqueleto
esquema (m.)
—esquemático
esquí
—esquí alpino /
de fondo
—esquiar
esquimal (adj. & n.)
esquina
esquizofrenia
—esquizofrénico
estaca
—estacada
—dejar (s.o.) en
la estacada
estampa
—estampar
—estampida
—estampido
—estampilla
estanco
—estancar
—estanque
—tanque ( Eng.)
estelar
—estrella
—estrella de mar
foam, froth, lather, spume
—frothy, foamy, sparkling (wine),
spumous
skeleton, framework
outline, sketch, scheme
—schematic
ski, skiing
—alpine skiing / cross-country
skiing
—(to) ski
Eskimo, Eskimo language (m.)
corner
schizophrenia
—schizophrenic (adj. & n.)
stake, post
—picket fence, stockade ( Sp.)
—(to) leave someone in the lurch
print, engraving, likeness or
image
—(to) print, (to) stamp, (to)
engrave
—stampede
—loud noise (as from an
explosion)
—rubber stamp, postage stamp
(Amer.)
watertight (adj.), tobacconist (n.)
—(to) stanch, (to) monopolize
(block the free sale of)
—pond, basin, reservoir
—estrella fugaz
—estrellar
—constelación
—destellar
—destello
estéril
[shin, chine]
—esterilidad
—esterilizar
—esterilización
(libra) esterlina
estibador
—estibar
estigma (m.)
[staunch]
—estigmatizar
estilo
—estilográfica
estímulo
—estimular
—estimulante
(adj. & n.)
estipendio
estipular
—estipulación
estirpe (f.)
—extirpar
[tank ]
stellar
—star
—starfish

English tank (“container”) comes, in the fi rst instance, from one of the languages of India,
though it has also been influenced by the Romance word. It may well be the case that the Indian word comes from the Romance one via the Portuguese, who were India’s fi rst European
colonizers.

Estrella likely comes from a “mixing” of astro (originally from Greek) with Latin stella
(“star”).
estoico (adj. & n.)
estola
estoque
—estocada
estrangular
estrategia
—estratégico
—estratega (m./f.)
—estratagema
estrato
—shooting star
—(to) fi ll with stars, (to) smash to
pieces, (to) fail
—constellation
—(to) twinkle, (to) sparkle, (to)
flash
—flash (of light), twinkle
sterile (barren, unproductive,
bacteria-free)
—sterility
—(to) sterilize
—sterilization
(pound) sterling
longshoreman, stevedore
—(to) stow, (to) load or unload,
(to) stuff
stigma (incl. bot. and biol.),
stigmata (pl.)
—(to) stigmatize
style (incl. bot.), stylus, fashion
—fountain pen
stimulus, stimulation
—(to) stimulate, (to) encourage
—stimulating, stimulant
stipend
(to) stipulate
—stipulation, condition
ancestry, lineage, stirps
—(to) extirpate, (to) remove, (to)
eradicate
stoical, stoic
stole
rapier, sword
—stab, thrust
(to) strangle, (to) strangulate
strategy
—strategic
—strategist
—stratagem
stratum, stratus (cloud), layer
(“with stars”)
(unrelated)
[constipate]
[ex stirps]
[stoke, stock]
[street]


ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
—estratosfera
—estrado
estría
—estriado
estridente
estrofa
estructura
—estructural
—estructurar
—infraestructura
estudiante (m./f.)
—estudiar
—estudio
—estudioso
(adj. & n.)
estupefaciente
estupendo
—estupor
estúpido (adj. & n.)
—estupidez
—stratosphere
—dais (raised platform), halls of
justice (pl.)
groove, stretch mark (skin), stria
—striated
strident
stanza, strophe
structure
—structural
—(to) structure, (to) organize
—infrastructure
student
—(to) study
—study (act, place), studio
(workshop, apartment)
—studious, specialist
stupefacient (drug), narcotic
stupendous
—stupor, astonishment
stupid, foolish (or such a person)
—stupidity
Appendix
On Slavs and Slaves
The name used by the east European Slavs to describe themselves was taken into Medieval Latin in two different forms: sclavus and slavus. It came to mean “slave” as
well as “Slav”, the association arising from the the large number of Slavic slaves in both
the eastern Roman Empire and the Germanic territories. Eventually, sclavus specialized in “slave”, and slavus in “Slav”, a distinction carried on in modern Spanish and
in other Romance languages, as well as in German (but not in Dutch). It was also the
case in English (sclave) until the sixteenth century, when the “unnatural” (for English)
scl combination was reduced to sl (as happened also in slander, slice, and sluice), leaving
slave and Slav to be distinguished only by their respective vowels.
Dutch
German
Spanish
Slav
slave
Slaaf
Slawe
eslavo
slaaf
Sklave
esclavo
French
Italian
slave
slavo

esclave
schiavo
In “mainstream” Italian, sclavus became schiavo (pronounced [skyavo]), while in the
Venetian dialect a shortened variant, ciao (pronounced [chao]), came to be used as an
informal greeting or farewell in the sense of “I am your humble servant”. Th is was then
exported to Spanish, where chao is used only as a farewell (¡ Adiós ! ¡ Hasta luego !
¡ Chao !). Hence the correspondence:
chao
ciao, adios
INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
SEC TION . 
faex (pl. faeces)
faminem (acc.)
Initial f S h: higo ⴝ fig
farina
The presence of (unpronounced) h arising from Latin f is one of the most distinctive features of Spanish, setting it apart not only from French and Italian
but also from the other Iberian Romances (Portuguese/Galician, Catalan).
Latin
Spanish
Portuguese French
Italian
English
falco(n)
farina
ficus
halcón
harina
higo
falcão
farinha
figo
falco
farina
fico
falcon
farina, flour
fig
faucon
farine
figue
fartus
infarto
fascis
haz ()
fastidium
hastío
Examples include:
fabulari
hablar
habla
hablador (adj. & n.)
hacer
deshacer
hacia
hacienda
rehacer
hecho (p.p.)
cohechar
cohecho
quehacer
facsímil, facsímile
faena ( Cat.)
faenar
facies
haz () (f.)
(to) speak, (to) talk
speech, language, dialect
talkative, gossipy,
chatterbox
fable
fabulous (barely credible,
extraordinary)
(to) do, (to) make
(to) undo, (to) take apart
toward
ranch, hacienda, public
finance
(to) redo, (to) remake
fact
(to) bribe
bribe, bribery
chore, task, occupation
facsimile
task, toil, dirty trick
(to) fish (at sea), (to)
slaughter (animals),
(to) toil
face, surface (e.g., of
leaf, fabric)
[fabulate]
[fable]
[confabulator]
fastidioso
fastidio
hado
hada
cuento de hadas
hada madrina
hembra (n.)
femenino
fémina (n.)
feminismo
feminista
heno
fiebre del heno
hay fever
fastidiar
fatum
[factory]
[defeat]
[face to]
femina
[refect]
[confect]
[confetti]
(que hacer)
(fac similar)
fenum

feces (pl.), dreg(s)
hunger, famine
hungry, famished
hungry, famished, scrawny
flour, farina
“horse of a different color” 
mealy, farinaceous
fed up, full
(to) satiate, (to) glut,
(to) get fed up
infarct, heart attack
( ataque cardíaco)
bundle, sheaf, (light) beam
weariness, annoyance,
boredom
(to) annoy, (to) weary,
(to) cause disgust
(to) annoy, (to) tire,
(to) bore
annoying, tiresome
annoyance, nuisance
fate, destiny
fairy, fay
fairy tale
fairy godmother
female (animal)
feminine, female (adj.)
female (human)
feminism
feminist
hay
hastiar
fábula
fabuloso
facere
hez (pl. heces)
hambre (f.)
hambriento
famélico
harina
harina de otro costal
harinoso
harto
hartar

[farci]
[farce]
[fascia,
fascist]
[fastidious]
[fennel,
sainfoin]
Literally “flour from a different sack”.
Latin fata became fée in French (and hada in Spanish), while faerie (Modern French féerie)
was “fairyland”. The French words were imported into English as fay and fairy, with their original meanings intact; subsequently, fairy altered its sense to that of fay, its original meaning being assumed by the new term fairyland (which fi rst appeared as “Fairy Land” in Shakespeare’s A
Midsummer Night’s Dream). English faerie (an alternative spelling of fairy) maintains the original
defi nition of “land or realm of the fairies”.


P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ferire
herir
herido (p.p.)
ferrum
fervere
fibra
ficus
figicare
herida
hierro
hervir
hervor
agua hirviendo
hirviente 
fervor
ferviente
efervescencia
hebra
higo
higuera
hincar
hacer hincapié en
ahínco
finca
filia
filictum
filius
filum
hija
helecho
hijo
hilo
hilar
hilandero
hilera
retahíla
findere

hender
hendidura
(to) wound, (to) injure,
(to) hurt
injured person (m./f.),
casualty (m./f.)
wound, injury
iron, brand (mark
on animal)
(to) boil
boiling (n.)
boiling water
boiling (adj.)
fervor
fervent
effervescence, agitation
thread, fiber, grain
(of wood)
fig
fig tree
(to) thrust, (to) drive in(to)
(to) drive the foot (pie) in,
(to) emphasize
eagerness, determination,
zeal
rural property, country
estate, finca
daughter
fern
son
thread
(to) spin (wool, silk,
spiderweb, etc.)
spinner, spinster (in the
original sense)
row, line
(monotonous) list or
series of things
(to) crack, (to) split
crack, fissure
INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
[interfere]
fixus, fictus
foetor
folia
[ferrous]
forma
formica
hito
hedor
heder
fétido
hoja
hojear
horma
hormiga
boundary stone, milestone
stench, fetor
(to) stink
fetid, foul
leaf, sheet
(to) leaf through
form (mold), shoe tree
ant
hormigueo
tickling or tingling
sensation (pins and needles)
anthill, ant nest
anteater
(to) have pins and needles,
(to) swarm
corn flour mush, nougat (pl.)
concrete
reinforced concrete
cement mixer (machine
or truck)
beautiful, lovely, handsome
beauty, handsomeness
pit, grave, valley
hole (e.g., golf), pit
(to) flee
(to) frighten or chase away
fleeting, fugacious
fugitive
escapee, fugitive (from
justice), military deserter
smoke, fume, airs or
conceit (pl.)
(to) fume, (to) smoke,
(to) steam
(to) smoke (a cigarette)
smoker
[fervor]
[fervent]
hormiguero
oso hormiguero
hormiguear
hormigo 
hormigón
hormigón armado
hormigonera
[fix, affix]
formosus
fovea
fugere
[filial]
[bot. filix]
[filament]
fumus
hermoso
hermosura
hoya
hoyo
huir
ahuyentar
fugaz
fugitivo (adj. & n.)
prófugo
humo
humear
fumar
fumador

[fixed]
[folio]
[formic
acid]
[Formosa]
[fovea]
[fugitive]
[fugue]
[fission]
Hirviente is in danger of extinction, having been largely replaced by the present participle
hirviendo; thus, agua hirviendo is today far more common than agua hirviente.

Hormigo apparently is due to the similarity between grains of flour bubbling in boiling corn
flour mush and the bustling of ants in an ant nest. Hormigón then followed naturally due to the
resemblance in form between mush and concrete.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
fundere
fundus
fungus
furca
hundir
hundimiento
hondo
profundo
hongo
horca
ahorcar
horquilla
fuscus
horno
hurto
hurtar
a hurtadillas
furtivo (adj. & n.)
hosco
fustigare
hostigar
furnus
furtum
INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
to sink, (to) knock or fall
down
sinking, collapse, subsidence
deep
deep, profound
fungus, mushroom
gallows, pitchfork
(to) hang (a person)
hairpin, fork (bicycle,
slingshot)
oven, kiln, furnace
petty theft, pilfer
(to) steal, (to) pilfer
furtively, on the sly
furtive, stealthy, poacher
sullen, surly (person or
weather)
(to) whip, (to) harass
[fondue]
[fund]
[furtive]
[obfuscate]
[fustigate]
Also:
defensa
offocare
dehesa
ahogar
desahogar
sofocar
refusare
rehusar
pasture, meadow
(to) drown, (to) suffocate
(to) relieve, (to) alleviate, (to)
vent one’s feelings
(to) suffocate or smother
(person, flames)
(to) refuse
[defense, fence]
Historical Note
In its road from local dialect to Modern Spanish, Castilian adopted various forms of speech and a portion of its vocabulary from the other forms of
Romance spoken in Spain, including Mozarabic, the Romance spoken by
Christians in the parts of Spain under Muslim control. At the same time, due
to Castile’s steadily increasing political importance, a number of purely “Castilian” forms of speech, initially native to only a very small area and on occasion ridiculed by contemporaries as primitive or uncultured, were able to
become the accepted norm in Modern Spanish. The noted Spanish scholar
Ramón Menéndez Pidal (–), author of several of the classic works on

the history of the Spanish language, expressed this conclusion somewhat less
delicately. Referring specifically to the change of initial f to h, he wrote:
La h no fué (sic ) en un principio más que un barbarismo dialectal propio
de la gente menos culta en el Norte de Castilla y tierras limítrofes, uno de
tantos casos . . . de particularidades castellanas, primero muy restringidas
y que después, con el crecimiento de Castilla, llegan a difundirse por casi
toda la Península.
The h initially was simply a dialectical barbarism characteristic of the less
educated inhabitants in northern Castile and adjoining areas, one of many
instances . . . of Castilian peculiarities, at first very limited in scope, which
subsequently, with the expansion of Castile, were extended to the quasi
totality of the (Iberian) Peninsula.
The f S h change is only one of several peculiarly Castilian characteristics
that have been attributed (by Menéndez Pidal and others) to the influence of
the Basques, as the Basque language did not have the [f] sound. This explanation is by no means universally accepted, and numerous competing theories
have been advanced. What does not seem disputed is that the development
f S h occurred in two phases, both originating from the Castilian “heartland”  and gradually expanding through the rest of Castilian-speaking Spain
(the first also extended to the Gascon branch of the Occitan language in southwest France):
(a) f S aspirated h (as in history, hotel)
There is evidence that Latin F was pronounced [h] in zones contiguous with Basque territories as early as the ninth century. This aspirated
pronunciation then expanded southward, paralleling the expansion of
Castile. There was initially no change in spelling; those using aspirated
h continued to write “f” (e.g., fablar pronounced [hablar]).
(b) aspirated h S ø
The same areas that had initially propagated the aspirated h in place of
f subsequently lost the aspiration, and this new pronunciation (or lack

Until , fue (the simple past third person singular for ser) was generally written fué, and it
is not uncommon to encounter this form well after this date.

Menéndez Pidal (), .

Castilian Spanish originated in a very small area in north-central Spain (between Santander
and Burgos) known as Cantabria, contiguous with Basque territories and one of the last parts
of Spain to be “Romanized”. It is likely that the Latin spoken there diverged even more than the
“typical” Vulgar Latin from the Classical norms. The name Castilla comes from the castillos
(“castles”) that were a prominent feature along its frontier; castellano means both “Castilian”
Spanish and “castellan” (i.e., “lord of the castle”).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
thereof) then spread in a similar manner throughout Castilian-speaking
Spain. By the late sixteenth century, the unaspirated pronunciation of
Modern Spanish had been firmly established.
Nonetheless, most words have retained their initial f. These include:
. WORDS FROM LATIN fl-  OR fr-, e.g.,
flaccus
flatus
florem (acc.)
fluxus
fraudem (acc.)
frenum
flaco
flato
flatulencia
flor (f.)
flujo
fraude
fraudulento
defraudar
freno
frenar
refrenar
skinny, lean, weak
flatus, wind (intestinal gas)
flatulence
flower
flux, flow
fraud
fraudulent
(to) defraud, (to) disappoint
brake
(to) brake, (to) restrain
(to) restrain, (to) curb, (to) rein
[flaccid]
[inflation]
[frenum]
[refrain]
. WORDS FROM LATIN fo-, WHERE THE o DIPHTHONGED TO BE
COME SPANISH ue SEE SECTION .,  e.g.,
focus
fontem (acc.)
foras
fortis
fuego
fuente (f.)
fuera
fuerte
fire
fountain, source, fount
out, outside, without
strong
finis
firmare
fatal
fatalidad
fiebre (f.)
fe (f.)
figura
fingir
fatal, fateful
fatality ( fate or misfortune, not death)
fever
faith
figure
(to) pretend, (to) feign
[affirm, farm]
()
()
()
()
hallar
hecha
hiel (f.)
hijo
hilo
fallar
fecha
fiel
fijo
fi lo
(to) find
done, made
bile
son
thread
(to) render judgment, (to) fail
date
faithful
fixed
sharp edge
As a result of these somewhat haphazard developments, the same Latin root
has often wound up with both pronunciations in Modern Spanish:
Spanish
English
Spanish
English
herradura
herramienta
herrería
férreo
ferrocarril
ferretería
ferrous
railroad
hardware store
herrumbre
horseshoe
tool
blacksmith’s
shop
rust
ferroviario
railroad (worker)
hijo
hija
hijastro
hidalgo
son
daughter
stepchild
nobleman
fi lial (adj. & n.f.)
fi liación
afi liación
afi liado
filial, subsidiary
filiation, affiliation
affiliation
affiliate, member
hondo
hondamente
fondo
fundamental
bottom (n.)
fundamental
hondonada
hondura
deep
deeply,
profoundly
hollow, dale
depth
fundar
fundación
Honduras
Honduras
fundamento
(to) found, (to) base
foundation,
founding
foundation (base)
ferrum
. “LEARNED” OR “SEMILEARNED” WORDS, E.G.,
fatalis
fatalitas
febris
fides
figura
fingere
end, finish
(to) sign
Until the late fifteenth century, words with aspirated h (in process of disappearance) and those with “real” f were both written with f. By this time, there
were many couplets with different meanings and pronunciations but identical
written form, one pronounced with aspirated (or no) h, the other with f. Some
of these came from the same Latin word, while others had arisen by phonetic
accident. To distinguish between these in written as well as spoken Spanish,
those with the h (or no) sound had their initial f- changed to h-. Examples of
such couplets are:
[focus]
[forum]
[fort, forte]
fin
firmar

filius
[Santa Fe]
fundus

One word beginning with fl- has undergone an altogether different transformation: Latin
flamma (“flame”) has become llama, thus making it a homonym with the Andean animal as well
as with the third person singular of the verb llamar (“to call”): Se llama José.

The few exceptions are closely linked to verbs in which most of the forms “naturally” developed an undipthonged ho- (the diphthong occurring only in stressed syllables). Hence the noun
huelga is associated with the verb holgar (from Latin follicare), which in turn has nine of its
forty seven “simple” conjugations with hue (huelgo huelgas etc )
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
SEC TION . 
Vowel Changes: e S ie, o S ue, etc.

in spelling, so that the one-to-one correspondence between spoken and written
forms has, with very few exceptions, been preserved.
This is illustrated in the table below, where the vowel affected is highlighted
in bold.
OCCASIONAL MODIFICATIONS IN SPANISH VOWELS “POPULAR” WORDS
Perhaps the single feature making Spanish the easiest—or least difficult—of
any foreign language that an English speaker might seek to learn is the simplicity of its vowel system. Consider the European languages most commonly
studied by English speakers (other than Russian, which uses a different alphabet). A reasonably consistent estimation of the “pure” vowels for each language,
and the number that are “new” to English speakers, is shown below:
German
French
Portuguese
Italian
Spanish
No. of Vowels
“New”










Spanish thus has not only the fewest vowels, all of which are familiar to English
speakers, but it is the only language that can offer a one-to-one correspondence
between vowel sounds and letters (a, e, i, o, u). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this to the learner of a new language.
This simplicity is partly masked, however, by the fact that pronunciation of
English vowels in most cases differs significantly from that of the corresponding Spanish vowel. For example, Spanish republicano and English republican
have four vowels in common (e, u, i, a), not one of which has the same pronunciation in the two languages.
Spanish
Pronounced Like
republicano
ray•poo•blee•cah•no
This difference reflects the fact that since the days of “Old English” virtually
all English vowels have changed their pronunciations (see appendix), while
Spanish vowel pronunciation has changed remarkably little since Classical
Latin times.
Although Spanish vowel sounds have essentially remained constant, the
vowels in many individual “popular” words have shifted, albeit to a relatively
limited extent. Fortunately, these shifts were linked to a corresponding change
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
iSe
eSi
e S ie
aSe
o S ue
oSu
uSo
au S o
Latin Root
Spanish
English
minus
servientem
centum
tractus
porcus
complere
truncus
taurus
menos
sirviente
ciento
trecho
puerco
cumplir
tronco
toro
minus
servant
cent
tract
pork
complete, accomplish
trunk
Taurus
These changes occur with varying frequency: nos. , , and  are the most
common; nos.  and , the least. In corresponding English “learned” words,
the original Latin vowel generally remains unchanged (as in all the examples
above), while in “popular” words (normally via French), it has frequently been
altered. In some cases, the alteration is identical to that which took place in
Spanish, thus facilitating the comparison, e.g.,
intrata
entrada
entry
Diphthongs
In two cases (nos.  and ), the “new” vowel is in fact a diphthong:
. ie pronounced like “ye” in yet 
. ue pronounced like “we” in wet (sometimes more like “wei” in weight)
From the point of view of learning vocabulary, there are two important
points to note:
a). With very few exceptions, these two diphthongs occur only when the
vowel in question is located in the stressed syllable. Related words where

At the beginning of a word or syllable, the ie diphthong in much of the Spanish-speaking
world is pronounced either like the s in pleasure or the j in judge, while after a consonant the [ye]
sound is maintained.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
cerca ()
the stress falls on a different syllable will therefore generally not display
the diphthong. Thus, from Latin TEMPUS come the following (where, in the
middle column, the stressed syllable is highlighted in bold):
tiempo
temporario
temporal
tiem•po
tem•po•ra•rio
tem•po•ral
dicere
time
temporary
temporal
b). This situation occurs with respect to a large class of verbs known as diphthong verbs. Thus, for the verbs pensar (“to think”) and mover (“to move”),
one says:
(yo)
(nosotros)
(yo)
(nosotros)
pienso
pensamos
muevo
movemos
pien•so
pen•sa•mos
mue•vo
mo•ve•mos
maldecir
I think
we think
I move
we move
Diphthongs occur in precisely those conjugations where the stress accent falls
on the “stem” syllable.
Examples are presented below for each of the eight different types of vowel
change noted above. In many cases, related words that do not have the vowel
change are shown. “Diphthong” verbs are marked with an asterisk.
verum (truth) dis-
. i S e
circa
cerca ()
cerca de
de cerca
acercar
cercano
cercanía
circus
cerco
cercar


near, close
nearly, close to (place,
time, quantity)
close up, closely
(to) approach, (to)
bring near
close, nearby
proximity,
vicinity (pl.),
surroundings (pl.)
circle, ring, halo (e.g.,
sun), siege
(to) fence, (to)
surround
For further details, see Brodsky (, –, ).
Where the diphthong forms are “optional”, the asterisk is in parentheses.
circo
círculo
decir (p.p. dicho )
bendecir
contradecir
contradicción
contradictorio
desdecir
[circa]
fides
in
intrare
predecir
predecible
predicción
verídico
veredicto
( Eng.)
desdesfigurar
desmantelar
fe (f.)
en
entrar
entrada
entre
dentro (de)
dentro de una
semana
adentro
[search]
(surrounding) fence
or wall
circus
circle
(to) say
(to) bless
(to) contradict
contradiction
contradictory
(to) not be in keeping
with, (to) unsay
(retract)
(to) curse, (to) speak
ill of
(to) predict
predictable
prediction
true, truthful,
veridical
verdict
dis(to) disfigure
(to) dismantle
faith
in, into, on
(to) enter
entry, entrance,
entrée 
between, among
inside, within

[dictate]
[benediction]
[malediction]
(“to say the
truth”)
(“true said”)
[fidelity]
[intra]
[inter]
( de intro)
in a week’s time
within, inside

The -decir verbs have past participles ending in -dicho, with the exception of bendecir and
maldecir, which have regular past participles (bendecido, maldecido).

In terms of meals, Spanish entrada—“a dish served before the main course”—preserves the
sense of entry, while English entrée (which technically maintains this defi nition) is now normally
used to refer to the main course itself.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
minor
menor
al por menor
pormenor
pormenorizado
minus
minoría
menos
al menos
a menos que
minúsculo (adj.)
minúscula (n.)
navigare
pilus
pro mittere
siccus
navegar
navegación
navegable
navegante (m./f.)
pelo
prometer
promesa
seco
secar
secado (p.p.)
secador, -ora
secano
sequía
sequedad
desecar
smaller, younger,
minor (adj. & n.)
retail ( al detalle)
detail, details (pl.)
detailed (specified in
detail)
minority
minus, less, fewer,
least, fewest
at least ( por lo
menos)
unless
minuscule, tiny,
lowercase (letter)
lowercase letter,
minuscule
(to) navigate, (to) sail
navigation, voyage in
a boat
navigable
navigator, seafarer
hair
(to) promise
promise
dry
(to) dry
drying (n.)
dryer (hair, hand,
clothes) 
unwatered or
unirrigated land
drought
dryness
(to) dry up, (to)
desiccate
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
sinus
timor
vicinus
resecar
reseco
seno
temor
temer
temeroso
tímido
timidez
vecino (adj. & n.)
vecindad
avecinar(se)
vincere
vencer
vindemia
invencible
convencer
vendimia
(to) dry out
dried up, parched
sinus, breast, womb
fear
(to) fear, (to) be afraid
fearful (causing fear),
timorous
timid
timidity
neighboring,
neighbor
vicinity, neighborhood
(to) approach
(e.g., storm)
(to) vanquish, (to)
defeat
invincible
(to) convince
grape harvest, vintage

[intimidation]
[Warwick]
[vine]
. e S i
[pilosity]
[Dry Sack ]
[desiccate]

English sack refers to various dry white wines imported to England from Spain and the Canaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and initially had the form seck (from French
vin sec). It became confused with the ordinary sack (“bag”), which at that time had an alternative
form, sek, and when sek fi nally settled on the form sack, so did the dry wine. Dry Sack, a trade
name for various types of sherry, thus literally means “dry dry”.

To dry one’s hair or hands, most frequently a secador is used, while a clothes dryer can be
either a secador or secadora (see appendix to Annex A).
In several of the following examples, the change e S ie (no. ) also occurs (the
corresponding vowels are italicized).
affectio(n)
afición
c(a)ementum 
cimiento
december
(a)equalis

cimentar *
cemento
cementerio 
diciembre
igual
igualmente
igualar
igualdad
igualitario
desigual
fondness, hobby,
(sports) fans
basis, foundations
(e.g., of house—gen. pl.)
(to) lay the foundations of
cement
cemetery
December
equal, the same
equally
(to) equalize, (to) equal
equality
egalitarian
unequal, uneven
(terrain, character, etc.)
[affection]
At a relatively early stage, Latin ae merged with (Vulgar) Latin (short) e.
Cementerio has nothing to do with cemento, but its “superfluous” n may possibly be due to
“popular” association of the two words.


P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ferventem (acc.)
levianus
renio(n)
sementem (acc.)
sequentem (acc.)
tepidus
desigualdad
hirviente
hervir 
liviano
riñón
simiente (f.)
siguiente
seguir 
subsiguiente
tibio
inequality
boiling
(to) boil
light, slight, frivolous
kidney
seed ( semilla)
following, next, sequent
(to) follow, (to) continue
subsequent
tepid, lukewarm
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
recalentamiento
[fervent]
centum
[levity]
[renal]
[semen]
certus
[segue]
desacierto
certeza
acertar *
. e S ie
apertus
bene
abierto
abertura
bien
bienestar
benevolencia
benévolo
tan + bien
c(a)ecus
c(a)elum
calentem (acc.)
también
ciego
ceguera
cielo
celeste
celestial
caliente
calentar *
calefacción
recalentar *
open
[aperitif]
aperture, opening
(physical: e.g., window)
well, fine, good (n.),
goods (pl.)
well-being, welfare
benevolence
benevolent, volunteer
(Amer.)
also, too
blind
[cecum—
“blind gut”]
blindness
sky, heaven
sky blue, celestial
celestial, heavenly
hot
[nonchalant]
(to) heat, (to) warm up [calenture]
heating, heat
(to) reheat, (to)
[recalescence]
overheat
ciento
centavo
centenar centena
centímetro
cierto
acierto
acertijo
concierto
concertar *
in-commendare
desconcierto
desconcertar *
desconcertante
encomendar *
crepare
encomienda
recomendar *
recomendación
quebrar *
quiebra
quebrantar
quebrantahuesos 
resquebrajar

In eleven (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in hervir shifts from e to i (e.g.,
present participle hirviendo), while in the nine conjugations in which it is stressed, it becomes the
diphthong ie (present tense yo hiervo). Th is pattern is common to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that
is followed directly by either r or nt; among the few exceptions is servir (see following note).

In twenty (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in seguir shifts from e to i (e.g.,
present participle siguiendo and present tense yo sigo). Apart from venir, this pattern is common
to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that is not followed directly by r or nt, plus servir. For further details
on this and the previous footnote, see Brodsky (, –, –).
reheating,
overheating
hundred
hundredth part, cent
a hundred (group)
centimeter
certain, sure
good shot (“hit”), good
choice, good guess
mistake, error
certainty, certitude
(to) hit (the mark), (to)
guess right
riddle
concert, concerto,
accord
(to) harmonize, (to)
concert, (to) agree
confusion, disorder
(to) disconcert
disconcerting
(to) entrust, (to)
commend
commission, charge
(to) recommend
recommendation
(to) break, (to) go
bankrupt
bankruptcy,
breakdown (values)
(to) break, (to) violate,
(to) weaken
osprey, ossifrage
(bearded vulture)
(to) crack (wall,
pottery)

[centennial]
[crepitate]
[crevice]

A quebrantahuesos is literally a “bone breaker”: quebrantar huesos. Likewise, an English
ossifrage (Latin ossifraga) is a fracturer of bones (ossa). Osprey (a fish-eating hawk) is seen
by some as representing a “popular” form of the same word (via French), while others believe it
comes from Medieval Latin avis prede (“bird of prey”).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
decem
desertus
decrépito
increpar
diez
diezmar
decimal
desierto (adj. & n.)
desértico
desertar
dextra
desertor
deserción
diestra
diestro
destreza
adiestrar 
emendare
adiestramiento
enmendar *
enmienda
remendar *
remiendo
equa
(h)eremus
yegua 
yermo (adj. & n.)
errare
ermita
ermitaño
errar *
decrepit
(to) upbraid, (to) scold
ten
(to) decimate, (to) tithe
decimal
deserted, desert
deserted, desert-like
(e.g., climate)
(to) desert (from
military, or from
obligation)
deserter
desertion
right hand
right (adj.), righthanded, dexterous,
matador
dexterity, skill
(to) train, (to) drill,
(to) become skilled
training
(to) emend, (to) amend
correction, emendation,
amendment
(to) mend, (to) patch,
(to) darn
patch, provisional
repair
mare
barren, uninhabited,
wasteland
hermitage
hermit ( eremita m.)
(to) err, (to) wander
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
ferrum
ferus
festa
error ~ yerro
errado (p.p.)
errante
errata
erróneo
aberrante
hierro
herrero
herrar *
aferrar
fiero (adj.)
fiera (n.)
feroz
ferocidad
fiesta
festín
festividad
festival
festivo
festejo
gelu
[equestrian]
gr(a)ecus
festejar
hielo
helar *
helado
congelar
congelador
griego (adj. & n.)
i griega
Grecia
gringo 

Diezmar, which has a diphthong in an unstressed syllable, is the exception that proves the
rule. The verb was initially dezmar, with diphthongs only in those conjugations where the stress
fell on the stem syllable (e.g., yo diezmo), and no diphthongs in the other conjugations (including
the infi nitive). In relatively recent times, the verb was “regularized”, so that all conjugations now
show diphthongs, even in unstressed syllables.

As for diezmar (see preceding footnote), the original verb adestrar has been regularized by
extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables.

Spanish does not allow a word to start with ie, so the diphthong ie is written ye.
error, mistake
erroneous, mistaken
errant (wandering)
misprint, erratum
erroneous
aberrant
iron
blacksmith
(to) shoe a horse,
(to) brand
(to) grasp, (to) cling to
wild, fierce
wild animal
ferocious
ferocity, fierceness
party, fete, holiday, holy
day, festival, fiesta
banquet, feast
festivity
festival
festive, humorous
celebration,
festivities (pl.)
(to) fete, (to) celebrate
ice
(to) freeze
frozen, freezing cold,
ice cream (m.)
(to) freeze, (to) congeal
freezer
Greek
“y” (“Greek” i—
penultimate letter of
alphabet)
Greece
gringo

[ferrous]
[farrier]
[gelid, gel]
[Grecian]

While labeled in many English dictionaries as “Offensive Slang” (the same category as the
“n”-word or dago), Spanish gringo is in fact generally used as a relatively harmless term to refer
to foreigners (and not always to “norteamericanos”). It is a deformation of griego: the original
sense was in reference to those speaking an unintelligible language, i.e., analogous to the English
expression “it’s all Greek to me”. Th is latter expression corresponds in turn to Spanish hablar en
griego/gringo or, more commonly, hablar en chino.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
gubernare
gobernar *
gobierno
gobernador
gobernadora
gobernante
gubernamental
helm (Germanic)
herba
yelmo
hierba, yerba
yerba mate
herbáceo
herbario
hibernum
herbicida (m.)
herbívoro
(adj. & n.)
invierno
incendere
invernar (*)
encender *
encender la luz
incendiario
incendio
incensum
incendiar
incienso
incensar *
incensario
(to) govern, (to) steer
(nautical) 
government, rudder,
helm
governor
lady governor,
governor’s wife
governing, ruling,
ruler (m./f.)
governmental
helmet
grass, weed, herb
yerba maté
herbaceous
herbal, herbarium
(dried plant collection)
herbicide
herbivorous,
herbivore
winter
(to) winter
(to) light, (to) switch
on, (to) inflame
(to) turn on the light
(turn off apagar)
incendiary, arsonist
(m./f.)
fire (large-scale,
destructive)
(to) set on fire
incense
(to) incense (perfume
with incense), (to)
flatter
censer (for burning
incense)
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
infernus
leporem (acc.)
manifestus
infierno
infernal
liebre (f.)
manifiesto
(adj. & n.)
manifestar *
manifestación
[gubernatorial]
mel
membrum
merenda
(OldSp.
ivierno)
[hibernate]

The nautical senses preserved in gobernar and gobierno are in fact the original meanings,
going back to Greek kubernan (Latin gubernare), which meant “to steer or pilot a ship”.
metus
manifestante
miel (f.)
melifluo
miembro
desmembrar *
membrana
merienda
merendar *
miedo
miedoso
amedrentar
nebula
negare
meticuloso
niebla
neblina
nebuloso (adj.)
nebulosa (n.)
negar *
negación
negativo (adj.)
negativa (n.f.)
negativo (n.m.)
denegar *
denegación
hell, inferno
infernal, hellish
hare, rabbit
[leporine]
(pacemaker)
manifest (obvious),
manifesto
(to) manifest, (to)
demonstrate
manifestation, (public)
demonstration
demonstrator (m./f.)
honey
mellifluous
member, limb, penis
(to) dismember, (to)
break up
membrane
light afternoon
refreshment, tea (UK)
(to) have a merienda
fear
fearful (easily
frightened)
(to) frighten, (to)
intimidate
meticulous
fog, mist
[nebula]
light fog, mist
cloudy, foggy, hazy,
nebulous
nebula
(to) deny, (to) negate
denial, refusal, negative
(gram.), negation
negative (adj.)
negative (response),
denial, refusal
negative (photo)
(to) deny (refuse)
denial, refusal,
denegation

 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
renegar
renegado (p.p.)
reniego
november
parentem (acc.)
pedem (acc.)
pellis
petra
noviembre
pariente
emparentar (*)
emparentado (p.p.)
pie (m.)
bípedo
piel (f.)
película
piedra
piedra angular
pedrada
pedregoso
pétreo
petrificar
apedrear
empedrar *
empedrado
empedernido
pigmentum
recentem (acc.)
(before p.p.)
secare (“to cut”)
pimiento
reciente
recién llegado
recientemente
segar *
siega
sedentare
sentar *
asiento
(to) deny vigorously,
(to) renounce
renegade ( Sp.),
apostate
blasphemy,
curse (lit.,
“I renege”)
November
relation, relative
(to) be or become
related to
related (to)
foot
biped
skin, pelt
fi lm, movie, pellicle
stone
cornerstone
throw of a stone
(or blow from stone)
stony, rocky
stone (adj.), petrous,
stony (hard)
(to) petrify (lit. & fig.)
(to) stone
(to) pave with stone
cobbled,
stone
pavement (m.)
hardened (e.g.,
smoker), inveterate
pepper plant, pimento
recent
recently arrived
recently
(to) reap, (to) mow,
(to) cut down
reaping, harvest
(time)
(to) seat, (to) sit
seat
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
[renege]
asentar *
seminare
sembrar *
siembra
semental
semilla
semillero
[parent]
semen
seminal
semper
siempre
sentire
sempiterno
sentir 
[pelisse]
[Peter, Pierre]
lo siento (mucho)
sentido (p.p. & adj.)
sentido (n.)
sentido del humor
sentimiento
sentimental
presentir
presentimiento
[pigment]
[secant]
[sedentary]
septem
september
serpentem (acc.)
—serpens (nom.)
serra
siete
septiembre
serpiente (f.)
—sierpe (f.)
sierra
serrar *
serrano
(to) set, (to) place,
(to) assert
(to) sow, (to) seed
sowing, sowing season
breeding, breeding
animal (stud)
seed ( simiente)
seedbed, plant
nursery
semen, seed (bot.)
seminal (pert. to
semen or seed ONLY)
always
sempiternal (eternal)
(to) feel, (to) sense
(hear), (to) regret
I am (very) sorry
sensitive (quick to
take offense)
sense, direction
sense of humor
sentiment, feeling,
regret
sentimental
(to) have a feeling
(that something will
happen)
premonition,
presentiment
seven
September
serpent, snake
—serpent, snake
saw, mountain
range, sierra
(to) saw
mountain, highland
 
[inseminate]
[Sic Semper
Tyrannis]
[septuple]

Sentir (as well as asentir, consentir, disentir, and presentir) is conjugated analogously to hervir
(see footnote no. ).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ser(r)are
cerrar *
cerradura
cerrojo
cerrajero
cierre
encerrar *
encierro
sexta (“sixth ”)
tenda
siesta
sestear
tienda
tendero
trastienda
tendere
tender *
tendido (p.p. & adj.)
tendido (n.)
tendencia
atender *
desatender *
contender *
contendiente
contienda
entender *
entendimiento
entente
desentender(se) *
extender *
(to) shut, (to) close
lock
bolt, latch
locksmith
snap, clasp, closing
(to) shut in, (to)
enclose, (to) contain
confinement,
seclusion
siesta
(to) take a siesta,
(to) rest in the shade
(cattle)
store, shop, tent
shopkeeper,
storekeeper
back room (of a shop),
cunning (n.)
(to) stretch, (to) lay
out, (to) tend (toward)
full (gallop), extended,
lying down
electrical installation,
bleachers (bullfight)
tendency, trend
(to) pay attention to,
(to) attend to
(to) neglect, (to) not
pay attention to
(to) contend, (to)
compete
contending, contender
or contestant (m./f.)
battle, fight, quarrel
(to) understand
understanding
entente (accord
among countries)
(to) ignore, (to) take
no part in
(to) extend, (to) spread
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
[serried]
pretender
tenerum (acc.)
tierno
ternura
enternecer
terra
tierra
tierra de nadie
globo terráqueo
terraplén
terraza
terrateniente
terremoto
terrenal
terreno (adj. & n.)
subterráneo
(adj. & n.)
terrestre
territorio
territorial
aterrar * ()
aterrar  ()
aterrizar
aterrizaje
desterrar *
destierro
enterrar *
entierro
[intend]
desenterrar *
ventus

viento
(to) try to, (to) aspire
to, (to) pretend
tender, affectionate
tenderness
(to) soften, (to) move
(stir emotions)
earth, land, soil
no man’s land
terrestial globe, the
earth
embankment, terrace,
terreplein
terrace
landowner
earthquake
earthly, worldly,
terrestrial
terrestrial, terrene,
terrain, ground
subterranean,
underground passage
terrestrial
territory
territorial
(to) cover with earth,
(to) demolish, (to) land
(to) frighten, (to)
terrify
(to) land (an aircraft)
landing
(to) exile, (to) banish
exile, banishment
(to) inter, (to) bury
 
(nr S rn)
[ aqueous]
[tenant]
(in terra)
burial, interment
( enterramiento)
(to) disinter, (to)
exhume, (to) unearth
wind
Aterrar (), which has no diphthongs, has a different origin: Latin terrere (“to terrify”).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
vetulus
vendaval
strong (SW) wind, gale
ventana
ventanilla
window
small window
(car, plane, ticket
office, etc.)
(to) ventilate, (to) air
fan, ventilator
blizzard
old
old age
(to) age, (to)
grow old
aging
veteran
very old, ancient
ventilar
ventilador
ventisca
viejo
vejez
envejecer
envejecimiento
veterano (adj. & n.)
vetusto
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
(viento
-de
-a-valle)
abonar
abonar(se) 
abono
bovem (acc.)
[veteran]
chorda
cordón
[† vetust]
collum
satisfactus
fecha
enero
leche (f.)
lejos
mesón
primero
primario
satisfecho
date
January
milk
far, far off
inn, tavern
first (adj., adv.)
primary
satisfied
[fait accompli]
[lactic acid]
[lax]
[mansion]
degollar *
computus
bueno
bondad
bondadoso
bonito ()
bonito ()
bonanza
bombón
good
goodness, kindness
kind, good
pretty, nice, good
(small) tuna, bonito
fair weather at sea,
prosperity, bonanza
(ore)
bonbon, small
chocolate, “dish”
(person)
cuento
cuenta
tener en cuenta
contar *
contable (adj. & n.)
contador
[satisfaction]
. o S ue
bonus
cuello
collar
degüello
. a S e
facta
januarius
lactem (VL acc.)
laxius
mansio(n)
primarius
hierbabuena
buey
bovino
cuerda
[bonus]
[bounty]
[bounteous]
descuento
descontar *
concha
cuenca
cuenco
concha

(to) fertilize, (to)
credit, (to) pay
(“make good”)
(to) subscribe
fertilizer, manure,
subscription, season
ticket
mint (plant)
ox, steer, bullock
bovine
cord, rope, string,
chord (geom.), watch
spring
shoelace, cord (as
belt), electric cord,
cordon
neck, collar (shirt,
suit, etc.)
necklace, collar
throat-cutting,
decollation
(to) cut the throat,
(to) decollate (behead)
story, tale
count, calculation,
bill or check, account
(to) take into account
(to) count, (to) tell
countable, accountant
meter, counter (e.g.,
Geiger), accountant
discount
(to) discount,
(to) deduct
eye socket, river
basin, valley
earthen bowl,
hollow or concavity
shell, seashell, conch
Abonar(se) is originally unrelated to the other words.

(“good herb”)
[décolleté]
[compute]
[concha]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
consolare
consolar *
consuelo
consolación
(in) contra
desconsolado
encontrar *
encuentro
corium
cuero
excoriar / escoriar
coraza
acorazar
acorazado (p.p.)
cornu
costa
cuerno
corneta
cuesta
cuesta arriba
cuesta abajo
costa
costero
costilla
costal
costado
acostar () *
acostar ()
guardacostas
recostar *


(to) console, (to)
comfort
consolation,
alleviation, comfort
consolation (e.g.,
premio de consolación)
disconsolate
(to) find, (to)
encounter, (to) meet
meeting, encounter,
match (sports)
leather, hide
(to) excoriate (tear
or rub away the skin)
cuirass, breastplate,
armor plating, shell
(animal)
(to) armor (ships,
forts, etc.)
ironclad (adj. & n.),
battleship
horn, antler
cornet, bugle
hill, slope
uphill
downhill
coast, shore 
coastal
rib
costal (pertaining
to ribs), large sack
side, flank
(to) put to bed
(to) reach the coast
coast guard cutter
(to) lean (back), (to)
recline
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
cova (cava )
[dueño de casa]
duende
focus
(“fireplace”)
fuego
cave
small cave, shack
cavern, cave
owner, mistress,
landlady
maiden, maid
(to) dominate,
(to) master
domination
dominant,
domineering
dominion, control,
mastery, domain
dominoes (game),
domino (costume)
(to) predominate
predominant
predominance
(to) seize, (to) take
possession of
owner, master,
landlord
young nobleman,
male virgin
goblin, elf, ghost,
duende (magnetism,
charm)
fire
fuegos artificiales
alto el fuego
fireworks
ceasefire
foco
focus, center, light
(head- or spot-)
focus (camera),
approach (to a matter)
(to) focus (light,
camera, thoughts)
domina
cueva
covacha
caverna
dueña
doncella
dominar
dominación
dominante
[corium,
currier]
dominio
dominó, dómino
predominar
predominante
predominio
adueñar(se)
dominus
doncel
[unicorn]
[coast]
[costa]
[accost]
[accoast ]
Also, “cost”, “expense”, although this has a completely different origin (see Section .).
Obsolete variant of accost.
dueño
enfoque
enfocar

[Donna]
[damsel]
[halt the
fire]

The earliest Latin form was cova, another example where Spanish has preserved an “older”
form of the language.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
follis
fogata
fogón
fogoso
hoguera
bonfire, campfire
stove, hearth
fiery, spirited, ardent
bonfire
en la hoguera
hogar
(burned) at the stake
hearth, fireplace,
home
(to) fry lightly
bellows
rehogar
fuelle
holgar *
huelga decir que
holgazán (-ana)
fontem (acc.)
foras
huelga
huelga de hambre
juerga jolgorio 
fuente (f.)
fontana
fontanería
fontanero
fuera
afuera
foráneo
forastero
fortia
fuerza
forzar *
fortaleza
fortalecer
(to) be idle, (to) rest
“it goes without
saying that . . .”
idle, lazy (and such
a person)
strike
hunger strike
revelry, carousing
fountain, source,
fount, serving dish
fountain
plumbing
plumber
out, outside, without
outside,
outskirts (pl.)
foreign
stranger, outsider
(also adj.)
force, strength
(to) force
strength, fortitude,
fortress
(to) strengthen, (to)
fortify
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
esforzar *
(Section .:
f S h)
fortis
[foyer]
forum
[fool “windbag”]
esfuerzo
reforzar *
refuerzo
fuerte (adj. & n.)
forte (<It.)
fuero
fuero interno
foro
forense
desafuero
[folly]
desaforado
(l S r)
grossus
grueso (adj. & n.)
gruesa
grosero
[forum]
engrosar (*)
hortus
[forester]
huerta
hospitem (acc.)
jovis

Juerga is a variant from Andalusia, where the aspirated h (written j) continued to be pronounced even after it had disappeared from “standard” Castilian. Jolgorio is a more “expressive”
form of the original holgorio; a similar “expressiveness” accounts for the initial j- (rather than h-)
in the Spanish “ f ”-word ( Latin futuere).
huerto
(in) loco
horticultura
hortaliza
huésped (m.)
hospedar
jueves
jovial
luego
desde luego

(to) give strength,
(to) exert, (to) strain
effort
(to) reinforce, (to) strengthen
reinforcement
strong, fort, forte
forte (musical)
rights and privileges,
code of laws
conscience, heart
of hearts
forum, bar (legal
profession)
forensic, forensic
doctor (m./f.)
excess, outrage,
violation
reckless, lawless,
enormous
corpulent, thick,
[gross]
thickness, bulk
gross (a group of
twelve dozen)
coarse, uncouth,
rude
(to) thicken, (to)
[engross]
swell, (to) increase
orchard, vegetable
garden
large vegetable
garden, irrigated
region
horticulture
vegetable ( verdura)
guest
[host; see
Section .]
(to) put up, (to) lodge
Thursday
[Jove’s day]
jovial
then, afterward, therefore
[locus]
naturally, of course

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
mobilis
mola
mueble
amueblar 
inmueble
bienes inmuebles
mobiliario moblaje
inmobiliario
inmobiliaria
muela
muela del juicio
moler *
molino
molino de viento
molienda
remolino
moles “mass”
mollis
monstrum
muelle ()
mole (f.)
molécula
molecular
demoler *
demolición
demoledor
muelle ()
mullir
mullido (p.p.)
molusco
muestra
mostrar *
demostrar *
mordere
morder *
piece of furniture
(to) furnish
property, building
real estate
household furniture
real estate (adj.)
real estate (agency)
millstone, grindstone,
molar (tooth)
wisdom tooth
(to) grind, (to) mill
mill
windmill
grinding, milling
whirlwind, whirlpool,
cowlick
wharf, pier, dock
mass, bulk
molecule
molecular
(to) demolish
demolition
devastating
soft, comfortable,
spring (mechanical)
(to) fluff, (to) soften
soft, fluff y, springy
mollusk (or mollusc)
sample, specimen,
sign
(to) show, (to)
demonstrate
(to) demonstrate,
(to) prove
(to) bite
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
[mobile]
mordaz
[immobile]
mordisco
remorder *
remordimiento
almuerzo
almorzar *
mortis (genit.)
muerte (f.)
muerto
mortal
mortalidad
morir 
moribundo
mortificar
amortiguar
[mole ]
amortiguador
amortizar
[mollify]
nostrum
novem
[monster]

As for diezmar and adiestrar (see earlier footnotes), the original verb amoblar has been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables.

Mole  (AHCD): . A massive, usually stone wall constructed in the sea, used to enclose or
protect an anchorage or harbor. . The anchorage or harbor enclosed by a mole.
novus
amortización
nuestro
nosotros
Nuestra Señora
nueve
noveno
(hora) nona
nuevo (adj.)
nueva (n., gen. pl.)
nuevamente
biting, caustic,
mordant
bite
(to) bite repeatedly,
(to) cause remorse
remorse
lunch, midmorning
snack
(to) consume one’s
almuerzo
death
dead
mortal, fatal
mortality
(to) die
moribund, dying
(to) mortify
(to) cushion, (to)
muffle
shock absorber (auto)
(to) amortize, (to)
redeem
amortization
our
we
Notre Dame
nine
ninth
nones (eccl., Roman)
new
news, tidings
again ( otra vez,
de nuevo)

(cf. “a bite to
eat”)
[rigor
mortis]
[nostrum ]
[November]
[noon ]

Morir has ue diphthongs in the nine (of forty-seven) conjugations in which the stress is on
the stem syllable; in eleven other conjugations the o becomes u. The pattern is thus analogous to
verbs like hervir (see footnote no. ).

From nostrum remedium (“our remedy”), i.e., prepared by the person recommending it.

Latin nona originated as a shortened form of novena. Originally noon was the ninth hour
of daylight, or  p.m. When the time of church prayers shifted from the ninth to the sixth hour,
noon became  p.m.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
nova
novedad
novel (adj.)
novela (n.)
novelista
renovar *
renovación
innovar
orphanus
ossum (CL os)
innovación
innovador (adj. & n.)
huérfano 
orfanato
hueso
osificar
deshuesar 
ovum
pontem (acc.)
huevo
hueva
ovulación
óvalo
puente
pontón
pontífice
pontificado
populus
pueblo
poblar *
porcus
puerco
porquería
nova (suddenly
bright star)
novelty, news
novel
novel, fiction
novelist
(to) renew, (to)
renovate
renewal, renovation
(to) innovate
innovation
innovative, innovator
orphan
orphanage
bone, pit or stone
(fruit), os
(to) ossify
(to) bone (meat), (to)
stone or pit (fruit)
egg
roe (e.g., caviar)
ovulation
oval
bridge
pontoon (bridge or
boat)
Pontiff, Pope
pontificate (reign
of Pope)
small town, village,
people
(to) populate, (to)
inhabit
pig, hog ( cerdo)
dirt, fi lth, “pig pen”
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
porta
puerta
portal
portero
pórtico
portada
(no diphthongs !)
portus
porche
puerto
aeropuerto
aportar ()
aportar ()
aportación
pos(i)tus
puesto (p.p. & adj.) 
puesto (n.m.)
[ovum]
[ova]
puesta (n.f.)
[pontifex]
puesto que
posición
postal
poste
postizo 
apuesto (p.p.)
[pork]

An initial h- was added to huérfano, hueso, and huevo, since Spanish does not “permit” a
word to start with ue-.

As for diezmar, adiestrar, and amueblar (see earlier footnotes), the original verb desosar has
been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables.
apuesta
apostar () *
apostar ()
compuesto (p.p.)
door
entrance hall,
vestibule, portal
porter (doorkeeper),
goalkeeper
portico
title page, front page
or cover, facade
porch
port, mountain pass
airport
(to) make port
( arribar)
(to) contribute
contribution (money,
goods, ideas)
set, laid, dressed
or attired (w/
qualifying adj.)
post, position, place,
stall or stand (market)
setting (e.g., la puesta
del Sol), laying (eggs)
since, inasmuch as
position
postal, postcard (f.)
post, pole
false, artificial (hair,
teeth), postiche
handsome, goodlooking
bet, wager
(to) bet, (to) wager
(to) station or post
composed, compound
(adj. & n.)

[apposite]

Apart from other defi nitions they might have, words ending in -puesto are past participles of
verbs ending in -poner (e.g., poner, componer, disponer, oponer), corresponding to English words
ending in -pose (pose, compose, dispose, oppose). These verbs can be found in Section ..

Something (artificial) positioned to make up for whatever is lacking.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
composición
compositor
decomposición
deposición
dispuesto (p.p.)
disposición
dispositivo
expuesto (p.p.)
exposición
impuesto (p.p.)
imposición
impostor
indispuesto (p.p)
indisposición
opuesto (p.p.)
oposición
presupuesto (p.p.)
propuesta
proposición
a propósito
repuesto (p.p.)
reposición
supuesto (p.p.)
por supuesto
suposición
post
pues (conj.)
después
composition
composer
decomposition
deposition, bowel
movement
disposed, ready, apt
disposition, arrangement, decree, will
device, mechanism
exposed, unprotected,
dangerous or risky
exposition, exhibition,
exposure (photo, sun)
tax
imposition, deposit
(in a bank)
impostor, slanderer
indisposed, mildly ill,
on bad terms
indisposition, minor
ailment
opposite, contrary
opposition,
competitive entrance
exam (gen. pl.)
budget
proposal
proposition, proposal
by the way, a propos
spare (held in
reserve), spare part
replacement, revival
(theater), repeat (TV)
supposed, so-called,
supposition (m.)
of course, naturally
supposition,
assumption
since, then, well
(interjection)
after, afterward
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
probare
resolutus
rogare
probar *
prueba
resuelto (p.p.)
resolver *
resolución
rogar *
ruego
interrogar
abrogar
arrogar(se)
derogar
prorrogar
prórroga
subrogar
rota
rueda
rueda de prensa
rodar *
rodaje
rodear
rodeo
ruedo
[post]
soccus
(“slipper”)
solea
solere
rotación
rotar
zueco
suela
soler *
(to) prove, (to) try,
(to) taste (sample)
proof, test, ordeal
resolute
(to) resolve, (to) solve
resolution, resolve
(to) request, (to)
plead (appeal
earnestly)
request, plea,
entreaty
(to) interrogate
(to) abrogate
(to) arrogate to
oneself, (to) usurp
(to) repeal or revoke
(to) extend, (to) defer
extension, overtime
(sports)
(to) subrogate, (to)
surrogate
wheel
press conference
(to) roll, (to) fi lm,
(to) rotate ( rotar)
shooting or fi lming
(motion picture)
(to) surround, (to)
take the long way
around
roundabout way,
rodeo
bullring, border or
fringe (round)
rotation
(to) rotate
clog, sabot (wooden
shoe)
sole (of a shoe)
(to) be used to, (to)
be in the habit of

[derogate]
[prorogue]
[rota]
[sock]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
insólito
solidus
insolente 
insolencia
sueldo
soldado
sólido
solidez
solidario
solidaridad
soldar *
soldador
soldadura
solum
somnium
somnus
suelo
subsuelo
solar ()
solar * ()
(unrelated)
sueño () 
soñar *
soñador
ensueño
sueño ()
insomnio
sonámbulo
somnoliento
soñoliento
unusual, uncommon,
unheard-of
insolent
insolence
salary
soldier
solid (adj. & n.)
solidity
supportive, making
common cause
solidarity
(to) solder, (to) weld
welder or solderer,
soldering iron
soldering or welding,
solder
floor, ground, soil
subsoil
plot (of land), lot
(to) floor, (to) pave
solar ()
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
somnolencia
somnífero
(adj. & n.)
[sou,
solidus]
sortem (acc.)
suerte (f.)
sortear
sorteo
sortilegio
consorcio
consorte
resorte
[solum]
tonare
solar (pertaining to
the sun)
dream
(to) dream
dreamer
illusion, fantasy,
dream
sleep, sleepiness
insomnia,
sleeplessness
somnambulist,
sleepwalker
somnolent (sleepy)

In Latin, an insolent person was initially one who acted in a manner contrary to custom;
from this developed the “modern” notion of insolence.

Latin “sleep” and “dream” were two closely related words that by phonetic “accident” have
coalesced in Spanish. They have been maintained apart in French, Italian, and Portuguese.
tronar *
trueno
atónito
estruendo
torquere
[tortus (p.p.)]
detonación
detonar
detonante
detonador
torcer *
tuerto
entuerto
torcido (p.p.)
torsión
tormento
tormenta
atormentar
tortura
somnolence,
drowsiness
somniferous
( soporífero),
sleeping pill
luck, fate, lot, sort
(to) draw lots for, (to)
evade (a problem)
raffle, drawing of lots
sorcery, magic spell,
sortilege
consortium,
association
consort, spouse
spring (elastic),
resort (means to
attain something)
(to) thunder
thunder
thunderstruck,
astonished,
astounded, stunned
thunderous noise,
uproar
detonation
(to) detonate
detonator
(to) twist
one-eyed (adj. & n.)
injustice, wrong,
afterpains (pl.)
twisted, bent,
crooked (tie, picture)
twisting, torsion
torment, torture
storm, tempest
(to) torment, (to)
torture
torture

(“sharing
same fate”)
(o—r S ro)
[torque]
[tort]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
tortuoso
trocare
trocar *
trueque
volare
volar *
vuelo
volador
volátil
volante (adj. & n.)
ovni
volvere
voleibol, vóleibol
volver *
vuelto (p.p.)
vuelta
ida y vuelta
voltear
voltereta
desenvolver *
desenvoltura
devolver *
envolver *
envoltura
revolver *
revólver ( Eng.)
revolución
revolucionario
tortuous (winding,
twisted, circuitous,
devious)
(to) exchange, (to)
barter, (to) truck
exchange, barter,
truck
(to) fly, (to) disappear, (to) blow up
flight
flying
volatile
flying, steering wheel
UFO
volleyball
(to) turn, (to) return
verso (back side),
change (Amer.)
turn, curve, tour,
return, stroll
roundtrip
(to) turn over, (to)
toss
somersault, tumble
(to) unwrap, (to)
develop, (to) unfold
ease, confidence,
poise
(to) return, (to)
give back
(to) envelop, (to)
wrap, (to) cover
wrapper, wrapping
(to) stir (up), (to) turn
(around), (to) revolve
revolver
revolution
revolutionary
(adj. & n.)
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
revolucionar
revuelta
revuelto (p.p.)
huevo revuelto
[vol-au-vent]
(to) revolutionize,
(to) stir up
revolt, disturbance
disordered,
scrambled, unsettled,
stormy
scrambled egg
It is interesting to observe that the language of animals is subject to the same
evolutionary forces:
cloc (onom.)
[volant]
(objeto
volador no
identificado)

clueca
clocar *
en cuclillas
broody hen
(to) cluck ( cloquear)
squatting, crouching (OldSp. cluquillas)
English is not immune to such changes: until at least the seventeenth century,
English-speaking chickens clocked, while now (apart from some northern English dialects) they cluck.
. o S u
[volute]
cogitare
cognatus
dormientem (acc.)
jocari
[devolve]
cuidar 
cuñado
durmiente
la Bella
Durmiente
dormir 
duermevela
jugar 
jugador
juguete
juego
jocoso
joya ( Fr.)
joyería
(to) care for, (to) look after
brother-in-law
sleeping, dormant
Sleeping Beauty
(to) sleep
light or restless sleep
(to) play
player, gambler
toy
game
humorous, jocose, jocular
jewel, jewelry (pl.)
jewelry store, jewelry trade
[cogitate]
[cognate]
[joke]
[involve]

Spanish-clucking chickens have undergone a further “popular” phonetic change, described
in Section . (cl S ll), so that a clueca is also known as a llueca.

Following the disappearance of the intervening g (Section .), the u combined with i to
form a diphthong: [kwi•dar].

Like morir (see footnote ), dormir has ue diphthongs in the nine (of forty-seven) conjugations in which the stress is on the stem syllable; in eleven other conjugations the o becomes u.

For the verb jugar, the stressed syllables have diphthongs (yo juego), the unstressed syllables
have u (nosotros jugamos).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
jocularis
joyero
juglar
jeweler (m./f.), jewel case
minstrel, jester
october
polire
potentem (acc.)
octubre
pulir
pudiente
October
(to) polish, (to) polish up
rich, wealthy
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
corredor
(adj. & n.)
corrida
sucursal (f.)
transcurrir / tras-
running, runner,
corridor, broker
race, bullfight,
corrida
(to) travel (across),
(to) scan
(to) walk
distance traveled,
route, journey
(to) have recourse,
(to) resort, (to)
appeal
recurrent
recourse, resort,
appeal (legal),
resources (pl.)
(to) succor, (to) give
help or relief to
help, aid, relief,
succor
branch (office)
(to) elapse, (to) pass
cortar
corto
corte
corte de pelo
El Corte Inglés
(to) cut
short
cutting, cut (n.)
haircut
“The English Cut”
(cum laude,
con-)
[course]
cortina
cortina de humo
recortar
[courier]
recorte
curtain
smokescreen
(to) trim, (to) cut
(reduce)
clipping
(newspaper),
cutting (reduction)
court (royal, law)
[juggler,
jocular]
recorrer
[potent]
recorrer a pie
recorrido (p.p.)
. u S o
The vast majority of Spanish nouns and adjectives ending in -o were derived
from Latin words ending in -us or -um. Corresponding English nouns have
frequently preserved the original ending, while for adjectives it has become
-ous.
abacus
atrium
census
cumulus
eucalyptus
odium
stimulus
ábaco
atrio
censo
cúmulo
eucalipto
odio
estímulo
abacus
atrium, portico (church, palace)
census
cumulus (pile or heap, cloud)
eucalyptus
odium
stimulus
erroneus
famosus
fortuitus
frivolus
heterogeneus
praevius
serius
erróneo
famoso
fortuito
frívolo
heterogéneo
previo
serio
erroneous
famous
fortuitous
frivolous
heterogeneous
previous
serious
recurrir
recurrente
recurso
socorrer 
socorro
curtare
Examples of more “popular” words include:
cum
con
with
currere
correr
correo
(to) run
mail, post office
(gen. pl.)
current, ordinary,
running (e.g., water)
current (water, air,
electricity)
(to) be up-to-date,
well-informed
electric current
corriente (adj.)
corriente (f.)
estar al corriente
corriente eléctrica
(unrelated)

corte (f.)

[recur]
[transcurrent]
[curt]
(Sp. dept.
store chain)
From Latin succurrere ( sub currere), literally “to run under”, i.e., to support.
 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
furnus
juvenis
horno
hornillo
joven (adj. & n.)
juventud
mutilare
plumbum
juvenil
rejuvenecer
motilar
mutilar
plomo
plomero
plomería
plomizo
aplomo
desplomar
desplome
pulvis
polvo
polvoriento
pólvora
pulverizar
rumpere
romper
corromper
derrumbar
derrumbe
furnace, oven, kiln
small stove
young, young
person
youth (period of
life), young people
juvenile, youthful
(to) rejuvenate
(to) give a haircut to
(to) mutilate
lead
lead worker,
plumber (Amer.)
lead roofing,
plumbing (Amer.)
lead-colored
aplomb, poise
(to) get out of plumb,
(to) collapse, (to)
topple
collapse (e.g., of a
building)
dust, powder
dusty
gunpowder,
fireworks
(to) pulverize, (to)
spray (with an
atomizer)
(to) break, (to)
smash, (to) tear
(to) corrupt
(to) knock down,
(to) collapse
collapse (building,
wall, idea)
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
ruptus (p.p.)
ruptura
roto (p.p.)
rotura
[junior ]
ruptura
submittere
erupción
someter
sumiso
[plumb]
subornare
sobornar
soborno
sub poena
so pena de
super
sobre
truncus
tronco
troncho
tronchar
truncar
entroncar
[erumpent]

The Latin comparative of juvenis was initially juven-ior (“younger”), subsequently shortened to junior.
unda
onda
ondear
ondulación
ondular
urtica
(horno)
microondas
ortiga
urticaria
broken, torn
breakage, fracture
(bone), crack
(e.g., pipe)
rupture, breakup
(relationship)
eruption
(to) subject, (to)
submit
submissive, obedient,
submiss†
(to) suborn, (to) bribe
bribe, bribery,
subornation
under pain (or
penalty) of
over, above, about,
envelope (n.)
trunk (tree,
body, etc.)
stem or stalk
(cauliflower,
lettuce, etc.)
(to) break or fall off
(branch, stem, etc.)
(to) truncate, (to)
leave incomplete
(phrase, life)
(to) connect or relate
to (person, idea)
wave, ripple
(to) undulate, (to)
ripple
undulation
(to) undulate, (to)
wave (the hair)
microwave (oven)
(stinging) nettle
urticaria, hives

[rout, route]
[subpoena]
[super]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
urticante
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
urticant (causing
itching or stinging)
toro
torero
taurus
. au S o
audire
auricula
aurum
ausare
autumnus
causa
gaudium
laudare
maurus
paucus
tan poco
tauromaquia
oír
oído
audible
inaudito
oreja
auricular
oro
orfebre
orfebrería
osar
osado (p.p.)
osadía
audaz
audacia
otoño
cosa
causa
gozo
gozar
gozoso
goce
regocijar
regocijo
loar
moro
moreno
Mauritania
poco
poco a poco
poquito
tampoco
(to) hear, (to) listen
hearing, ear
audible
unheard-of, outrageous
ear (external part)
receiver (telephone),
headphones (pl.)
gold
goldsmith, silversmith
gold or silver work
(to) dare
daring (adj.), impudent,
disrespectful
daring (n.), audacity
audacious, bold
audacity, boldness
autumn
thing, matter
cause, reason, case
(legal), lawsuit
joy
(to) enjoy, (to) have the
benefit of
joyous, joyful
enjoyment, pleasure
(to) gladden, (to) rejoice
delight, rejoicing
(to) laud, (to) praise
Moorish, Moor
swarthy, dark-skinned,
tanned, brunette
Mauritania
little, few
little by little, gradually
very little, very small
amount
neither, nor
[oyez]
[audit]
thesaurus
[inaudible]
[auricle]
[oriole]
[gold forger]
tesoro
bull
torero (bullfighter),
toreador 
art of bullfighting

[Taurus]
[rare
tauromachy]
treasure, Treasury,
thesaurus
treasurer
treasury (of an entity, not
necessarily the state)
tesorero
tesorería
Appendix
English Vowels—A Historical Note
Many native English-speaking students of “continental languages” (Romance, Germanic, Slavic) initially find themselves puzzled by the names given to some of “our”
vowels by these other languages. Specifically:
Spanish
English
the name of the letter e
the name of the letter i
is pronounced
is pronounced
a
e
as in mate
as in me
and the sounds represented by these vowels are similarly represented (or, one might
think, misrepresented). Hence
Latin/Spanish
is pronounced much like
de
mi
English
day
me
The explanation for these divergences lies in the fact that over the past six hundred
years English vowel pronunciation has undergone a dramatic transformation—known,
not surprisingly, as “The Great Vowel Shift”—while “Continental” vowels continue to
be pronounced as they have “always” been. This can be illustrated by contrasting the
vowel sounds in the following pairs of cognate Spanish and English words:
Spanish
[paucity]
a
e
natura
legión

English
natural
legendario
Spanish toreador exists, but it is rare.
nature
legion
natural
legendary

i
o
u
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
mil
probar
profundo
milenio
probable
profundidad
mile
prove
profound
millennium
probable
profundity
For each pair of English words, the two vowels marked in bold used to have the
same sound but now differ markedly, while in Spanish the corresponding vowels continue to be pronounced identically.
In the “old” days, English vowel pronunciation was very similar to that of Classical Latin: each vowel had a short and a long variant, which were distinguished by their
length of articulation rather than by any fundamental difference in their pronunciation.
In the above list, the highlighted vowel in the first English word (i.e., nature) was long,
while in the second (natural) it was short. Between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, the pronunciation of all long vowels—and most short ones as well—shifted, so
that in “Modern” English there is no direct correspondence between “long” and “short”
vowel sounds: one can extend the pronunciation of a “short” vowel for as long as one
likes, but it will never sound even remotely like the corresponding “long” vowel. As a
result, the natural linkage between the vowel sounds in pairs like nature—natural has
been irretrievably broken.
Spanish vowel pronunciation remains very close to that of Middle English, so that a
native Spanish speaker today would pronounce a text by Chaucer (at least the vowels)
with considerably more accuracy than would a native English speaker.
SEC TION .
Basic Consonant Changes: p/b, t/d, c/g
In this section we will focus on what are called stop consonants or occlusives,
i.e, those in which the outgoing flow of air is temporarily blocked: p, b, t, d, c,
g, where “c” and “g” refer to the “hard” pronunciations of these consonants (cat
and go). The varying treatment of stop consonants during the transition from
Latin is one of the principal features distinguishing the modern Romance languages. This can be illustrated by the comparisons in the following table, where
(ø) denotes that the consonant in question has disappeared.
Latin
Italian
Spanish
French
English
p
t
c
sapere
moneta
securus
sapere
moneta
sicuro
saber
moneda
seguro
savoir
monnaie (ø)
sûr (ø)
savant, sapient
money, monetary
sure, secure
b
d
g
probare
crudelis
ligare
provare
crudele
legare
probar
cruel (ø)
liar (ø)
prouver
cruel (ø)
lier (ø)
prove, probatory
cruel, crudity
liaison, ligament
The following are common features of the treatment of interior stop consonants in “popular” words:
. Latin B changed to v in Italian and French; its pronunciation in Spanish
also changed to v, although the written form b has been maintained.
. In Spanish, the other five consonants have either changed (P, T, C) or
(frequently) disappeared (D, G).
. In Italian, apart from the change B S v, the stop consonants generally
remained unchanged.
. In French, both P and B became v; the other four consonants generally
disappeared without a trace.
. English “popular” forms show the French pattern, while “learned” ones
preserve the original Latin consonants.
Before considering Spanish stop consonants in greater detail, we will first look
at what happened to double consonants of whatever type.

Spanish b is pronounced [b] at the beginning of a word or following m (cambiar); otherwise
it is pronounced [v] (see Section ., no. ).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
Double Consonants
In Latin (as in Old English), there was a distinction in pronunciation between
single and double consonants. This remains an important feature in Italian,
where, for example, papa (“Pope”) and pappa (“pap”, i.e., “baby food”) are
pronounced differently. In Spanish, the various outcomes of Latin double consonants are illustrated in the following examples; the corresponding English
word in each case maintains a written double consonant. For cc, it is necessary
to take into account the nature of the letter that follows: back vowel (a, o, u),
consonant, or front vowel (e, i).
bb
abbreviare
cc
a/o/u
consonant
e/i
abreviar
nn
annus
innocentem (acc.)
innovare
año
inocente
innovar
year
innocent
innovate
pp
applicare
aplicar
apply
rr
irritare
irritar
irritate
ss
massa
masa
mass, dough
tt
littera
letra
letter
abbreviate
Seven double consonants plus cc followed by a/o/u or by a consonant have thus
been totally eliminated from Spanish:
accusare
acclamare
accidentem (acc.)
accentus
acusar
aclamar
accidente
acento
accuse
acclaim
accident
accent
dd
addictus
adicto
addict
ff
affirmare
afirmar
affirm
gg
aggravare
agravar
aggravate
ll
vallis
illegalis
valle
ilegal
valley
illegal
comma
imminentem (acc.)
coma
inminente
comma
imminent
mm
Rule: In native Spanish words, b, d, f, g, p, s, and t are never “double”. This
holds as well for c when followed by a “back” vowel (a/o/u) or consonant.
Of the remaining five consonants that could be doubled in Latin, rr became
the trilled r (distinct from “simple” r), while for cc ( e/i), ll, mm, and nn there
were divergent outcomes:
(a) cc ( e/i) was maintained in three “groups” of words; in all others it was
simplified to c.
The three groups that maintained the double c are:
accedere
acceder
accessus
acceso
accesorio

In Modern English, spoken “double” consonants exist only in a few compound words where
the separate words have maintained their identity:
unnatural
bookkeeper
doggone
rattail
un•natural
book•keeper
dog•gone
rat•tail
(cf. the dog on the roof)
(cf. rat ale)
or in expressions pronounced as single words:
bus stop
stop payment

bus•stop
stop•payment
accesible
accesibilidad
(to) accede, (to)
have access to
access (incl. “outburst
or onset”, e.g., fever)
accessory (secondary),
accessory (m.)
accessible
accessibility

There are a very limited number of exceptions, all in “non-native” words: e.g., hobby, yiddish,
sheriff, jogging, hippie, topless, watt, staccato.

The double c also appears in several scientific and medical terms (e.g., cóccix and occipital) and in the alternative spellings fláccido and flaccidez for the “preferred” flácido and flacidez
(“flaccid”, “flaccidity”).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
accidentalis
occidentalis
accésit
inaccesible
inaccesibilidad
consolation prize
inaccessible
inaccessibility
accidental
accidente
accidentado
accidental
accident
uneven, hilly, eventful,
accident victim (m./f.)
occidental
occidente
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
(“nearly got there”)
acelerar
aceleración
acelerador
desaceleración
celeridad
accentus
acento
acentuar
acceptare
aceptar
aceptable
inaceptable
aceptación
acepción
successus
suceso
sucesor
sucesión
sucesivo
suceder
sucedáneo
a•cen•to
[a•cen•to] not like English [ak•sent]
ac•ce•so
[ak•ce•so] like English [ak•ses]
Recall also from Section . that there are a large number of Spanish words
ending in -cción (e.g., acción) that correspond to English -ction words (both
coming from Latin words ending in -ction).
western, occidental,
Westerner (m./f.)
occident, west,
the West
(to) accelerate
acceleration
accelerator
deceleration
celerity (swift ness,
speed)
accent
(to) accent, (to)
accentuate
(to) accept
acceptable
inacceptable
acceptance (favorable
reception), acceptance
acceptation (meaning
[of a word])
event, occurrence
successor
succession
successive
(to) succeed (follow),
(to) happen
succedaneum
(substitute)
This different treatment represents a real difference in pronunciation, not only
in spelling, since cc is pronounced as two separate and distinct sounds, “hard”
c followed by “soft” c:
acento
versus
acceso
Examples of simplification of cc (followed by a front vowel e/i) to a single c
include:
accelare

(b) In compound words, ll was reduced to a single consonant (as in ilegal, originally from in legalis), while in most other words it became a palatized l,
written ll. This is theoretically pronounced much like the [ly] sound in million, but for most modern Spanish speakers it is pronounced indistinguishably
from y: 
calló
cayó
(celer “swift”)
[cao] or [caYo]
[caYo]
he silenced (or became silent)
he fell
Thus:
allegoria
allusio(n)
bulla
collaborare
collegium
illicitus
illusio(n)
alegoría
alusión
aludir
bula
colaborar
colaboración
colegio
colega
ilícito
ilusión
ilusionar
ilusionista
desilusión
allegory
allusion
(to) allude
(Papal) bull
(to) collaborate
collaboration
college, school
colleague
illicit, unlawful
illusion, hope,
happiness (thinking
of something)
(to) have high hopes for
illusionist, magician
disillusion, disillusionment,
disappointment

Which itself can have a range of pronunciations, ranging from “pure” y (as in yet) to a sound
very much like English “soft” g.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ilustrar
ilustración
illustrare
(to) illustrate, (to) enlighten
illustration, the
Enlightenment (cap.)
illustrious, distinguished
pollen
ilustre
polen
pollen
but:
bellus
bullire
bello
bullir
bulla bullicio
castillo
sello
valla
castellum
sigillum
valla
beautiful
(to) boil
hubbub, uproar, racket
castle
seal, stamp, postage stamp
fence, hurdle (track),
billboard
(to) fence in
fence, defensive enclosure
vallar
vallado valladar
intervalo
circunvalación
vello
villus
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
velloso
velludo
vellón
interval (orig. “between
the ramparts”)
beltway, circumvallation
fuzz (body, fruit),
body hair
fuzzy, downy
hairy (lots of fuzz or down)
fleece
[ebullient]
[chateau]
[wall]
[vallation]
[villi,
velour]
[villous]
[velvet]
(c) In compound words where mm had arisen from in (either in the negative
sense or meaning “in”) m-, Spanish went back to the original (pre-Classical)
Latin form. Words in which the mm had arisen from cum- (“with”) m- were
reconstituted as conm-, due to the influence of con ( CUM).
in-materialis
cum-motio(n)
S
S
Classical Latin
Spanish
English
immaterialis
commotio(n)
inmaterial
conmoción
immaterial
commotion
Similarly,
conmemorar
—conmemoración
—conmemorativo
(to) commemorate
—commemoration
—commemorative
conmiseración
conmutar
—conmutación
inmaculado
inmaduro
—inmadurez
inmediato
inmemorial
inmenso
—inmensidad
inmersión
—inmerso
inmigrar
—inmigrante (adj. & n.)
—inmigración
inminente
inmoderado
inmodesto
inmolar
—inmolación
inmoral
—inmoralidad
inmortal
—inmortalidad
—inmortalizar
inmune
—inmunidad
—inmunizar
—inmunología
inmutable

commiseration
(to) commute (exchange; reduce a judicial penalty)
—commutation
immaculate
immature, unripe
—immaturity
immediate
immemorial
immense
—immensity
immersion
—immersed
(to) immigrate
—immigrant
—immigration
imminent
immoderate
immodest
(to) immolate, (to) sacrifice
—immolation, sacrifice
immoral
—immorality
immortal
—immortality
—(to) immortalize
immune
—immunity
—(to) immunize
—immunology
immutable
In virtually all other words, mm was reduced to simple m:
commentare
commodus
dilemma
gamma (ut)
summarium
comentar
cómodo
dilema (m.)
gama
gamma
sumario (adj. & n.)
somero
(to) comment (on)
comfortable, commodious
dilemma
gamut, range, scale (musical)
gamma (letter, ray,   gram)
summary
shallow (e.g., waters),
superficial

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
(d) In compound words, nn was usually maintained as nn, sometimes reduced
to simple n, but never palatized to ñ.
connivencia
innato
innumerable
conniventia
innatus
innumerabilis
irregularis
connivance
innate, inborn
innumerable
inocuo innocuous (harmless, insipid)
In non-compound words, it was generally palatized to ñ:
annus
canna
capanna
pannus
pinna
stannum
año
añejo
caña
caña de azúcar
caña de pescar
caño
cañería
cañaveral
cañón ()
cañón ()
cabaña
paño
pana ( Fr.)
peña
peñasco
peñón
estaño
year
old, aged (wine,
cheese, etc.)
cane, reed
sugar cane
fishing rod
pipe, short tube, spout
pipe(s), plumbing
cane field
cannon, gun barrel
canyon
cabin
cloth (fabric or piece)
corduroy, velveteen
large rock, rocky terrain
large rock, crag
rocky prominence (e.g.,
Gibraltar)
tin
carro
cerro
corromper
(old p.p.)
Con [r]
Con [rr]
With [r]
With [rr]
bario
cero
coro
barrio
cerro
corro
barium
zero
choir
encerar
moro
para
pero
quería
encerrar
morro
parra
perro
querría
(to) wax
Moor
for
but
s/s  imperfect
(verb querer)
barrio, neighborhood
hill
circle, ring of people; also
“I run” (verb correr)
(to) shut in
snout
vine
dog
s/s conditional (verb querer)
[per annum]
[Cape Canaveral]
Simplification of Stop Consonants: p, b, t, d, c, g
[cabana]
[pane, panel]
[pinnacle]
In the evolution from Latin to Spanish, stop consonants in “popular” words
have undergone a systematic and far-reaching transformation that continues
to this day, at least in certain regions. The transformation is depicted below;
for c and g we restrict ourselves for the moment to the “hard” forms followed
directly by a/o/u or a consonant.
Latin
[stannous]
(e) In both compound and “regular” words, rr generally became the Spanish
trilled r, written rr.
carrus
cirrus
corrumpere
corrupt, corrupted
corruption
irregular
irregularity
The contrast between r and rr distinguishes a number of pairs of words, e.g.,
but
innocuus
corrupto
corrupción
irregular
irregularidad

car, cart
(big) hill, neck (of animal)
(to) corrupt
[cirrus]
Spanish
pp
p
S
S
p
b
tt
t
d
S
S
S
t
d
ø
cc
c
S
S
c
g
g
S
ø
bb, dd, gg
S
b, d, g

In these cases, the pronunciation frequently retains a certain degree of the original doubled
pronunciation (analogous to English unnatural); thus innato is generally represented phonetically as [in•na•to] or [i n•na•to].

A single r has the trilled r pronunciation (a) at the beginning of a word (radio), and (b) in the
interior following l (alrededor), n (sonrisa), or s (israelí).

First and third person singular, respectively.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
The transformation thus consisted of three stages, the first two of which occurred more or less contemporaneously:

Stage I: Double Consonants to Single Consonants
a. pp S p
I. double consonants
II. P, T, C
III. D, G
S
S
S
single consonants
b, d, g
ø
applaudere
The first stage has already been considered above, where we saw that it affected
various consonants in addition to p, b, t, d, c, g. The third stage continues to the
present day.
cappa
oppositio(n)
supportare
Linguistic Note: Voiced versus Unvoiced Consonants
S
voiceless single
S
voiced single
oponer
soportar
soportable
insoportable
The series of consonant changes portrayed above was by no means random. To
see this, it is necessary to introduce the notion of voiced and unvoiced consonants. During the articulation of a voiced consonant (or vowel) the vocal cords
vibrate, whereas for a voiceless consonant there is no such vibration. One way
to convince yourself of the reality of this difference is to cover your ears and
utter the sounds: you should be able to hear a resonance for the voiced consonants that is lacking for the voiceless ones.
The six occlusives are in fact divided into three pairs—p/b, t/d, c/g—whose
elements are articulated identically, apart from the fact that while the first is
voiceless, the second is voiced. The three stages in the evolution of Spanish
voiceless stop consonants can thus be portrayed as elements of a uniform overall process:
voiceless double
aplaudir
aplauso
capa
oposición
S
We will now provide illustrations of these changes as they affected the consonant pairs p/b, t/d, and c/g.

The difference can most easily be detected for the fricative (or hissing) consonants s and z,
e.g., ssssssss (no vibration) versus the bumble-bee sound zzzzzzzz (vibration). S is thus voiceless,
and z is voiced.
[opponent]
b. tt S t
attractio(n)
glutto(n)
gutta
ø
The second stage, that is, voicing of unvoiced consonants, also affects “casual”
English speech, where atom and latter are often pronounced indistinguishably
from Adam and ladder.
(to) applaud
applause
cape, coat (layer)
opposition, competitive
examinations (pl.)
(to) oppose
(to) support, (to) tolerate
supportable, tolerable,
bearable
insupportable, unbearable
atracción
atractivo
atraer
glotón (-ona)
glotonería
gota
gotear
gotera
agotar
agotado (p.p.)
littera
sagittarius
inagotable
letra
sagitario
attraction
attractive, charm or
attractiveness (m.)
(to) attract
gluttonous, glutton
gluttony
drop, gout
(to) drip
leak (roof or wall)
(to) exhaust, (to) use up
completely
exhausted, worn out,
sold out, out of print
inexhaustible
letter
Sagittarius
[gutter]
c. cc S c
We saw earlier that when followed by a front vowel (e, i), cc was generally reduced (acento) but occasionally maintained (acceso). It is always reduced before
a back vowel (a, o, u) or consonant. Some examples follow:
accomodare
acomodar
(to) accommodate, (to) adapt, (to)
place

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
acomodado (p.p.)
acomodación
accusare
ecclesiasticus
occasio(n)
occultus
occupatio(n)
occurrere
praeoccupare
saccus
acomodador (-ora)
acusar
acusar recibo (de)
acusado (p.p.)
acusación
acusativo
eclesiástico
ocasión
ocasional
ocasionar
ocaso 
oculto
ocultar
ocultismo
ocupación
ocupar
ocupante
ocupado
ocurrir
ocurrencia
ocurrente
preocupar
preocupado
preocupación
despreocupar(se)
despreocupado (p.p.)
despreocupación
saco
well-off, well-to-do, reasonable
(moderate)
accommodation (gen. adaptation,
not lodging)
usher, usherette (theater)
(to) accuse
(to) acknowledge receipt (of)
notable or marked, accused (m./f.),
defendant (m./f.)
accusation, prosecution (legal)
accusative (gram.)
ecclesiastical, ecclesiastic
occasion, opportunity
occasional, chance (adj.)
(to) occasion, (to) cause
sunset ( puesta del Sol), decline
occult (hidden from view,
concealed)
(to) occult (hide, conceal)
occultism
occupation
(to) occupy
occupying, occupant (m./f.)
busy (person, telephone), occupied
(to) occur
occurrence, (bright) idea
witty
(to) preoccupy, (to) be concerned
preoccupied, worried, concerned
preoccupation, worry, concern
(to) stop worrying, (to) stop paying
attention to
unconcerned, carefree, careless
lack of concern, carelessness
sack, jacket, sweater, sac
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
Double voiced consonants were much rarer in Latin than double unvoiced
ones:
d. bb S b
abbatem (acc.)
sabbatum
abad (m.)
sábado
Ocaso and ocasión are both derived from the Latin verb cadere (“to fall”, Spanish caer):
ocasión is a falling of things together; ocaso is the falling of the sun.
abbot
Saturday
[Sabbath]
e. dd S d
additio(n)
adducere
adición
aducir
addition
(to) adduce
f. gg S g
aggressio(n)
exaggerare
suggestio(n)
agresión
agredir
agresivo
agresividad
agresor
exagerar
exageración
sugestión
sugerir
sugerencia
sugestivo
aggression
(to) assault, (to) attack, (to) aggress
aggressive
aggresivity
aggressor
(to) exaggerate
exaggeration
suggestion (esp. “power of suggestion”)
(to) suggest
suggestion
suggestive, appealing
Stage II: Voiceless to Voiced Consonants
The change from a voiceless to a voiced pronunciation affected p, t, and c between vowels, or between a vowel and a following r or l.
a. p S b
apertus
abierto (p.p.)
abrir
abertura
apertura


open
(to) open
aperture, opening
(physical: e.g., window)
opening (abstract:
inaugural, political,
chess)
[pert]
[aperient]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
apotheca
bodega 
bodegón
botica
boticario
botiquín
aprilis
capillus
capra
caput
(“head”)
boutique (f.)
abril
cabello
cabra
cabo
cabeza
caber
-cipere
recibir
apercibir
desapercibido
percibir
cooperire
concebir
concebible
inconcebible
cubrir
cubierta
cubierto (p.p.)
descubrir
descubierto
(p.p.)
descubrimiento
descubridor
encubrir

(wine) cellar, ship’s
hold, bodega
cheap restaurant, still
life (painting)
pharmacy, drugstore
pharmacist, apothecary
medicine chest, first
aid kit
boutique
April
hair
goat
end, cape, corporal
head
(to) fit, (to) hold (be
contained in)
(to) receive
(to) prepare, (to) warn,
(to) perceive
unprepared, unaware,
unnoticed
(to) perceive, (to) receive
(salary, etc.)
(to) conceive
conceivable
inconceivable
(to) cover
cover (book, bed, etc.)
place setting, meal
(fi xed price)
(to) discover, (to) reveal,
(to) uncover
uncovered, deficit or
overdraft (m.)
discovery
discoverer, scout (mil.)
(to) conceal, (to) cover
up (a misdeed)
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
recubrir
cupa (cuppa)
cuba
copa
[boutique]
(unrelated)
( Fr.)
[capillary]
[Capricorn]
(see Section
.)
cuprum
duplare
cúpula
cubo ()
cubo ()
cúbico
cobre
doblar
opera
lobo
lupus
lupanar
obra
operari
obra de arte
obra de teatro
obra(s)
pública(s)
obrar
lupus
[aperçu]
obrar en poder
pauper
obrero
ópera
operar
operación
operable
pobre
piper
pebre (m./f.)
populatio(n)
población
poblar
[operculum]
Note that bodega incorporates all three changes: p S b, (th S) t S d, and c S g.
(to) cover (a surface,
e.g., rust), (to) re-cover
cask, barrel, vat
cup (goblet, trophy),
drink (alcoholic)
cupola, dome
bucket, hub (wheel)
cube
cubic
copper
(to) double, (to) fold,
(to) dub (movies)
wolf, lobo
lupus (disease)
brothel
work, construction,
opus
work of art
play ( obra teatral)
public works
(to) work, (to) act, (to)
defecate 
(to) be in the hands of
(letter, document, etc.)
working, worker (m./f.)
opera
(to) operate
operation
operable
poor, pauper (m./f.),
the poor (pl.)
pepper sauce (with
garlic, parsley, and
vinegar)
population, town
(to) populate, (to)
inhabit

[coop, cooper]
[Cyprus]
[opera]
[operate]

Th is more “popular” defi nition of obrar has an interesting parallel in English, where manure
is a deformation of maneuver, from manu operari (“to operate by hand”).
 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
recobrar recuperar
cobrar
riparia
ribera
(to) recover, (to) get
back, (to) recuperate
(to) get paid, (to) charge
(a price)
shore, bank
ad ripa
ribereño
ribazo
arriba
riparian, riverine
steep bank, slope
above, up, upstairs
arribar
(to) put into port, (to)
arrive ( llegar)
(to) tear down or
demolish, (to) topple
(govt.)
destruction, demolition
(to) know
wise, learned, sage,
learned person
wisdom, learning
taste, savor, flavor
savory, flavorful, tasty
(to) relish, (to) enjoy,
(to) savor
sapience, wisdom
Homo sapiens
insipid (lit. “without
taste”)
unpleasant aftertaste,
bad habit
maybe, perhaps
recuperare
de ripa
derribar
sapere
derribo
saber
sabio (adj. & n.)
sabiduría
sabor
sabroso
saborear
sapiencia
Homo sapiens
insípido
resabio
quizá, quizás
super
sobre
sobra
sobrante
sobrar
soberano
(adj. & n.)
over, above, concerning,
envelope (n.)
surplus (n.), remainder,
leftovers (pl.)
surplus (adj. & n.)
(to) be in excess, (to) be
superfluous, (to) remain
sovereign
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
soberanía
soprano
superfluo
[river,
Riviera]
superar
insuperable
(“toward
shore”)
[sapient]
superávit
superbus
soberbio
soberbia
vipera
víbora
( It.)
(Lat. superavit: “it has
surpassed”)
arrogant, haughty, superb
pride, haughtiness,
arrogance
viper
b. t S d
advocatus
abogado 
abogar
armatura
catena
armadura
cadena
cadena perpetua
encadenar
comitatus
desencadenar
candado
conde
condesa
condado
convitare 
convidar
catenatus
comitem (acc.)
(quién sabe)
sovereignty
soprano (voice: m.;
singer: m./f.)
superfluous,
unnecessary
(to) surpass, (to)
surmount
insuperable,
insurmountable
surplus

lawyer, attorney
(to) plead (in favor or
defense of)
armor, armature
chain, TV or radio
network
life imprisonment
(to) chain, (to) enchain,
(to) link, (to) concatenate
(to) unchain, (to) unleash
padlock
count, earl
countess
county, earldom (title,
territory)
(to) invite (to a fiesta; to
encourage)
[advocate]
( cadenado)

Note that abogado incorporates both the changes t S d and c S g. The initial b (rather
than v) is an example of the “confusion” between the two letters resulting from the coalescing of
the [b] and [v] sounds (see Section ., no. ).

convitare was formed by replacing the prefi x in- of Classical Latin invitare with con-,
probably due to association with the (unrelated) words convivium (“banquet”) and convivialis (“convivial”). Invitar also exists and is synonymous with convidar.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
convite
convidado (p.p.)
fatum
hado
fatídico
enfado
enfadar
later
latinus
ladrillo
ladino
latro(n)
latín
latino
ladrón (-ona)
maritus
mater
materia
maturus
metiri
minutus
ladrar 
ladrido
marido
madre (f.)
madera
madeira,
Madeira
maduro
madurar
madurez
prematuro
medir
medida
desmedido
menudo
a menudo
minuto
minuta
moneta
moneda
invitation, banquet, feast
guest (particularly at a
convite)
fate, destiny
fateful, ominous, fatidic
annoyance, vexation
(to) annoy, (to) develop
a mutual dislike
brick
cunning, craft y, Ladino
(Judeo-Spanish)
Latin (language)
Latin (adj.), lateen (sail)
thieving, thief or larcenist,
multiple plug (m.)
(to) bark
bark, barking
husband
mother
wood
Madeira (wine, islands)
ripe, mature
(to) ripen, (to) mature
ripeness, maturity
premature
(to) measure
measure, measurement
excessive, immoderate
small, minute (adj.)
often, frequently
minute (time), minute
(sixtieth part of a degree)
minute (memorandum),
bill (lawyer)
money, coin
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
monedero
mutare
monetario
mudar
muda
mudanza
[laterite]
mutus
[marital]
[maternal]
[matter]
( Port.)
tartamudear
enmudecer
natare
nativitas
[meter]

Th ieves rarely bark; ladrar comes from a different Latin word very similar in form to that
which produced ladrón. Ladrar’s relatives in English (latrant, latrate, latrator, etc.) have long
since died out.
mutar
mutación
mutante
mudo
mudez
tartamudo 
nutrix
pater
petere
nadar
nadador
natación
Navidad
nodriza
padre
pedir
pedido (p.p.)
despedir
putare
putrere

despedida
podar
pudrir
change purse
( portamonedas)
monetary
(to) change, (to) molt,
(to) move
change of clothes
(underwear), molting
move (change of
residence)
(to) mutate
mutation
mutant
mute, dumb, silent
muteness, silence
stuttering, stammering,
stutterer or stammerer
(m./f.)
(to) stutter, (to) stammer
(to) become silent, (to)
silence
(to) swim
swimmer
natation, swimming
Christmas, Nativity
wet nurse
father
(to) request
request, order (goods,
restaurant)
(to) dismiss, (to) bid
farewell, (to) throw,
(to) emit
farewell, parting
(to) prune (plant, budget)
(to) rot, (to) putrefy

[mutate]
(acc.
navitat-em)
[nutrition]
[paternal]
[petition]
[amputate ]
Tarta- represents a stuttering or stammering sound.
Latin amputare was formed from ambi- (“on both sides”, “around”) and putare (“to
prune”), so that an amputation was an extensive “trimming” or “pruning”.


P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
quadratus
rota
rotundus
podrido (p.p.)
putrid, rotten
putrefacción
putrefacto
cuadrado
(adj. & n.)
rueda
redondo
redondear
putrefaction, rotting
putrefied, rotten, putrid
square, quadrate
(unrelated)
seda
sedoso
silky
sedal
salud
saludable
saludar
saludo
salutación
fishing line
health
salutary, healthy, healthful
(to) greet, (to) salute
greeting, salutation, salute
greeting, salutation
( saludo)
(to) sneeze
sneeze
tilde (), written accent ()
(to) put a tilde on, (to)
label or brand as (negative)
title
titleholder, incumbent,
headlines (pl.)
(to) title, (to) entitle, (to)
obtain an academic title
all, every, whole
all-powerful, almighty
above all, especially
overcoat, smock/overall
( overol)
ronda
rondar
saeta
(“bristle”)
salutem (acc.)
salutare
sternutare
titulus
estornudar
estornudo
tilde (f.)
tildar
título
titular ()
titular ()
totus
todo
todopoderoso
sobre todo
sobretodo
(irregular
p.p.)
veracitas
veritas
wheel
round
(to) make round, (to)
round (up or down)
categorical, expressive
(language), rotund
round(s), patrol, group of
serenaders
(to) make the rounds, (to)
prowl, (to) hover around
silk
rotundo
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
total
totalidad
totalitario
veracidad
veraz
verdad
total
totality
totalitarian
veracity, truthfulness
truthful, veracious
truth, verity
verdadero
vedar
veda
true, real
(to) prohibit, (to) forbid
prohibition, closed
season (hunting)
(to) veto
veto
life
life preserver
vital
vitality
for life, lifelong
vitamin
glass
vitreous, glassy,
glass-like
display (glass) case,
vitrine, shop window
wedding
[rotate]
vetare
vetar
veto 
vida
salvavidas
vital
vitalidad
vitalicio
vitamina
vidrio
vítreo
vita
[seta]
[setose,
setaceous]
vitreum
vitrina
boda
vota
[sternutation]
(dl S ld)

(acc. -tatem)
(acc.
veritat-em)
[vita, CV]
[vote, vows]
The ending -tor generally referred to an actor or agent. When preceded by a vowel,
it has frequently become Spanish -dor:
imperator
gladiator
emperador
gladiador
emperor
gladiator
c. c(a, o, u) S g
When followed immediately by e or i, the c was maintained in spelling but
became “soft” in pronunciation; in most of Spain it is pronounced as [th] (as in
thin, not this), elsewhere as [s], e.g.,
cicero (“kikero”)
Cicerón
Cicero
[thitheron] or [siseron]
[tutti-frutti]
(“over all”)

veto was the fi rst person singular of the verb vetare and thus meant “I forbid”; it was
the ritual word used by Roman tribunes to oppose measures of the Senate or actions of the
magistrates.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
After a vowel, and when followed by either a back vowel (a, o, u) or a “liquid”
consonant (r or l), a “hard” c frequently became Spanish g:
acrus (CL acer)
acutus
alacris
amicus
carricare
agrio
acre
agudo 
alegre
alegría
alegrar
alegro
amigo
amigable
cargar
carga
cargo
cargamento
descargar
descarga
descargo
encargar
clericus

clérigo
clerical
sour, acid, citrus
fruits (pl.)
acrid, tart, acrimonious
sharp, acute
cheerful, happy
happiness, joy
(to) make happy or
glad, (to) enliven
allegro (music)
friend
amicable, friendly
(to) load, (to) charge,
(to) carry (Amer.)
loading, charge
(military, electric,
tax, etc.),
burden, load,
cargo ( Sp.)
post (job), charge (duty
or task, accusation,
debit)
cargo
(to) unload, (to)
discharge, (to)
download ( bajar)
unloading, discharge
(electricity, firearm)
discharge (of
responsibility or
obligation)
(to) entrust, (to) take
charge of
clergyman, cleric
clerical (pertaining
to the clergy)
Note that agudo incorporates both the changes c S g and t S d.
collocare
colgar
colgante
colocar
[eager]
[ague]
[alacrity]
descolgar
delicatus
delgado
delgadez
adelgazar
delicado 
delicadeza
draco(n)
e(c)clesia
fricare
gallicus
inimicus
lacrima
dragón
draconiano
iglesia
eclesiástico
fregar
friega
fregadero
refriega
galgo
enemigo
enemistad
lágrima
lagrimal
lacrimoso
lacrimógeno
[clerk]
lacuna
lacus
gas lacrimógeno
laguna
lago
(to) hang (clothes,
criminal) or hang up
(phone)
pendent (hanging),
pendant (jewelry)
(to) place, (to) set,
(to) collocate
(to) take down, (to)
pick up (telephone)
thin, delicate
thinness, slenderness
(to) lose weight,
(to) slim
delicate
delicacy, tactfulness,
considerateness
dragon, dragoon
draconian
church
ecclesiastic
(to) scrub, (to) scour
rubdown
(kitchen) sink
skirmish, encounter
greyhound
inimical, enemy
(adj. & n.)
enmity, hostility
tear, teardrop
lachrymal (relating to
tears)
lachrymose, tearful
tear-producing,
tearjerker (movie)
tear gas, lachrymator
lagoon, lacuna (gap)
lake
 
[couch]
[ friction]
[ fray vb.]
[Gallic]

Delicado is a “mixed form” word: it has undergone the change t S d but not c S g; by contrast, delgado has undergone both and has also lost a vowel.
 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
laicus
lego (adj. & n.)
laico (adj. & n.)
mal lograr
logro
lograr
lucro
lucrativo
malograr
macrum (acc.)
magro
mendicus
mendigo
mendigar
mendicidad
lucrum
mendicante
pacare
pagar 
pago
pagaré
apagar
apagado (p.p.)
plicare
plegar 
plegable
desplegar
pliegue
pliego
pliego de cargos
laic, lay, inexperienced,
ignorant, layperson
laic, lay, layman/
woman
accomplishment, gain
(to) attain
gain, profit, lucre
lucrative
(to) go wrong,
(to) waste (a chance)
lean (person or meat),
pork loin (m.)
beggar
(to) beg
beggary, mendicity
(mendicancy)
mendicant (adj. & n.),
beggar
(to) pay
payment
promissory note, IOU
(lit. “I will pay”)
(to) extinguish, (to)
turn off, (to) quench
turned off, dull (color,
person)
(to) fold, (to) pleat
folding, collapsible
(e.g., umbrella)
(to) unfold, (to) deploy,
(to) display
fold, crease, pleat, plait,
plica
sheet of paper, official
communciation
specification of
charges (vs. public
official)
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
pliego de
condiciones
despliegue
replegar(se)
repliegue
sacratus
sagrado
consagrar
[meager]
sacro
secare (“to cut”)
segar
siega
segador
segadora
secundum
secundus
disección
según
segundo
[appease]
segundero
[ply]

pacare meant “to pacify or appease”; the notion of payment initially arose from the idea of
pacifying one’s creditors. One “pacifies” an electric applicance by turning it off (apagar).

A “doublet” of plegar is llegar (“to arrive”); see Section ., no. .
securus
secundario 
seguro (adj. & n.)
seguridad
seguridad social
seguramente
asegurar
spica
stomachus
umbilicus

inseguro
inseguridad
espiga
estómago
ombligo
Very rarely segundario.
(contractual)
specifications
display(ing),
deployment (mil.)
(to) retreat or fall back
(in orderly fashion)
retreat, withdrawal,
double fold
sacred
(to) consecrate, (to)
devote
sacred, sacrum
(base of spine)
(to) reap, (to) mow,
(to) cut down
reaping, harvest (time)
reaper, harvester
reaper or harvester
(female, or machine)
dissection
according to
second (adj.), second
(unit of time)
second hand (of
a watch)
secondary
secure, sure, insurance,
safety catch
security, safety
social security
surely
(to) secure, (to) assure,
(to) insure, (to) ensure
insecure, unsure
insecurity
spike or ear of grain
stomach
navel
 
[reply]
[redeployment]
(see Section .)
[second]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
urtica
umbilical
ortiga
umbilical
(stinging) nettle
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
engrasar
[urticaria]
quiritare
A similar change occurred in a number of cases with respect to word-interior
qu, which was essentially a graphic means for representing the sound combination c w. The [w] sound was maintained when a back vowel (a, o, u) followed;
otherwise it was lost, although a written u is maintained in the spelling to signify
that the preceding g has a hard rather than a soft sound (see Section ., no. ).
aliquem
alguien
somebody, someone
(cf. quien,
“who”)
antiquus
aqua
equa
(a)equalis
ex-quintiare
antiguo
agua
yegua
igual
esguince
ancient, old
water
mare
equal
sprain, dodge (to avoid
blow)
[antique]
[aquatic]
[equestrian]
sequentem (acc.)
siguiente
following, next, sequent
al qutun (Arabic)
gabinete
B, arising either from Latin b or p, has not participated in Stage III.
a. d S Ø
audire
cadere
[to part into five]
cabina
caraffa (It.)
cattus
colaphus
cabina telefónica
garrafa
gato
golpe
golpe de Estado
golpe de gracia
golpear
crassus
graso
grasa
grasiento
study, office, cabinet (of
ministers)
cabin, cockpit, cab,
cabana
telephone booth
carafe
cat
blow, bump, knock,
coup
coup d’état
coup de grâce
(to) beat, (to) strike,
(to) knock
greasy, oily, fatty
grease, fat
greasy (containing
grease; soiled with grease)
oír
oyente
caer
caído (p.p.)
caída
paracaídas
paracaidista
decaer
decadente
decadencia
recaer
acaecer
acaecimiento
confidare
confiar
confiado (p.p.)
[cope]
confianza
[crass ]

Latin crassus meant “thick”, “dense”, “fat”. The original meaning of English crass was
“coarse”, “dense”, “thick”, before acquiring its modern sense of “crude and unrefi ned”.
(also t S d)
Stage III: The Disappearance of “Voiced” Consonants
In a few cases, an initial c (or qu-) has also become g:
cabinet (Fr.)
gritar
grito
algodón
(to) lubricate, (to) oil,
(to) make greasy
(to) shout, (to) cry (out)
shout, cry
cotton
en confianza
confidente
desconfiar
(to) hear, (to) listen
listener, hearer
(to) fall
the fallen (in battle,
gen. pl.)
fall, downfall
parachute
parachutist, paratrooper
(to) decay, (to) decline
decadent
decadence, decline
(to) relapse, (to) fall on
(e.g., suspicion)
(to) happen, (to) come
to pass
occurrence, event
( suceso)
(to) have confidence (in),
(to) confide
trusting, unsuspecting,
confident
confidence, self-confidence,
liberties (pl.)
in confidence,
confidentially
confidant(e), secret
informer, love seat (m.)
(to) distrust, (to) have no
confidence (in)

[audio]
[audience]
[cadence]
[chute]
[chance]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
credere
crudelis
excludere
fidare
creer
creencia
creyente
credo
(to) believe
belief
believing, believer
credo, creed
creíble
increíble
acreedor
cruel
excluir
fiar
credible
incredible
deserving, creditor (m./f.)
cruel
(to) exclude
(to) sell on credit, (to) act
as guarantor, (to) entrust
(to) defy, (to) dare,
(to) challenge
challenge, defiance, duel
guaranty, down payment
on bail
(to) strengthen, (to)
reinforce
faithful (adj.), faithful
(n., gen. pl.)
needle on a balance scale
unfaithful, faithless, infidel
fidelity, faithfulness, fealty
infidelity, unfaithfulness,
faithlessness
faith
authentic, genuine
desafiar
desafío
fianza
bajo fianza
afianzar
fidelis
fiel
infiel
fidelidad
infidelidad
fides
fe hacer
foedus
includere
judicem (acc.)
laudare
fe (f.)
fehaciente
fidedigno
porfía
perfidia
pérfido
feo
fealdad
incluir
juez, jueza
loar
loa
loable
trustworthy, reliable
insistence, stubbornness
perfidy, treachery
perfidious, treacherous
ugly
ugliness
(to) include
judge
(to) laud, (to) praise
praise, laud
laudable, praiseworthy
( laudable)
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
limpidus
[credence]
(Lat. “I
believe”)
medulla
providere
radere
(from p.p.)
radix
limpio
limpiar
limpieza
límpido
meollo
médula /
medula
proveer
provisto (p.p.)
desprovisto
raer
abrasión
raíz (f.)
enraizar
[fiancé]
radical
[affiance]
ad radicare
arraigar
arraigado (p.p.)
radicar
(“making
faith”)
( digno)
[perfidy]
rancidus
erradicar
rancio
ridere
reír
(from p.p.)
risa
risueño
rodere
[allow]

sonreír
sonrisa
sonriente
roer
roedor
corroer
 
clean
(to) clean, (to) cleanse
cleanliness, cleaning
limpid (clear, transparent)
essence, heart of the matter
marrow, medulla
(to) provide, (to) fi ll (a job),
(to) purvey
provided, stocked, supplied
lacking (in), without, devoid
(to) scrape, (to) abrade
abrasion
root
(to) take root, (to) put
down roots
radical (adj. & n.), root or
stem (linguistics)
(to) take root, (to) become
established
deeply rooted, established,
well-entrenched
(to) take root, (to) reside,
(to) consist in
(to) eradicate
of old (smelly) food,
age-old
(to) laugh
laugh, laughter
smiling, riant (cheerful,
mirthful)
(to) smile
smile
smiling
(to) gnaw, (to) eat away
rodent
(to) corrode
Not always in a negative sense (e.g., aged cheese or wine).
[erase, raze]
[radish]
[rancid]
[riant,
deride]
[risible]
[erode]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
(from p.p.)
sucidus
turbidus
videre
corrosión
corrosivo
sucio 
suciedad
ensuciar
turbio
ver
vídeo, video
vidente
invidente
corrosion
corrosive
dirty, fi lthy
dirt, fi lth
(to) soil, (to) make dirty
turbid, confused (situation),
shady (business)
(to) see
video, VCR
sighted (person),
clairvoyant
blind, blind
person
B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
[succulent]
frigere
[video]
( Eng.)
fugere
legere
legio(n)
descuidado
(p.p.)
descuido
freír
frito (p.p.)
patatas fritas
(pl.)
huir
huida
fuga
leer
legible
ilegible
León
careless, negligent, untidy
(to) flee
flight, escape
escape, flight, leak, fugue (musical)
(to) read
legible
illegible, unreadable
León (city and region)
legión
ley (f.)
legion
law
legítimo
más
mas
maestro
maestría
reina
reino
reinar
reinado (p.p.)
rey
legitimate
more
but ( pero)
teacher, master, maestro
mastery, master’s degree
queen
realm, kingdom
(to) reign
reign
king
[T-rex]
los reyes
los reyes
católicos
the king and queen
The Catholic Kings
(Ferdinand and Isabella) 
realeza
arrow, dart
royalty
[Sagittarius]
carelessness, negligence
(to) fry
fried food (gen. pl.)
French fries
b. g S Ø
Latin interior g has frequently disappeared, although much more rarely before
a back vowel (a, o, u) than a front one (e, i):
Back Vowel
legalis
ligare
litigare
regalis
leal
lealtad
desleal
deslealtad
legal
liar
lío
ligar
desligar
lidiar 
real
loyal
loyalty
disloyal
disloyalty
legal
(to) embroil, (to) roll or wrap up
mess, tangle, bundle, liaison (affair)
(to) bind, (to) alloy, (to) ligate
(to) untie, (to) separate, (to) disentangle
(to) battle, (to) contend (with)
royal
[legal]
[legality]
lex (acc.
legem)
magis
magister
regina
[ligament]
[ally]
[litigate]
[regal]
rex (acc.
regem)
Front Vowel
cogitare
cuidar
cuidado (p.p.)
¡cuidado!
cuidadoso
descuidar
(to) care for, (to) look after
care, carefulness ( cuido)
look out! watch out! be careful!
careful
(to) be careless, (to) neglect
[cogitate]

Latin sucidus meant “sappy” or “juicy” (from sucus: “sap”, “juice” ) and was commonly
used to refer to freshly shorn lamb’s wool that was still “sappy” with sweat.

Lidiar has also undergone the change t S d.
sagitta

saeta
[Fritos®]
[fugitive]
[Roman th
legion]
[legal]
[master]
[reign]

They were awarded the honorary title of “Catholic” by Pope Alexander VI (himself a Spaniard) in , “in recognition of their reconquest of Granada from the Moors (–), their
New World discoveries (), and their strengthening of the church by such agencies as the
Spanish Inquisition and such measures as compelling Jews to convert to Christianity or face exile
()” (Encyclopædia Britannica).

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
sigillum
sello
sellar
seal, stamp, postage stamp
(to) stamp, (to) seal (lips, deal, etc.)
[sigil]
Stage III continues to function today with regard to interior d that originated
from Latin t. In words like cuidado (Latin cogitatus), the pronunciation often is more like *cuidao; the first d has weakened as well (to the th in this), so
that it often seems more like *cuithao or even *cuiao.
A number of words (including bodega, agudo, delgado, lidiar, corresponding to English apothecary, acute, delicate, litigate) have already been noted as
having undergone these changes with respect to not one but two or more interior consonants. Further examples are noted below where two interior consonants have been affected, one of which has disappeared; for Latin frigidus
both have vanished:
digitus
tepidus
dedo
tibio
tibieza
triticum
trigo
trigal
frío
frigidus
escalofrío
frialdad
frígido
frigidez
frigorífico
enfriar
resfriar(se)
resfriado resfrío
refrigerar
refrigerador
fiambre
finger, toe
tepid, lukewarm
tepidness, lack of
enthusiasm
wheat
wheat field
cold (adj.), cool, cold or
chill (m.)
shiver
coldness, coolness,
frigidity
frigid
frigidity
frigorific, refrigerating,
refrigerator (m.)
(to) cool, (to) chill,
(to) catch cold
(to) catch a cold
( constipar[se])
cold (minor illness)
(to) cool, (to) refrigerate
cooling, refrigerating,
refrigerator ( nevera)
cold cut (cooked meat)
[digit]
[triticale]
(ex calor frío)
SEC TION . 
Other Distinctive Consonants (or Lack Thereof)
Consider the following pairs of Spanish words:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Spanish 
Spanish 
English Cognate
Change
pleno
tracto
artículo
anexo
concilio
reverso
captar
parábola
baron
lleno
trecho
artejo
anejo
concejo
revés
catar
palabra
varón
plenum, plenty
tract
article, articulate
annex
council
reverse
capture
parable, parabola
baron
pl S ll
ct S ch
cul S j
xSj
li + vowel S j
rs S s
pt S t
r dS l
bSv
In each case, the first Spanish word is easily associated with its English cognate.
The Spanish words in the second column are also cognates but are far less easily recognizable, as in each case they have undergone one or more consonantal
changes as part of their “popular” evolution from Latin to Spanish. As we will
see below, the definitions of all of these words are easily understandable, given
knowledge of the cognate, although those in the first column tend to correspond more directly to the definition of the corresponding English word.
Each of the consonant changes illustrated above has occurred in numerous
cases, although some are much more common than others. In this section, we
will present a selection of words that have undergone these, and several other,
consonant changes.
. PL, FL, CL S ll
A relatively small number of words in Spanish have undergone this change.
Similar changes occurred in both Portuguese (S ch) and Italian (S pi, fi, chi)
but on a much wider scale.
( friambre)

The Italian “deformation” is reflected in several English words imported from Italian, including fiasco, piano, and chiaroscuro.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
English Cognate
plicare
flamma
clamare
llegar
llama
llamar
chegar
chama
chamar
piegare
fiamma
chiamare
ply, implicate
flame
claim, clamor
plagar
plantaginem
(acc.)
planus
Some of the more common examples are:
clamare
llamar
¿Cómo te
llamas?
Me llamo
José.
llamar por
teléfono
llamada
llamativo
clausa
clavis
flamma
plaga
llosa
llave (f.)
llave inglesa
clave (f.)
clave de sol
llama
llamear
llamarada
flama
flamante
inflamar
inflamable 
inflamatorio
llaga
plaga
(to) call
What is your name?
[claim]
My name is José.
(to) telephone
call
attracting attention,
showy, flashy
enclosed field
key, faucet, wrench
monkey wrench
key (decisive), clef,
password
treble clef
flame
(to) flame, (to) blaze
sudden blaze, flare-up
flame, intense heat
brand-new, brilliant
(to) inflame (set on fire,
arouse)
inflammable, flammable
inflammatory
sore, ulcer
plague
llano
(adj. & n.)
llana (n.)
llanura
plano
(adj. & n.)
plana (n.)
primera
plana
allanar
[rare chamade Port.]
plenus
[close]
[clavier]
plicare
plorare
[flaming]

In Spanish there is no word *flamable. English flammable and inflammable mean exactly the
same thing, though the prefi x in- (“in”) is interpreted erroneously by many as having a negative
sense.
llantén
pluvia
planctus
(unrelated)
lleno
llenar
pleno
(adj. & n.)
llegar
llegada
allegar
allegado
(p.p.)
llorar
llorón (-ona)
lloroso
deplorar
deplorable
implorar
lluvia
lluvioso
llover
llovizna
lloviznar
pluvial
llanto
llanta
(to) plague, (to) be
overrun with
plantain (weed)
level, flat, plain (simple,
flatland), llano
trowel
plain, flatland
level, flat, smooth, plane,
map or plan
page (side), senior staff
(plana mayor)
front page
(to) level, (to) raze, (to)
break and enter
full
(to) fi ll
full, plenum (assembly)
(to) arrive
arrival, finish (sports)
(to) bring near, (to)
gather
close, close friend or
relative (m./f.)
(to) cry, (to) weep
weeping, crybaby (m./f.)
tearful, weeping, sad
(to) deplore, (to) lament
deplorable
(to) implore
rain
rainy, pluvious
(to) rain
drizzle
(to) drizzle
pluvial, rain (adj.)
weeping
tire, wheel rim
[plenty]
[ply, plié]
[apply]
[deplore]
[pluvial]
[plaint]

 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
Llama is the only example of a Latin fl- word with ll- in Spanish. In Old Spanish, one other word was affected but has since changed the initial ll- to l-:
flaccidus
lacio
flácido / fláccido
flacidez / flaccidez
lank (hair), wilted, flaccid
flaccid, flabby
flaccidity, flabbiness
dictus
octo
luctare
(ex S ens)
ensanche
conclavare
implere
inflare
amplio
ampliar
conchabar
cónclave
henchir
hinchar
hinchado
hinchazón (f.)
hincha
wide, broad, width, breadth
width, breadth
(to) widen or enlarge, (to) let
out (clothes)
extension, widening, expansion
(town)
spacious, extensive, ample
(to) enlarge, (to) amplify
(to) unite, (to) mix (wool),
(to) conspire
conclave
(to) fi ll, (to) stuff
(to) inflate, (to) swell
swollen, inflated, pompous
swelling, conceit, pomposity
fan or supporter (m./f.), grudge
or dislike (f.)
fans, supporters
(to) inflate
bizcocho
—sancocho
derecho (adj.)
—derecho (n.)
[implement]
—derecho (adv.)
despecho
—a despecho de
dicho
—antedicho
—dicha
—dichoso
—desdicha
—desdichado
(adj. & n.)
—entredicho
. CT S ch
ducha
—duchar
echar
—echar de menos 
—desechar
—desecho
—desechable
estrecho
—estrechez
This outcome is distinct to Spanish; as shown in the table below, the other major Romance languages transformed ct into either (i)t or (t)t.
—estrechar
—estrechar la mano
hinchada
inflar
detto
otto
lottare
dit
huit
lutter
Examples:
—derecha (n.)
ancho (adj. & n.)
anchura
ensanchar
dito
oito
lutar
(OldSp. llacio)
Note that lacio also displays two of the changes noted in Section .: the double
consonant cc has become simple c, and the d has vanished.
In a few words, interior cl, fl, and pl underwent a similar transformation
but with a different outcome: ch instead of ll.
amplus
dicho
ocho
luchar

Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
French
lactem
despectus
leche
despecho
leite
despeito
latte
dispetto
lait
dépit
biscuit, sponge cake
—parboiled meat, stew (Amer.)
right, right-hand, straight, upright
—right, law, rights (copyright,
royalties—pl.)
—right hand, right-hand side, right
(politics)
—directly, straight
spite
—despite, in spite of ( a pesar de)
said (p.p. decir), saying or proverb (m.)
—aforesaid, aforementioned
—good fortune, happiness
—happy, fortunate, “blasted” (fam.)
—misfortune, calamity
—unfortunate, wretched, wretch
—doubt or question (hanging over),
interdict
shower
—(to) give a shower to, (to) take a shower
(to) eject, (to) throw or toss, (to) cast
—(to) miss, (to) note the absence of
—(to) reject, (to) exclude, (to) cast aside
—remainder, waste or debris (freq. pl.)
—disposable (e.g., syringe, razor blade)
narrow, tight, strait
—narrowness, tightness, predicament,
penury, “dire straits”
—(to) narrow, (to) tighten (bonds, etc.)
—(to) shake hands
[twice-cooked]
[concoct]
[direct]
[respect]
[dictum, ditto]
[duct, douche]
[rare disject]
[strict]
[straiten]

Echar de menos comes from Portuguese achar (de) menos, and the “echar” thus has no connection with the normal Spanish echar. Achar is derived from the same latin root (adflare) that
produced Spanish hallar, thus the meaning “to fi nd missing”, “to miss”.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
fecha
—fechar
—hecho (p.p.)
—de hecho
—bienhechor
(adj. & n.)
—cohecho
—contrahecho
—deshecho  (p.p.)
—hechizo
—hechizar
—hechicero
—hechura
—malhechor
—provecho
—¡buen provecho!
—provechoso
—aprovechar
leche (f.)
—lechero
—lechoso
—lechuga
—lechuza 
—lecho 
lucha
—luchar
—luchador
noche (f.) 
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
date
—(to) date (e.g., a letter)
—fact
—in fact, de facto
—beneficent, benefactor ( benefactor)
[fact]
—bribery
—deformed, hunchbacked
—unmade (e.g., bed), devastated,
exhausted
—charm, enchantment
—(to) bewitch, (to) charm
—sorcerer, sorceress, witch
—creation, shape or form, workmanship
—malefactor (evildoer, criminal)
—benefit, profit
—bon appetit!
—profitable, beneficial, advantageous
—(to) make use of, (to) profit from
milk
—dairy (adj.), milk (adj.), milkman (or
woman)
—milky 
—lettuce
—owl
—bed ( cama), riverbed ( cauce)
fight, strife, wrestling
—(to) fight, (to) wrestle, (to) struggle
—fighter, wrestler
night
[confetti]
[counterfeit]
[feat]
[fetish]
[feature]
—anoche
—medianoche (f.)
—Nochebuena
—Nochevieja
—trasnochar
—suspicacia
techo
—last night
—midnight
—Christmas Eve
—New Year’s Eve
—(to) stay up late, (to) have a sleepless
night
eight
—eighty
—eight hundred
chest, breast
—breast (of chicken, etc.)
satisfied
—dissatisfied, unsatisfied
(to) suspect, (to) be suspicious (of)
—suspicion
—suspicious (arousing suspicion),
suspect (adj. & n.)
—suspicious (given to suspicion),
distrustful
—suspiciousness (distrustfulness)
roof, ceiling
—techar
—techumbre
trecho
—tracto
trucha
—(to) roof
—roof, roofing
distance, stretch, tract (expanse of land)
—tract (digestive, urinary, etc.)
trout
ocho
—ochenta
—ochocientos
pecho
—pechuga
satisfecho
—insatisfecho
sospechar
—sospecha
—sospechoso
—suspicaz
[lactation]
[wagon-lit]
[ineluctable]
[reluctant]
[octet]
[octogenarian]
[pectoral]
[satisfaction]
[tectum,
thatch ]
(Lat. tructa)
One common Spanish word that has undergone the “Portuguese” treatment is
[nocturnal]
affectare


Note that deshecho is pronounced identically to desecho (“debris”; see above under echar).
However, the Milky Way is “la Vía Láctea”.

Latin for owl was noctua (literally ” ‘night’ bird”), which would have become Spanish
*nochua or, as a pejorative variant, *nochuza. Lechuza apparently resulted from a cross between
*nochuza and leche, due to the popular belief of the time that owls came at night to give milk
to babies.

Lecho (Latin lectus) is unrelated to leche, sharing instead a common Indo-European root
with English lie, ledge, and low. Lecho corresponds to French lit (hence wagon-lit).

Noche comes from Latin nox (acc. noctem), which shares a common Indo-European root
with English night.
afeitar
afeite
(to) shave
cosmetics, makeup (freq. pl.)
[affectation]
The combination lt also on occasion evolved to ch:

auscultare

escuchar
escucha
(to) listen (to)
listening (act), wiretap, military
scout (m.)
Techo—tectum comes from the same Indo-European root as Germanic thatch.
[auscultate]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
cultellus
multus
cuchillo
mucho (adj.)
muy (adv.)
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
knife
much, a lot of, many (pl.)
very
[cutlass]
cuniculus
fenuculum
genuculum
The similarity in form between mucho and much is coincidental, as etymologically they are unrelated.
lenticula
conejo
hinojo ()
hinojo ()
de hinojos
genuflexión
lenteja
lente
. CUL S j
lentilla
culus and cula were Latin diminutive endings, much like -let in English (piglet, hamlet, bracelet, etc.) and enjoyed rapid growth in Vulgar Latin. They have
contributed to the Romance names of many animals, family relations, parts of
the body, etc. In some cases, they have undergone a popular treatment resulting in Spanish j, while in other cases they have preserved a more “learned”
Latin form. Examples of the latter include:
musculus
oculus
paricula
Latin
Meaning
Diminutive
Spanish
English
avus
calcem (acc.)
corpus
minus
mus
partem (acc.)
grandfather
pebble
body
less
mouse
part
avunculus
calculus
corpusculum
minusculus
musculus
particula
—
cálculo
corpúsculo
minúsculo
músculo
partícula
avuncular, uncle
calculus
corpuscle
minuscule
muscle
particle
Examples of “popular” treatment resulting in Spanish j include:
acucula
apicula
articulus
auricula
clavicula
(“little key”)
cubiculum
aguja
agujero
abeja
artejo
artículo
oreja
clavija
clavícula
cobijo
cobija
cobijar
needle, steeple, spire
hole
bee
joint or articulation
(finger, arthropod)
article
ear
peg, pin, electric plug
clavicle (collarbone)
shelter, protection
blanket (Amer.)
(to) shelter, (to) harbor
(ideas)
[acicula, aiguille]
[apian, apiary]
parejo (adj.)
aparejo
aparejar
aparejado (p.p.)
traer aparejado
pediculus
(pedu-)
speculum
vermiculus
[auricle]
[clavicle]
[cubicle]
mejillón
ojo
ojear
ojeada
oculista
pareja
emparejar
piojo
piojoso
espejo
espejismo
espéculo
bermejo
rabbit
fennel
knee ( rodilla; used gen.
only as below)
on one’s knees, kneeling
genuflection
lentil
lens (gen. f.), glasses
(pl., gen. m.)
contact lens ( lente de
contacto)
mussel
eye
(to) eye, (to) regard
glance
oculist
couple, pair (people,
animals, etc.)
equal, alike, flat (land)
preparation, gear, harness,
rigging, tackle
(to) prepare, (to) rig
apt, suitable
(to) entail or involve
( llevar aparejado)
(to) match, (to) pair (off )
louse
lousy (full of lice)
mirror
mirage
speculum
bright red, vermilion (adj.),
vermeil (adj.)
The much rarer Latin gul also had the same “popular” result:
coagulare
cuajar
cuajo
cuajada
(to) coagulate, (to) curdle
rennet
curd (coagulated milk)

[Coney Island]
(lentil-shaped)
[muscle]
[ocular]
[Germ. ogle]
[nonpareil]
[pedicular]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
tegula
teja
tejar
tejado (p.p.)
roof tile
(to) tile (roof), tile or brick factory (n.)
roof, esp. tiled roof
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
executio(n)
exemplum
. X S j
Dating back to Latin times, the letter x has been a “shorthand” symbol representing the combined sound [ks]. In the transition to Spanish, this underwent
a major transformation, which occurred in two separate stages:
. [ks] S [sh], still written x
. [sh] S [h*], subsequently written j
The first transformation occurred during the early stages of the evolution from
Latin to Spanish (well before AD ), while the second transformation took
place only after Don Quijote (formerly Don Quixote) was published ()—
and after sherry (Spanish Jerez, formerly Xerez) had become an English word
(Shakespeare: ).
annexus
anejo anexo
axis
complexus
anexar / anejar
anexionar
eje
complejo
coxinum
complejidad
cojín
coxal (adj.)
attached, annex, attachment
(email)
(to) annex, (to) join
(to) annex (esp. territory)
axis, axle, crux, Axis (cap.)
complicated, complex
(adj. & n.)
complexity
cushion
coxal (pertaining to the hip
or hip joint)
exempli gratia
exercitium
exercitus
fixus
fluxus
laxare
ejemplificar
p.ej. p.e.
ejercicio
ejército
fijo
fijar
fijación
fijador
prefijo
sufijo
flujo
influjo
reflujo
flojo
flojear
aflojar
dejar
dejar de fumar
dejadez
laxius

In Classical Greek, the letter represented by the symbol X (chi) had the sound [kh], but in
the Greek of Italy, from which the Latin alphabet was derived, it had the sound [ks].

Most books and dictionaries denote this sound [x] instead of [h], [x] being the phonetic
symbol for the sound represented by the ch in Scottish loch or German Achtung. It is undoubtedly
true that many Spanish speakers have a slightly greater degree of aspiration of this sound than is
characteristic of English (aspirated) h. The emphasis is on slightly: an English speaker attempting
to transplant his or her version of Scottish or German ch to words like general will in most cases
sound far less “Spanish” than if he or she simply pronounced it [heneral]. We will therefore use
[h*] to represent this sound.
ejecución
ejecutar
ejecutivo
ejemplo
por ejemplo
ejemplar
luxus
laxitud
laxante
lejos (adv.)
lejano (adj.)
lejanía
alejar
lujo
lujoso
de lujo
lujuria
lujurioso
execution (various senses)
(to) execute
executive (adj. & n.)
example
for example
exemplary, exemplar,
example (specimen)
(to) exemplify
e.g. (“for the sake of an
example”)
exercise, practice, drill
army
fixed, firm
(to) fix, (to) set
fixation, setting (e.g., date)
fixative, hair spray or gel
prefix, dialing (area) code
suffix
flow, flux
influence ( influencia)
ebb (tide), reflux
loose, slack, weak
(to) weaken, (to) slacken
(to) loosen, (to) weaken, (to)
let up
(to) let, (to) leave
(to) stop smoking
laziness, carelessness,
slovenliness
laxity, laxness
laxative
far, far away
distant, far-off
distance, remoteness
(to) move away (from)
luxury
luxurious
deluxe
lust, lechery
lustful, lecherous, lewd

(old p.p.)
[influx]
(OldSp.
lejar)
[lax]
[luxury]
[luxurious]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
maxilla
paradoxa
parallaxis
perplexus
prolixus
proximus
Don Quixote
()
mejilla
paradoja
paradójico
paralaje (f.)
perplejo
perplejidad
prolijo
prójimo
Don Quijote
quijote
reflexus
relaxare
saxones
texere
vexare
quijotesco
reflejo
(adj. & n.)
reflejar
relajar
relajación
relajante
sajón (-ona)
anglosajón
(-ona)
tejer
tejido (p.p.)
entretejer
textil
texto
textura
vejar
vejación
cheek
paradox
paradoxical
parallax
perplexed
perplexity
prolix, excessively detailed,
tedious
fellow human (“neighbor”)
Don Quixote
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
[maxillary]
bassus
[proximity]
tasar
tasa
tasación
taxi
taxista
embassy
embajador
bajo (adj.)
bajo (adv.)
bajo (prep.)
bajo (n.)
ambassador
low, short, base (vile)
low (soft ly, quietly)
under ( debajo de)
bass (voice, instrument), bass
guitar
double bass (contrabass)
bassoon
(to) descend, (to) lower, (to)
download
down, below, downstairs
underneath, below
(to) lower (price, self-esteem,
etc.)
reduction, discount
ups and downs, vicissitudes
(to) back up, (to) give up
(to) cease, (to) stop
bird
(to) complain
abajo
debajo
rebajar
cessare
passer
quassare
(to) weave, (to) knit
fabric, textile, tissue, weave
(to) interweave, (to) interlace
textile
text, textbook
texture
(to) vex
vexation
(to) appraise, (to) fi x (price, quantity)
rate (%), fee, tax
valuation
taxi
taxi driver
embajada
contrabajo
bajón
bajar
a Don Quixote (impractical
idealist)
quixotic
reflected, reflection, reflex
russus
One case worth noting, in which the sound [ks] avoided a major transformation by shedding [k] at an early stage, is:
taxare
The combination ss on a number of occasions has also become Spanish j:
ambaissada
(Occitan)
(to) reflect, (to) mirror
(to) relax, (to) become lax
relaxation, (moral) laxity
relaxing
Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
rebaja
altibajos (pl.)
cejar
cesar
pájaro
quejar(se)
queja
aquejar
rojo
pelirrojo
enrojecer
complaint
(to) afflict, (to) distress
red
red-haired, redhead (m./f.)
(to) redden (make or become
red, blush)
[passerine]
[quash,
squash]
[russet]
In a few cases, a single s at the beginning of a word or syllable was (mis)pronounced as [sh] and hence has wound up as j:
insertare
[taxation]

(unrelated)
injertar
injerto
injerencia
insertar
inserción
(to) graft (plant or medical)
graft
interference, meddling
(to) insert
insertion
[insert]
[ingest]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
sapo(n)
sucus
syringa
vesica
jabón
jugo
suculento
jeringa
vejiga
vesícula
vesícula biliar
soap
juice
succulent, juicy
syringe
bladder, vesica
vesicle
gall bladder
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
[saponification]
[succulent]
Finally, in a small number of isolated cases, other consonant combinations involving s have also wound up as Spanish j:
capsa
caja
caja de ahorros
caja fuerte
cajero
cajón
cápsula
encajar
encaje
fascia
pulsare
(unrelated, Cat.)
(unrelated, Fr.)
vascella ( Cat.)
casete / cassette
(m./f.)
faja
fajita
pujar ()
puja ()
empujar
empujón
empuje
pujar ()
puja ()
pujante
pujanza
vajilla
vascular
box, case, cashier’s desk
savings bank
safe, strongbox
cashier
drawer, crate (gen. without
top)
capsule
(to) fit in, or together
lace, socket, fitting in
(insertion)
cassette
girdle, sash, strip or
band, fascia (arch.), fess
(heraldry)
fajita (Mex. food)
(to) push (intransitive)
push (stimulus)
(to) push (transitive), (to)
propel
push, shove (brusque)
push, impulse, thrust
(to) offer a higher bid
(higher) bid
strong, vigorous
vigor, strength
tableware
vascular (pertaining
to the vessels)

Historical Note: México or Méjico? Texas or Tejas?
”Mexico” and “Texas” are special cases. Historically, these words entered Spanish at a stage when x was still pronounced [sh]. They have never been pronounced by native Spanish speakers as [meKSico] or [teKSas], this being a later
innovation by gringos. After Spanish [sh] had evolved to [h*], México and Texas
had their x changed to j, analogous to Quixote S Quijote, but not in the Americas, where the locals remained attached to the original spelling (but not the
original pronunciation) of the two names.
Throughout most of its history, the RAE has unsuccessfully tried to convince
Mexico (and the world) that the correct spellings were Méjico and mejicano. In
 it still listed them as the preferred forms. Only with the publication of its
 dictionary has it conceded defeat and accepted México and mexicano—as
well as Texas and texano—as the preferred forms, although tejanos remains the
only accepted spelling in the sense of “blue jeans”.
[caisson]
. LI + vowel S j
[encase]
( Fr.)
This change was the result of several separate transformations, the last of which
was not concluded until the mid-seventeenth century. The Spanish outcome
contrasts markedly with those of the other principal Romance languages, in
which the transformation stopped at the stage of palatized l (i.e., the equivalent
of Spanish ll):
Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
French
filia
melior
palea
hija
mejor
paja
fi lha
melhor
palha
figlia
migliore
paglia
fi lle
meilleur
paille
Examples:
[podium]
[puissant]
[puissance]
[vase,
vessel]
alienus
ajeno
enajenar
al(l)ium
cilia
ajo
ceja
another’s, alien or foreign
(to) drive insane, (to) alienate
(a person, or transfer a
property right)
garlic
eyebrow
[allium]
[cilia]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
concilium
consilium
despoliare
filius
folia
concejo
concejal (-ala)
concilio
conciliación
conciliar
reconciliación
reconciliar
consejo
Consejo
de Ministros
consejero
aconsejar
desaconsejar
despojar
despojo
hijo
hoja
folio
foliar
follaje
( Occitan)
folleto
folletín
city council, city council
meeting
city councilor, alderman
council (esp. religious)
conciliation
(to) conciliate, (to) reconcile
reconciliation
(to) reconcile
counsel, advice, council
Council of Ministers
palea
counselor, advisor, councilor
(to) counsel, (to) advise
(to) advise against
(to) despoil, (to) divest
despoliation, spoils (pl.), offal
(pl.), mortal remains (pl.)
son
leaf, sheet
folio
(to) number (pages)
foliage
(unrelated)
similiare
taliare
(unrelated)
tripalium
[Fitz- ]
[foil, folio]
[foliate]
paja
payaso ( It.)
semejar
semejanza
semejante
semblante
semblanza
similar
símil
tajar
tallar (It.)
talar ()
( Germ.)
talar () 
trabajo
trabajar
trabajador
straw
clown
(to) resemble, (to) be similar to
similarity, resemblance
similar, like, such (a)
face, countenance, aspect
biographical sketch
similar
simile
(to) cut or slice (e.g., meat)
(to) cut, (to) carve
(to) cut a tree (at the base), (to)
devastate
full length, reaching to the
ankles
work
(to) work
hard-working, worker (m./f.)
[semblance]
[tailor]
[talus]
[travail, travel]
. NS, RS, PS S s
melior
milium
mejor
mijo / millo
molliare
mojar
mojado (p.p.)
remojar
mujer (f.)
mujeriego
(to) wet, (to) moisten
wet, damp, soaked
(to) soak
woman, wife
womanizer
ansa
[amelioration]
[mealie,
milium]
[emollient]
asir
constare
[muliebrity]
costar
constar
me consta (que)
con + sutura

English counsel and council are distinct words, albeit frequently confused, with separate
Latin origins: consilium (related to consult) and concilium (lit. “to call together”).

Modern French fils (“son”) formerly was pronounced [fits] and was brought in this form
to England by the Norman French and from there to Ireland (hence John Fitzgerald Kennedy).
Fitz- is thus equivalent to Scottish and Irish Mac- and Mc-, as well as to the “native” English
suffi x -son.
asa
asidero

costura
alta costura
coser
handle
grip (handle), grab bar
(shower)
(to) grasp (rope,
opportunity)
(to) cost
(to) consist (of), (to) be
clear or evident, (to) be
recorded in (document)
I am sure . . . , I know for
certain (that) . . .
sewing, seam
haute couture
(to) sew

[paillasse]
EXAMPLES OF ns S s
pamphlet, brochure, leaflet
feuilleton, melodrama (often
published serially)
better
millet
mulier
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
[ansate]
The literal meaning is “extending to the talón (heel)”, e.g., a cassock or a toga.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
insula
a + isla
mansio(n)
mensa
mensis
monstrare
isla
islote
insular
insulina
aislar
aislamiento
aislante
(adj. & n.)
mesón
remanso
mesa
mesilla
(de noche)
sobremesa
de sobremesa
(adj.)
mes
mensual
mostrar
demostrar
pensare
demostración
pesar ()
pesado (p.p.)
pesar () (n.)
a pesar de
pese a
a pesar de que
pese a que
a pesar de todo
pesadilla
island, isle
islet
insular
insulin
(to) isolate, (to) insulate,
(to) enisle
isolation, insulation
isolating, insulating,
insulator
inn, tavern
still water, haven
or oasis
table
night table
time immediately
following a meal
after-dinner, tabletop,
desktop
month
monthly
(to) show, (to)
demonstrate
(to) demonstrate, (to)
prove
demonstration
(to) weigh
heavy, irksome, deep
(sleep)
sorrow, regret
despite, in spite of
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
pesadez
pésame
pesa
peso
peseta
[mansion]
[remnant]
sensus
[Mesa Grande]
sponsa
tensus
trans
pensar
pensamiento
pensativo
seso
devanar(se) los
sesos
sesudo
esposa
esponsales (pl.)
tieso
tesón
tras (prep.)
trasero
detrás (adv.)
atrás (adv.)
atraso
[compensate]
despite (in spite of) the
fact that
despite everything
nightmare

English island originally had nothing to do with isle. The Middle English form was iland or
yland (the fi rst syllable being of Germanic origin and equivalent to that in Eaton and Eton, meaning “water”). Th is was then changed to ile-land due to association with the French word île (like
Spanish isla, from Latin insula), and at a still later stage an “etymological” s (never pronounced)
was added.
atrasar
retrasar
retraso
retrasado (p.p.)
trasplantar 

heaviness, nuisance
condolence(s)
weight (for scales,
barbell), counterweight
weight, peso, shot put
peseta (former Spanish
currency)
(to) think
thought, pansy 
pensive
wit or good sense, brains
(gen. pl.)
(to) rack one’s brains
sensible, sage
wife, spouse
engagement, betrothal
stiff, rigid, firm
tenacity, perseverance
after, behind
back (adj.), rear, “rear
end” (m.)
behind, back, in the rear
behind, back, to the rear,
ago
delay, backwardness,
arrears (pl.)
(to) delay, (to) set back or
lose time (clock)
(to) delay, (to) set back or
lose time (clock)
delay, backwardness
behind (schedule),
backward or retarded
(to) transplant
[spousals]
[tension]
[trans-]

From French, in the same fanciful sense as “forget-me-not” (a type of plant with small blue
flowers).

The distribution between tras- and trans- is somewhat haphazard, with the four examples
in the text illustrating the possible patterns: tras- only; both (with tras- “preferred”); both (with
trans- “preferred”); trans- only.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
traslación /
transtransatlántico /
trastransacción
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
translation (uniform
movement)
transatlantic,
transatlantic ship
transaction, compromise
. PT S t
aegyptanus
aptare
captare
EXAMPLES OF rs S s
aversus
excar(p)sus
indorsare
reversus
sursum + dictus
transversa
ursus
avieso
aversión
escaso
escasamente
escasez
escasear
endosar
dorso
dorsal
revés
reverso
susodicho
traviesa (n.)
travieso (adj.)
travesura
travesía
través
a través de
atravesar
transversal
oso
Osa Mayor
twisted, malicious
aversion
scarce, scanty
scarcely
scarcity, shortage, poverty
(to) be scarce
(to) endorse
back (of hand, page, etc.)
dorsal
reverse (n.), other side,
backhand
reverse (n.), other (or back) side
aforesaid ( antedicho)
railroad tie
mischievous, naughty
mischief, prank
small (connecting) road, part
of road traversing a town,
voyage (air, sea)
slant, inclination (tilt)
through
(to) cross (over), (to) pierce
transverse ( transverso)
bear
Ursa Major (constellation with
Big Dipper)
[averse]
[traverse]
yeso
salmo
seudónimo
re + ex +
captare
promptus
recepta
ruptus
rescatar
rescate
pronto
prontitud
receta
recetar
roto
derrota
derrotar
derrotero
[ursine]
plaster, plaster cast, gypsum
psalm
pseudonymous, pseudonym, pen name
gitano
egipcio
atar
catar
catalejo
acatar
percatar(se)
recato
recatado
captar
capturar
recaudar
recaudador
recaudación
[dorsum]
FINALLY, IN A FEW CASES, ps BECAME s:
gypsum
psalmus
pseudonymos

scriptus
ruta
rutina
rutinario
escrito
escritura
gypsy
Egyptian (adj. & n.)
(to) tie
(to) taste, (to) sample
(small) telescope, spyglass
(to) comply with, (to) obey
(to) notice, (to) realize
modesty, reserve (caution)
modest, reserved
(to) pick up (signal, sound),
(to) capture (water, attention),
(to) catch (meaning)
(to) capture, (to) catch
(to) collect (e.g., taxes)
(tax) collector
takings, collection, gate
(paid attendance)
(to) rescue, (to) ransom, (to)
recover
rescue, ransom
adj.—quick, prompt; adv.—
promptly, soon
promptness, promptitude
recipe, prescription (medical)
(to) prescribe (medical)
broken (p.p. of romper)
defeat, rout, path, ship’s
course or route
(to) defeat, (to) rout
route, way, ship’s course or
track
route
routine (n.)
routine (adj.)
written (p.p. of escribir),
writing (m.)
handwriting, Scripture (cap.,
freq. pl.)
[apt, lariat]
[capture, catch]
(catar + lejos)
[cater]
[perception]
(pt S ud)
[receipt]
[rupture]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
saeptum
septem
symptoma
seto
siete
septuagenario
síntoma (m.)
hedge, fence
seven
septuagenarian (adj. & n.)
symptom
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
[septum]
marmóreo
miércoles
murmullo
mercurii dies
murmurium
murmurar
. Shifts of R and L
The sounds [r] and [l] are phonetically very similar, and it is therefore not surprising that they are frequently interchanged or substituted one for the other.
One prominent English example is mulberry: the first component of the word
was a very early import from Latin morum (Spanish mora), and in Old English
the word was morberie. A second example is pilgrim, which ultimately comes
from Latin peregrinus—in this case the “switch” was carried out in French
and then imported into English. The original form is preserved in English
peregrine (as in peregrine falcon). Finally, Latin pruna has produced both the
“learned” English prune and the more “popular” plum.
In the first two examples cited above, the combination r—r was changed
to l—r, probably due to a (perhaps subconscious) desire to distinguish more
clearly the two syllables—a process linguists call dissimilation. This change has
occurred in Spanish with considerably greater frequency than in English.
a rr S rl
arbor
carcer
frater
marmor
quartier (Fr.)
recruter (Fr.)
stercoris
fraile
mármol
tree
wooded, woodland (m.)
arboreal, arboreous
bush, shrub
prison
prison (adj.)
prison (adj.), jailer, warden
(to) incarcerate, (to)
imprison
friar, monk
marble ( Fr. marbre)
purpura
[stercoraceous]
púrpura
purple, purpura (med.) [OldEng. purpure]
The reverse pattern has occurred in several cases:
b rr S l—r
haribergon
(Germ.) 
[arboretum]
albergar
albergue
(libre)
albedrío
arbitrio
arbitrario
árbitro
arbitraje
brandir (Fr.)
coriandrum
precaria

The s in arbusto reflects the fact that at an earlier stage, Latin arbor had been arbos—the
s then changed to r due to rhotacism (see Section .), initially only in those forms of the word
where it found itself between vowels (e.g., the accusative arbosem), and eventually by analogy in
the nominative case as well.
[Mercury’s day]
For purple, it is English that has altered the original:
arbitrium
árbol
arbolado
arbóreo
arbusto 
cárcel (f.)
carcelario
carcelero
encarcelar
cuartel
reclutar
estiércol
estercolero
marble (adj.), marmoreal
(marble-like)
Wednesday
murmur, murmuring,
rustling (leaves)
(to) murmur, (to) mutter,
(to) rustle
quarter, quarters, barracks
(to) recruit
dung, manure
manure pile, dunghill

blandir
cilantro,
culantro
plegaria
precario
(to) house, (to) shelter, (to)
harbor
lodging, inn, shelter
(free) will, desire, whim
(free) will, discretion (choice),
judgment
arbitrary
arbiter, arbitrator, judge,
referee
arbitration, refereeing,
umpiring, arbitrage
(to) brandish, (to) wave
coriander, cilantro ( Sp.)
prayer, supplication
precarious 
[imprecation]

Hari- was Germanic for “army” (appearing also in Harold, harry, herald, harbinger), and
bergian meant “shelter” (one means being to bury).

The literal meaning of precarious is “obtained through entreaty or prayer”.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
templar
temperare
temple
intemperie
a la intemperie
(to) temper, (to) warm up, (to)
tune (guitar, etc.)
temper (metal, person),
temperament, courage, tuning
(music), tempera (art)
bad weather
in the open air, exposed,
unsheltered
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
In some cases, instead of a dissimilation, the combination r—r has been reduced to a single r:
d rr S r
[intemperate]
c ll S r—l OR l—r
coronel
lirio
lugar
en lugar de
lugarteniente
local
localidad
localizar
(to) localize
colonel
lily, iris
place
in lieu of
deputy, substitute, lieutenant
local, premises (m.)
locality, seat (theater), ticket
(entry)
(to) locate,
(OldSp. logar)
Spanish lugarteniente applies to civilians, the military term being simply
teniente.
In the sixteenth century, Italian colonnello (head of a column of soldiers) was
imported by French, and for some time thereafter two competing forms coexisted: the “correct” (and modern French) colonel and a second form with dissimilation, coronel. It was this second form that was exported to both English
and Spanish. The r—l spelling continued in English until the mid-seventeenth
century, when “purists” succeeded in restoring the etymologically “correct”
colonel. They were unsuccessful, however, in their attempts to “reform” the pronunciation, which is why today we continue to pronounce colonel as [keR•nel].
In one case (imported from French or Catalan), l—l became n—l:
libella
nivel
nivelar
desnivel
level
(to) level (even, equalize)
drop, difference in level, unevenness
appropriare
apropiar(se)
(to) appropriate (take possession
[of])
appropriate
appropriation (taking as one’s
own)
opprobrium
orchestra
orchestral
(to) orchestrate
orchestration
one’s own, proper (suitable,
characteristic)
improper, unsuitable
property, proprietorship
[propriety]
proprietary, owner, proprietor
apropiado (p.p.)
apropiación
Similar dissimilations occurred with respect to the l—l combination:
colonnello (It.)
lilium
localis

opprobrium
orchestra
proprius
oprobio
orquesta
orquestal
orquestar
orquestación
propio
impropio
propiedad
propietario
(adj. & n.)
expropiar
expropiación
(to) expropriate
expropriation
In each of the above examples it is the second r that has disappeared. The first
r disappeared in:
cremare
quemar
quemadura
quemador
quemazón (f.)
a quemarropa 
prostrare
retro-guardia
postrar
postrado (p.p.)
postración
retaguardia
scrutiniare
escudriñar

(to) burn
burn, sunburn
burner (cooking, CD, etc.)
burning (sensation)
point-blank, at point-blank
range
(to) prostrate, (to) humble
prostrate
prostration
rear guard, rear (n.),
rearward (n.)
(to) scrutinize
From a + quemar + ropa, literally “[close enough] to cremate [their] robes”.
[cremate]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
embolsar
In several cases, r and l have reversed positions, a phenomenon known as
metathesis:
catharina
christophorus
cramp (Germ.)
reembolsar
bursátil
bursitis
Catalina
Cristóbal
calambre
fret (Fr.)
flete
e rl S l—r OR lr S r—l
Algeria
liquiritia
miraculum
parabola
periculum
Argelia
regaliz
milagro
milagroso
palabra
palabrería
parábola
peligro
peligroso
peligrar
poner en
peligro
Algeria
licorice
miracle
miraculous
word
palaver (idle chatter)
parable, parabola
danger, peril
dangerous, perilous, parlous
(to) be in danger
(to) imperil
(Eng. Port.)
In several cases, r—l lost the r:
f rl S l
tremulare
triplum
temblar
temblor
tembloroso
estremecer
tiple
(to) tremble, (to) shake
tremble, tremor, quake, temblor ( Sp.)
trembling, tremulous, shaking
(to) shake, (to) tremble
treble or soprano (voice), soprano (singer), musical
instrument (similar to guitar)
In a number of cases, a single r has changed to l, or vice versa.
fletar
papyrus
practica
qirat ( Arab
Greek)
Säbel (German)
scorta (It.)
spora (Germ.)
papel
papiro
plática
platicar
quilate
sable 
escolta
escoltar
espuela
espolear
espolón
bursa
ancla
anclaje
anclar
bolsa
bolso
bolsillo
anchor
anchorage
(to) anchor, (to) cast anchor
bag (shopping, trash),
pouch, purse, burse, stock
market, stock exchange,
bursa
purse, ladies’ handbag
pocket
[† imburse]
( Gk.)
( Gk.)
[practice]
sabre / saber
escort
(to) escort
spur
(to) spur, (to) spur on
spur (bone, bird),
breakwater, jetty
temperance, moderation
darkness, Tenebrae (eccl.)
tenebrous (dark and
gloomy)
temperantia
tenebras
templanza
tinieblas (pl.)
tenebroso
flasco
( Germ.)
frasco
flask, vial
fiasco
fiasco
g r S l OR l S r (The first change is by far the more common.)
ancora
(to) pocket, (to) be paid
(money)
(to) reimburse
stock-market (adj.)
bursitis
Catherine, Katharine
Christopher
cramp, electric shock
(sensation)
freight, cargo, freight
charge
(to) charter (ship, etc.), (to)
freight (load)
paper, role (part)
papyrus
chat, conversation, brief
sermon
(to) chat, (to) converse
carat

( It.)

In this case it is French (and hence English) that has made the “mistake”, changing the l of
German Säbel (itself of Hungarian origin) to r.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
h r: SHIFT IN POSITION
Finally, on a few occasions, r shifted place within the word. This is a phenomenon that has also occurred occasionally in English, two prominent examples
being:
Old English
Modern English
brid
thridda
bird
third
abbracchicare
abarcar 
crepare
crocodilus
crusta
quebrar
cocodrilo
costra
crustáceo
incrustar
entregar
entrega
integrar
madrugar
madrugada
maturicare
skirmyan (Germ.)
tenerum
titulare
S
S
ten_rum
tid_lare
S
S
tienro
tidlar
S
S
tierno
tildar
(nr S rn)
(dl S ld)
One feature of Spanish that English speakers often find somewhat surprising
is that there is absolutely no difference in pronunciation between the sounds
represented by the letters b and v. They are both pronounced as follows:
esgrimir
(to) embrace, (to) encompass,
(to) take in
(to) break, (to) go bankrupt
crocodile 
crust, scab
crustacean (lobsters, crabs, etc.)
(to) encrust, (to) inlay
(to) deliver, (to) hand over
delivery
(to) integrate (various senses)
(to) get up early
dawn, early morning ( a.m.—
daybreak)
(to) brandish, (to) fence
[decrepit]
olvidar
olvido
olvidadizo
Initial
[b]
balcón
blanco
valor
vino
Interior
Following m/n
[b]
ambiguo
sombrero
invención 
convexo
Otherwise
[v]
labor
doble
grave
larva
[mature]
As a result of this “confusion” between b and v, many originally distinct
words are now pronounced indistinguishably. Examples include:
[skirmish]
baca
basto
bello
botar
grabar
haber
A similar change occurred with respect to l in one very common word:
oblitare
Such interchanges of letters were not limited to r and l; they occasionally occurred when an interior vowel disappeared and thereby produced a combination of consonants difficult to pronounce, e.g.,
. b v
Spanish examples include:
integrare

(to) forget
forgetfulness, oversight, oblivion
forgetful, absent-minded

In Latin, the word for “arm” could have two forms, brachium or bracchium. The fi rst gave
rise to brazo and abrazar (“to embrace”), as well as to English brace; the second, to abracar (still
found in some dictionaries), which later became abarcar.

In English, it was also cocodrille until the “classicists” restored the “correct” form in the sixteenth century. A similar attempt was made in Spanish, but without success (although crocodilo
can still be found as a variant in some dictionaries).
vaca
vasto
vello
votar
gravar
a ver
roof rack
coarse, rough
beautiful
(to) fling
(to) engrave
(to) have 
cow
vast
down, fuzz
(to) vote
(to) tax
“let’s see”

In this case (and for convexo as well), the [b] that follows the n causes the latter to change
its pronunciation to [m]; the same principle accounts for English imbalance (not *inbalance) and
combat (not *conbat).

The mixing of b and v in the interior of words was common to all the Romance languages;
thus, to English describe, which maintains the original b from Latin describere, correspond
Italian descrivere and Portuguese descrever (and French nous décrivons). Spanish was unique in
extending the b/v equality to the beginning of the word.

Only as an auxiliary verb (e.g., he escrito I have written). In the sense of possession,
“have” is translated by tener.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
Nobel
sabia
tubo
novel
savia
tuvo (verb. tener)
Nobel
wise
tube
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
novel (adj.)
sap
“he had”
In grabar, taken from French graver (of Germanic origin), modern Spanish has
also “restored” b:
graver (Fr.)
Some Spanish words have initial v where in English (and other Romance languages) they begin with b, and conversely:
claire-voie (Fr.)
veronix
vogue (Fr.)
vota
vultur
baron (Germ.)
binda (Germ.)
Bizkaia (Basque)
claraboya 
barniz
barnizar
boga
boda
buitre
skylight
varnish
(to) varnish
vogue, fashion
wedding
vulture
varón
varonil
barón, baronesa
venda
venda en los ojos
vendaje
vendar
Golfo de Vizcaya
male, male person
manly, virile
baron, baroness
bandage
blindfold (figurative)
bandage, dressing
(to) bandage
Bay of Biscay
[Bernice, Veronica]
gubernare
taberna
caballo
caballero
caballería
cabalgata
gobernar
horse, knight (chess)
cavalier, knight, gentleman
cavalry
cavalcade
(to) govern, (to) steer (nautical)
taberna
tabernero
tavern, bar
tavern keeper, bartender
grabar
grabado (p.p.)
grabación
(to) engrave, (to) record (disk, etc.)
engraving
recording (of program, etc.)
French javeline was likewise transformed, thus producing confusion between a
javelin and a female wild boar (the male being a jabalí):
javeline (Fr.)
jabalina
javelin, female wild boar
[vows]
Spanish has not restored the Latin b in móvil, presumably due to the influence
of the related verb mover:
[baron]
mobilis
movere
móvil
automóvil
mover
mobile, mobile phone
automobile
(to) move
Finally, the b in English “Basque” corresponds to a Spanish v:
vasco
vascuence
Spanish has restored a written b (pronounced [v]) in a few words to make them
more etymologically “correct”; the corresponding English words (via French)
have a v. Examples include:
caballus

(OldSp. cavallo)
(OldSp.
governar)
(OldSp. taverna)

The boya comes ultimately from Latin via (“way”, “road”) and corresponds to the -voy in
English envoy and convoy. Since via is cognate with Germanic way, a claraboya is etymologically
a “clear way”.
Basque (adj., inhabitant, language—m.)
Basque (language)
Pronunciation Note
The typical Spanish pronunciation of v differs marginally from that of English:
in Spanish, it is pronounced with the lips together (as with b in both languages),
whereas in English (and the other Romance languages), it is articulated with
the lower lip against the upper teeth. For a linguist, the difference is between
a bilabial fricative (Spanish) and a labiodental one (English). The standard
phonetic symbol for the Spanish v pronunciation is , and this is what is generally shown in dictionaries that provide pronunciations for Spanish words.
The use of the Greek symbol can be a bit confusing in this context, however,
since this sound corresponds neither to the pronunciation of Classical Greek (beta), which was [b], nor to that of Modern Greek , which is [v].

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
tinte
tinto
. NCT S nt
The change from nct to nt is a universal change, occurring in “learned” as well
as “popular” words.
defunctus
difunto
distinctus
defunción
distinto
distintivo
extinctus
distinción
distinguir
extinto
extintor
extinguir
instinctus
puncta
extinción
instinto
instintivo
punta
puntapié
puntería
apuntar
punctum
sanctus
subjunctivus
succinctus
tincta

apunte
punto
puntuación
puntuar
puntual
santo
santidad
santuario
subjuntivo
sucinto
tinta
tinta china
defunct, dead, deceased
(adj. & n.)
death, demise
distinct, different
distinctive, badge or
distinguishing mark
distinction, honor
(to) distinguish, (to) honor
extinct, extinguished
fire extinguisher
(to) extinguish, (to) become
extinct
extinction (fire, animal)
instinct
instinctive
point (sharp or tapering
end), tip
kick
aim, marksmanship
(to) point, (to) aim, (to) make
a note of
note, rough sketch, notes (pl.)
point (dot, idea, unit of
scoring, etc.)
punctuation
(to) punctuate
punctual
saintly, holy, saint (m./f.)
sanctity, holiness, saintliness,
sainthood
sanctuary
subjunctive (adj. & n.)
succinct, brief
ink
India ink
[defunctness]
[old p.p.]
dyeing, dye, tint, tinge
red (wine), black coffee
(Amer.)
tincture
dry cleaner’s (also for dyeing)
(to) dye, (to) tint, (to) tinge
tintura
tintorería
teñir

(old p.p.)
(see b below)
. SC(I) S c
The treatment of Latin sc(i) was far from uniform:
(old p.p.)
(punta + pie)
There are only a handful of exceptions the most common being plancton (“plankton”)
centella
—centellear
ciencia
—científico
ciático
—ciática
necio
—necedad
lightning, scintilla (spark, flash)
—(to) scintillate, (to) sparkle
science
—scientific, scientist (m./f.)
sciatic
—sciatica (pain in the sciatic nerve)
foolish, inane, stupid (or such a person)
—foolishness, inanity, stupidity
(Lat. scintilla)
[nice, nescient]
[nicety, nescience]
For an explanation of the rather startling difference in meaning between Spanish necio and English nice, see the appendix.
suscitar
—susceptible
—resucitar
—resucitación
(to) provoke, (to) stir up
—susceptible
—(to) resuscitate
—resuscitation
[† suscitate]
Also:
cisma (m.)
schism, split
The case of “consciousness” is particularly confusing:
consciente
inconsciente
consciencia
conscious (“aware”—with ser; “awake”—with estar) 
unconscious (“unwitting”—with ser; “senseless”—
with estar)
consciousness

Th is convenient division does not always hold in the Americas, where estar consciente is not
infrequently used in the sense of “to be aware”

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
inconsciencia
subconsciente (adj. & n.)
conciencia
—a conciencia
—objetor de conciencia
concienzudo
concienciar, concientizar
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
unconsciousness (lack of awareness, medical state),
thoughtlessness
subconscious
conscience, consciousness
—conscientiously ( concienzudamente)
—conscientious objector
conscientious, thorough (done conscientiously)
(to) make aware, i.e., make someone conscious
of something
—consuetudinario
—derecho
consuetudinario
incertidumbre
mansedumbre
muchedumbre
—multitud
pesadumbre
podredumbre
servidumbre

—customary, habitual, consuetudinary
—common law
incertitude
gentleness, tameness, mansuetude
multitude (of people, objects, animals)
—multitude
grief, sorrow
rottenness, putrefaction
servitude, subjection, servants
(household)
(“heavy” feeling)
[† putritude]
Most other words have conserved sci, e.g.,
(b). min S mbr
discípulo
—disciplina
fascículo
fascinación
—fascinar
—fascinante
fascismo
—fascista
lascivo
—lascivia
oscilación
—oscilar
piscina
plebiscito
disciple, pupil
—discipline (academic subject, rules, training)
fascicle (one of the parts of a book published in
installments)
fascination
—(to) fascinate (incl. obsolete Eng. sense “to
bewitch”)
—fascinating
fascism
—fascist (adj. & n.)
lascivious
—lasciviousness
oscillation, fluctuation
—(to) oscillate, (to) fluctuate
swimming pool
plebiscite
In a number of words, the i between vowels disappeared at the Vulgar Latin
stage, and the resulting consonant combination mn was subsequently replaced
by mbr, which was easier to pronounce. Thus, for nomen (“name”):
NOMINEM (VL ACC .) S noM
Words with similar origin include:
aluminem
[piscina]
faminem
femina
ferruminem
hominem
. -mbre
leguminem
The -mbre ending has two principal sources:
luminem
(a). A number of Spanish feminine nouns that “should” end in -tud (Section .)
instead have a more “popular” form ending in -dumbre.
certidumbre
costumbre
—acostumbrar
certitude
custom, habit, consuetude
—(to) accustom, (to) be accustomed to
_ NEM S nombre
[costume]
alumbre (m.)
aluminio
hambre (f.)
hembra
herrumbre
hombre
hombría
gentilhombre
superhombre
legumbre
leguminoso
lumbre
lumen
luminoso
alumbrar
alumbramiento
alum
aluminum
hunger, famine
female (animal)
rust
man
moral qualities:
fortitude, etc.
gentleman
superman
legume, vegetable
leguminous
light, fire
lumen (unit of light)
luminous
(to) illuminate, (to) give
birth
childbirth
(UK aluminium)
[feminine]
[ferrous]
[homo, hominid]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
deslumbrar
deslumbrante
relumbrar
vislumbrar
nominem
vislumbre
nombre
nombrar
pronombre
renombre
sobrenombre
seminare
culminem
nomenclatura
sembrar
sembrador
sembradora
seminario
diseminar
cumbre
encumbrar
culminar
culminante
culminación
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
(to) dazzle, (to) blind
(with light)
dazzling
(to) shine brightly
(to) glimpse, (to) begin
to see
glimpse, glimmer
name, noun
(to) appoint, (to) name,
(to) nominate
pronoun
renown
surname (e.g., William
the Conqueror)
nomenclature
(to) sow
sower (person)
sowing machine,
female sower
seminary, seminar
(to) disseminate
summit (peak,
conference)
(to) elevate, (to) exalt
(to) culminate
highest, culminating
culmination
underwent a transformation analogous to that of humerus in Spanish and became nombre, the source of English number. Hence:
shoulder
Spanish
French
English
nombre
nombrar
número
numerar
nom
nommer
nombre, numéro
(dé)nombrer
name
(to) name
number
(to) number
. ñ
Probably the most striking figure of Spanish orthography for a foreigner learning the language is the presence of an altogether new character: ñ. This represents a palatized nasal consonant, essentially a combination of the sounds [n]
and [y]. The pronunciation is similar to that in English canyon (which comes
from Spanish), but with the important difference that in Spanish the [ny] sound
is restricted to a single syllable:
[culminate]
[ encumber !]
Note the elimination of l as well in the final example.
Latin humerus (“shoulder”, “upper arm”) underwent a similar transformation:
humerus S hum_rus S hombro

[humerus]
Spanish nombre is a source of potential confusion for English speakers, especially those who know some French. In French, Latin numerus (“number”)

English name is of Germanic origin and comes from the same Indo-European root as Latin
nomen—nominem.
English
Spanish
canyon
cañón
[can•yon]
[ca•ñón]
The palatized [n] is common to all the major Romance languages (apart from
Romanian), but the similar pronunciations are masked by a variety of different
symbols:
Spanish
España
señor
Portuguese
Espanha
senhor
French
Espagne
seigneur
Catalan
Espanya
senyor
Italian
Spagna
signore
English
Spain, spaniel
senior, sir, sire
The palatized [n] sound arose from at least four different combinations of
sounds:
a ne, ni + vowel
aranea
balneum
araña
baño
bañera
bañar
balneario
spider
bath, bathtub, bathroom
bathtub
(to) bathe
public baths (esp.
medicinal), spa
( baños)
[arachnophobia]
[balneal, bagnio]

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
rebañar 
campania
castanea
rebaño
campaña
castaña
castañeta
castañuela
castaño
compania
compañía
cuneus
compañero
cuño
extraneus
cuña
acuñar
extraño
extrañar
me extraña
que . . .
te extraño
mucho
extrañeza
hispania
extranjero
(en) el extranjero
España
español (-ola)
hispánico
hispanohablante
(to) gather up remnants
(esp. of meal, using a
piece of bread)
flock, herd
campaign
chestnut (fruit)
snapping of the fingers,
castanet
castanet (freq. pl.)
chestnut (tree, wood,
color)
company (commercial,
social, military unit)
companion
die (for stamping coins,
medals, etc.)
wedge, bedpan
(to) coin, (to) mint
strange, foreign (object),
stranger (m./f.)
(to) find strange or odd,
(to) miss
it surprises me that . . .
(“seems strange to me”)
I miss you a lot (“feel
estranged”)
strangeness, surprise
(caused by something
strange)
foreign, foreigner (m./f.)
abroad
Spain
Spanish (adj. & n.),
Spanish language (m.)
Hispanic, Spanish
Spanish-speaking,
Spanish speaker (m./f.)
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
pinea
senior
piña
señor
señora
señorita
señorío
monseñor
pineapple, pine cone
Mister, sir, gentleman,
lord, the Lord (cap.),
seigneur, seignior, sire,
señor, signor, monsieur,
Messrs. (pl.)
woman, lady, Mrs.,
Madam, señora, signora
young woman, Miss,
señorita
dominion, domain,
lordship, seigniory
Monsignor (Msgr.),
Monseigneur
b gn, ng
[quoin]
cognatus
constringere
cuñado
constreñir
designare
diseñar
diseño
diseñador
designar
designación
dis-dignare
[stranger]

Rebañar and rebaño are unrelated to baño, but for the former, one can easily derive a “folk
etymology”, i.e., “bathing” a piece of bread to soak up the remnants of a meal.
insignia
designio
desdeñar
desdeñoso
desdeñable
desdén
enseña
enseñar
enseñanza
insignia
insigne
brother-in-law
(to) constrain, (to) constrict,
(to) constringe
(to) design
design
designer
(to) designate
designation (incl.
“nomination or
appointment”)
design (idea, intention)
(to) disdain
disdainful
contemptible, insignificant
(gen. used with negative,
hence “not insignificant”,
“not to be disdained”)
disdain
ensign (flag, banner)
(to) teach, (to) show
teaching, education
insignia, banner
renowned, famous
[cognate]

 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
lignum
praegnare
pugnus
signa
leño
leña
leñador
leñera
lignito
preñar
puño
seña
lenguaje de
señas
señal (f.)
señalar
señalización
señuelo
signatario
signo
signo de
admiración 
signo de
interrogación
contraseña
reseña
reseñar
resignación
resignar
stringere
tam magnus
estreñir
tamaño
log
firewood
woodcutter, lumberjack
woodshed
lignite (brown coal)
(to) impregnate
fist, cuff (shirt), hilt
sign (gesture), description
(pl.), address (pl.)
sign language ( lenguaje
de signos)
signal, sign, (distinctive)
mark
(to) signal, (to) mark
signalization, (system of)
traffic signals
decoy, lure, enticement
signatory ( firmante)
sign, mark
exclamation point (¡ . . . !)
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 
tangere
tañer
tingere
teñir
[tangible]
c mn
[pugnacious]
autumnus
damnare
otoño
dañar
somniare
somnium
somnus
dañino
daño
soñar
sueño ()
sueño ()
autumn
(to) damage, (to) harm, (to) spoil
(fruit, harvest)
harmful, damaging ( dañoso)
damage
(to) dream
dream
sleep, sleepiness
[somnolent]
In several cases, the mn combination arose through the disappearance of an
intervening i:
dom(i)nus
question mark (¿ . . . ?)
dom(i)na
password, countersign
brief description, review
(published)
(to) give a brief description,
(to) review
resignation (acceptance of
one’s fate, less frequently
from a job)
(to) resign, (to) resign
oneself
(to) constipate
very big, such a large,
size (m.)
(to) play a musical
instrument
(to) dye or tint
 
dueño
don
owner, master, landlord
title of respect (with first name:
don Juan)
Mr. Nobody
owner, mistress, landlady
title of respect (with first name:
doña Beatriz)
don nadie
dueña
doña
[Dom, Don]
[prima donna]
d nn
annus
año
year
(Additional examples of nn S ñ are given in Section ..)
[stringent]
[magnitude]

In English, the exclamation point was for a long time known as a note of admiration. Th is
definition was still in use in the early twentieth century, as attested by the following entry from
Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary (): “Note of admiration, the mark (!), called also
exclamation point.”
. Orthographic Changes due to Nature of Following Vowel
In Spanish, the letters c and g, as well as the combination gu, each represent
two completely different sounds depending on the nature of the following
vowel. This is illustrated below, where the English correspondences of the two
sounds are given as well as examples of Spanish words with the contrasting
pronunciations.

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S  O R L A C K T H E R E O F 

Spanish
c
() back—a/o/u
[k], as in cat
() front—e/i
[ ], as in thin
or [s], as in sin
()
cana
()
cena
cero
chimpancé
g
[g], as in go
[h*], as in hotel
gol
gel
Nevertheless, in a number of common “international” words like zebra and
zinc, the ze/zi forms coexist with the ce/ci ones. The RAE generally prefers the
forms with ce/ci:
gu
[gw], as in linguistic
[g], as in go
guarda
guerra
The large majority of the Spanish-speaking world pronounces “soft” c as [s]
rather than [ ]. Note that there are a total of five consonant sounds involved:
[k], [ ] or [s], [g], [gw], [h*].
To maintain a consistent pronunciation of these five sounds in related words
where the following vowels may differ in nature (front or back), a series of regular orthographic modifications takes place. This is illustrated in the table below:
zero
chimpanzee
acimut, azimut
bencina / benzina
cebra / zebra
cenit / zenit
cinc / zinc
eccema / eczema (m.)
zeta / (ceta )
kamikaze / camicace
azimuth
benzine
zebra
zenith
zinc
eczema
zeta, the letter “z”, zed (UK)
kamikaze
(also cénit / zénit)
REGULAR ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS
Sound
() e/i
()
()
[k]
() a/o/u or
consonant, or
at end of word
c
qu
monarca
monarquía
[ ] / [s]
z
c
pez
peces (pl.)
[g]
g
gu
despegar
despegue
[gw]
gu
gü
lengua
bilingüe
[h*]
j
j or g
erijo (“I erect”)
erigir
(inf.)
tejer (inf.)
tejo (“I weave”)
The written form for the first four of these sounds is always determined
uniquely by the nature of the following letter. For [h*] there is a well-defined
rule for back vowels, but before front vowels there is ambiguity.
Note that as a result of this rule, the letter combinations ze and zi theoretically should never occur. Hence the following contrasts between English and
Spanish:
bronce
celo
—celoso
bronze
zeal, ardor, heat (animals)
—zealous, jealous
(Lat. zelosus)
Notwithstanding the RAE’s preference, apart from bencina and cebra, the ze/zi
forms seem to be more common.
Some words have resisted all efforts at normalization and offer only the ze/zi
possibility:
enzima 
jacuzzi 
nazi
neozelandés  (-esa)
pizzería
—pizza
zen
zepelín
Zeus
zigzag
—zigzaguear
enzyme
jacuzzi
Nazi
New Zealander
pizzeria
—pizza
zen
Zeppelin (dirigible)
Zeus
zigzag
—(to) zigzag
(both from French)
Spanish has imported a number of -age words from French. While these could
have been spelled with -age, the ending chosen was -aje (with no effect on the

Ceta was eliminated in  from the RAE’s Diccionario, though it is still found frequently
in other dictionaries.

If a c were used rather than z, it would become indistinguishable from the extremely common adverb encima (“over”, “above”).

The RAE has recently proposed yacusi as a substitute for the decidedly un-Spanish-looking
jacuzzi.

Formerly neocelandés.
 
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
pronunciation). Hence the correspondence between English -age words (all
from French) and Spanish -aje ones. Examples include:
fuselaje
homenaje
maquillaje
mensaje
—mensajero
pasaje
—pasajero
pillaje
potaje
sabotaje
fuselage
homage
makeup, maquillage
message
—messenger
passage, ticket (boat, airplane), passengers (as group)
—passing (temporary), passenger (m./f.)
pillage, looting
pottage (vegetable stew), hodgepodge
sabotage
Appendix
Semantic Evolution: How “nice” is nice?
Spanish necio and English nice both come from Latin nescius (“unknowing”, “ignorant”). Nice is the archetype of a word undergoing major semantic evolution, as shown
by a partial listing of its various English meanings over the past seven hundred years:
() foolish, stupid (i.e., necio)
() wanton, lascivious
() extravagant
() elegant
() rare
() lazy
() effeminate
() delicate
() luxurious
() shy
() dainty
() fastidious
() cultured
() intricate
() subtle
() slender
() trivial
() pleasant and agreeable (i.e., “nice”).
Nicety has undergone a similar evolution in sense—from “foolish or irresponsible
conduct” to “delicacy of character or feeling”.
English nescience (“ignorance”) from Latin nescientia—literally “not science”—
and nescient (“ignorant”) preserve the original Latin meanings.