Cincinnati Shakespeare Company
PRESENTS:
Directed by Sara Clark
Discussion Guide
Cincinnati Shakespeare Company
About the Playwright:
William Shakespeare was born in April 1564 in the English town
of Stratford-upon-Avon. The son of John Shakespeare, a
successful glove maker and public official, and Mary Arden, the
daughter of a gentleman, William was the oldest surviving sibling
of eight children. Throughout Shakespeare’s childhood,
companies of touring actors visited Stratford. Although there is no
evidence to prove that Shakespeare ever saw these actors perform,
most scholars agree that he probably did. In 1582, at the age of
18, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a
farmer.
The couple had become parents of two daughters and a son by
1585. Sometime in the next eight years, Shakespeare left his
family in Stratford and moved to London to pursue a career in the theater. Records show that by 1592,
he had become a successful actor and playwright in that city. Shakespeare joined a famous acting group
called the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, so named for their patron, or supporter, a high official in the court
of Queen Elizabeth I. One of the first plays Shakespeare wrote for this company was Romeo and Juliet.
In 1598 Shakespeare became part owner of a major new theater, the Globe.
For more than a decade, Shakespeare produced a steady stream of works, both tragedies and comedies,
which were performed at the Globe, the royal court, and other London theaters. However, shortly after
the Globe was destroyed by fire in 1613, he retired and returned to Stratford. He died in Stratford in
1616.
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Plot Synopsis of “Twelfth Night”:
Orsino, the Duke of lllyria, is in love with his
neighbor, the Countess Olivia. She has sworn to avoid
men’s company for seven years while she mourns the
death of her brother, so rejects him. Nearby a group
of sailors arrive on shore with a young woman, Viola,
who has survived a shipwreck in a storm at sea. Viola
mourns the loss of her twin brother but decides to
dress as a boy to get work as a page to Duke Orsino.
Despite his rejection Orsino sends his new page
Cesario (Viola in disguise) to woo Olivia on his
behalf. Viola goes unwillingly as she has already
fallen in love at first sight with the duke. Olivia is
attracted to the ‘boy’ and she sends her pompous steward, Malvolio, after him with a ring.
Olivia’s uncle, Sir Toby Belch, her servant Maria, and Sir Toby’s friend, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, who is
also hoping to woo Olivia and is being led on by Sir Toby, who is trying to fleece him of his money, all
plot to expose the self-love of Malvolio. By means of a false letter they trick him into thinking
his mistress Olivia loves him. Malvolio appears in yellow stockings and cross-garters, smiling as they
have told him to in the letter. Unaware of the trick the Countess is horrified and has Malvolio shut up in
the dark as a madman.
Meanwhile Viola’s twin brother, Sebastian, who has also survived the shipwreck, comes to Illyria. His
sea-captain friend, Antonio, is a wanted man for piracy against Orsino. The resemblance between
Cesario and Sebastian leads the jealous Sir Andrew to challenge Cesario to a duel. Antonio intervenes to
defend Cesario whom he thinks is his friend Sebastian, and is arrested. Olivia has in the meantime met
and become betrothed to Sebastian,
believing him to be Cesario.
Cesario is accused of deserting both
Antonio and Olivia when the real Sebastian
arrives to apologize for fighting Sir Toby.
Seeing both twins together, all is revealed
to Olivia. Orsino’s fool, Feste, brings
a letter from Malvolio and on his release
the conspirators confess to having written
the false letter. Malvolio departs promising
revenge. Maria and Sir Toby have married
in celebration of the success of their device
against the steward.
The play ends as Orsino welcomes Olivia and Sebastian and, realizing his own attraction to
Cesario/Viola, he promises that once she is dressed as a woman again they, too, will be married.
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From the Director: Sara Clark
“Twelfth Night is a play of interweaving rhythms, moods, and tones; a showcase of
high verbal wit, low drunken antics, and everything in between—sitcom scenarios shot
through with moments of true poignancy, elements of high farce contrasted with dark
humor and a little tinge of melancholy. It’s one of the best ensemble pieces in the
canon, making it a great fit for this company of performers. We’ve chosen to set the
production as close to its original premiere as possible: during the Twelfth Night
festivities at the Inns of Court around 1602. I look forward to embracing both the
youth, vigor, and daring of the Elizabethan Age as well as the atmosphere of
carnivalesque revelry characteristic of the Twelfth Night festival season in which
rational hierarchy is turned topsy-turvy and nothing is quite what it seems.”
From the Actor: Maggie Lou Rader (Viola)
“Voila is such a joy to bring to life. Compared to the other pants roles in
Shakespeare, she really is unique. When it comes to the whole acting like a guy
thing, she admits she's not very good at it. It gives her a lot of trouble! If she could
see the ease in which Portia, Rosalind, and Julia handle their 'masculine usurped
attire,' I'm sure she would be just sick with herself!
She does her best to blend into her new world, but her love for Orisno, the clowns
around her, and misplaced love from Olivia, won't let her do that. She's not flashy
but she's smart. She has the ability to take in her surroundings and keep herself safe.
She's not loud, but she's true to herself, even under the guise of Cesario. She's not
outgoing, but she feels for those around her. Even in the midst of Olivia's pursuits,
which could ruin her relationship with Orsino, both as a master and a possible lover, she feels empathy for
Olivia's unrequited love. She's a dear, dear character to be playing. She's real, she's lovely, and she's honest, even
in the midst of, you know, being a man.”
Most of our costumes are
made by hand by artisians
in our on-site costume
shop, located upstairs
above the theatre. Here is
a picture of Olivia’s dress
being built and the final
product on stage in action!
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Twelfth Night Fun Facts:
Scholars believe Shakespeare wrote Twelfth Night
in 1601–02, shortly after he finished Hamlet and
about the same time that he was writing the tragedy
Othello and the comedy All’s Well That Ends Well.
British pop singer Samantha Fox recorded a song
entitled “If Music Be the Food of Love,” which takes
its title and lyrics from one of Orsino’s speeches.
The plot of the teen film starring Amande Bynes
“She’s the Man” is based on Twelfth Night.
Illyria was an ancient region on the Adriatic Sea that
includes parts of modern-day Albania, Croatia, and
Montenegro.
In Twelfth Night, Antonio refers to an inn called “The Elephant” in Illyria; in Shakespeare’s day, “The
Elephant” was a pub close to the Globe Theatre in London, where many of his plays were performed.
When Twelfth Night was first performed in 1602, female characters were usually played by boys or young
men. So the character of Viola would have been played by a boy playing a girl pretending to be a boy!
The Role of the Fool:
The fool was not a new character on stage. Indeed, a tradition had
developed from Roman times through to medieval times where fools
entertained a varied public. The fool perhaps reached its pre
Shakespearian heights as the court jester in aristocratic courts across
Europe. The jester was a dynamic and changing part of entertaining
aristocratic households and the entertainment they provided varied
greatly: songs, music, storytelling, medieval satire, physical comedy
and to a lesser extent juggling and acrobatics. Shakespeare both
borrowed from the new motif of the jester and contributed to its
rethinking. Whereas the jester of the royal courts often regaled his
audience with various skills aimed to amuse; Shakespeare's fool, in
sync with Shakespeare's revolutionary ideas about theatre, began to
depart from a simple way of representation. Like other characters, the
fool began to speak outside of the narrow confines of exemplary
morality, to address themes of love, psychic turmoil, and all of the
innumerable themes that arise in Shakespeare, and indeed, modern
theatre.
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Shakespeare’s Original Fool, Robert Armin:
Perhaps central to the Bard's redrawing of the fool was the actor Robert Armin:
Shakespeare created a whole series of domestic fools for [Armin the actor]. [His] greatest roles,
Touchstone in "As You Like It,"(1599), Feste in "Twelfth Night,"(1600), and (the) fool in "King
Lear,"(1605); helped Shakespeare resolve the tension between thematic material and the traditional
entertainment role of the fool. Armin became a counter-point to the themes of the play and the power
relationships between the theatre and the role of the fool--he manipulates the extra dimension between
play and reality to interact with the audience all the while using the themes of the play as his source
material. Shakespeare began to write well-developed sub-plots expressly for Armin's talents. A balance
between the order of the play and the carnevalized inversion factor of festive energy was achieved.
Armin was a major intellectual influence on Shakespeare's fools. He was attuned to the intellectual
tradition of the Renaissance fool yet intellectual enough to understand the power of the medieval
tradition. Armin's fool is a stage presence rather than a solo artist. His major skills were mime and
mimicry; even his improvisational material had to be reworked and rehearsed. His greatest asset was as
a foil to the other stage actors. Armin offered the audience an idiosyncratic response to the
idiosyncrasies of each spectator.
Dramatic function of the Fool:
“That, of course, is the great secret of the successful fool – that he is no fool at all.”
-Isaac Asimov, Guide to Shakespeare.
Some have argued that the clowning in Shakespeare's
plays may have been intended as “an emotional
vacation from the more serious business of the main
action.” Clowning scenes in Shakespeare's tragedies
mostly appear straight after a truly horrific scene: The
Gravediggers in Hamlet after Ophelia's suicide; The
Porter in Macbeth just after the murder of the King;
and as Cleopatra prepares herself for death in Antony
and Cleopatra. Nevertheless, it is argued that
Shakespeare's clowning goes beyond just “comic
relief”, instead making the horrific or deeply complex
scenes more understandable and "true to the realities
of living, then and now" by shifting the focus from the
fictional world to the audience's reality and thereby
conveying "more effectively the theme of the dramas".
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Twelfth Night as a Holiday:
Twelfth Night is a festival in some branches of Christianity marking the coming of the Epiphany and
concluding the Twelve Days of Christmas.
It is defined by the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as “the evening of the fifth of January, preceding
Twelfth Day, the eve of the Epiphany, formerly the last day of the Christmas festivities and observed as
a time of merrymaking”. There is some confusion these days, however, as to which night is Twelfth
Night: modern practice is often to regard the night of Epiphany itself (sixth of January) to be Twelfth
Night. The older tradition of Twelfth Night being the 5th of January stems from the medieval practice of
the day beginning at sunset, rather than at midnight as it does now. Thus Twelfth Night falls on the 5th of
January, ahead of Twelfth Day on the 6th.
A recent belief in some English-speaking countries holds that it is unlucky to leave Christmas
decorations hanging after Twelfth Night, a belief originally attached to the festival of Candlemas which
celebrates the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (February 2).
Origins and History of the Twelfth Night Holiday:
Wassailing apple trees on the
twelfth night to ensure a good
harvest, a tradition in Maplehurst,
West Sussex
A Spanish Roscón de reyes, or Kings' ring
usually serves 8 people.
This pastry is just one of the many types
baked around the world for celebrations
during the Twelve Days of Christmas and
Twelfth Night.
In medieval and Tudor England, the Twelfth Night marked the end of a winter festival that started on
All Hallows Eve — now more commonly known as Halloween. The Lord of Misrule symbolizes the
world turning upside down. On this day the King would become the peasants and vice versa. At the
beginning of the Twelfth Night festival, a cake that contained a bean was eaten. The person who found
the bean would rule the feast. Midnight signaled the end of his rule and the world would return to
normal. The common theme was that the normal order of things was reversed. This Lord of Misrule
tradition dates back to pre-Christian European festivals such as the Celtic festival of Samhain and the
Ancient Roman festival of Saturnalia.
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Twelfth Night Holiday Traditions:
Food and drink are the center of the celebrations in modern times, and all of the most traditional ones go
back many centuries. The punch called wassail is consumed especially on Twelfth Night, but throughout
Christmas time, especially in the UK. Around the world, special pastries, such as the tortell and king
cake are baked on Twelfth Night, and eaten the following day for the Feast of the Epiphany celebrations.
In English and French custom, the Twelfth-cake was baked to contain a bean and a pea, so that those
who received the slices containing them should be designated king and queen of the night's festivities.
In colonial America, a Christmas wreath was always left up on the front door of each home, and when
taken down at the end of the Twelve Days of Christmas, any edible portions would be consumed with
the other foods of the feast. The same held true in the 19th-20th centuries with fruits adorning Christmas
trees. Fresh fruits were hard to come by, and were therefore considered fine and proper gifts and
decorations for the tree, wreaths, and home. Again, the tree would be taken down on Twelfth Night, and
such fruits, along with nuts and other local produce used, would then be consumed.
In the eastern Alps, a tradition called Perchtenlaufen exists. Two to three hundred masked young men
rush about the streets with whips and bells driving out evil spirits. In Nuremberg until 1616, children
frightened spirits away by running through the streets and knocking loudly at doors. In some countries,
and in the Catholic religion worldwide, the Twelfth Night and Epiphany marks the start of the Carnival
season, which lasts through Mardi Gras Day. Modern American Carnival traditions shine most brightly
in New Orleans, where friends gather for weekly King Cake parties. Whoever gets the slice with the
"king", usually in the form of a miniature baby doll (symbolic of the Christ Child, "Christ the King"),
hosts next week's party.
In parts of Kent, there is a tradition that an edible decoration would be the last part of Christmas to be
removed in the Twelfth Night and shared amongst the family.
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Themes of Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night:
Love: “Love” is a term that characters in Twelfth Night like to bandy about, and the play takes them to
task for it as it exposes and explores the folly of misdirected desire. Characters that claim to be in the
throes of passion are often exposed as self-absorbed, foolish, and/or misguided, as they fall victim to the
trappings found in bad love poetry. Twelfth Night, of course, is famous for its consideration of the
relationship between desire and gender, as both male and female characters find themselves drawn to the
androgynous “Cesario.”
Gender: Gender is a big topic in Twelfth Night, and the play brilliantly demonstrates how gender, a
socially constructed identity, can be “performed” and impersonated with the use of voice, costume, and
mannerisms. The theme is largely explored in relation to Shakespeare's profession as an actor and writer
because in Elizabethan times, all-male acting companies performed the roles of women. The
relationship between gender and performance is particularly complex in Twelfth Night because the part
of Viola is played by a boy actor, who is cross-dressed as a female character, who disguises herself as a
young man.
Society and Class: For modern audiences, it's easy to
forget about issues of "class" in Shakespeare's famously
gender-bending play. Yet, crossing gender boundaries is
not the only kind of social transgression at work in
Twelfth Night. The play is very much concerned with
social ambition, especially as it relates to marrying above
or below one's estate or rank. The issue is largely
explored in the Malvolio plot, where the play takes
particular pleasure in ridiculing Malvolio's socialclimbing fantasies. Of course, Shakespeare himself was
not born into a noble or even wealthy family, and
famously purchased his “Gentleman” title after a
lucrative theater career, which may be of interest in
relation to Feste's status. While drunken fools like Sir
Toby Belch eat, drink, and spend their way through life,
the brilliant performer and “licensed fool,” Feste, works
for spare change and is often treated like a common
servant.
Rules and Order: Twelfth Night takes its name from the Carnival-like festivities surrounding the
Christian feast of the Epiphany. Like the Mardi Gras festival, Twelfth Night is a religious holiday and
an opportunity to invert social order while indulging in unruly and riotous behavior. The play is also
chock-full of drinking, carousing, eating, over-indulging, and other spirited activity. Yet, the rebellious
spirit of Twelfth Night is not limited to overt “partying.” Gender-bending, misguided pursuits of love,
clowning, and the humiliation of the play's resident “Puritan” figure Malvolio, also embody the spirit of
festival in the play.
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Elizabethan Manners:
Except below taken from Fabritio Caroso's "Nobilita di Dame" (1600) in his Dialog
Between a Disciple and His Master, on the Conduct Required of Gentlemen and Ladies
at a Ball and Elsewhere for some pointers on how to behave in court.
Do you think you could remember to follow all of these rules?
For Gentlemen
Here is Caroso’s description for a gentleman's comportment with a king:
You need to know, then, that should a prince or
gentleman be required to approach a great king to
kiss his hand, the sides of his cape or mantle
(whichever it is) should be of equal length, for aside
from the fact that [any unevenness] looks quite ugly,
it is also necessary that he reveal the front of his
body, and keep his hands down, holding both ends of
his cape or riding cloak with them, so that the king
will have no reason whatsoever to suspect him of
carrying something beneath them that could harm
him (as we have seen occur in our own day, and not
too many years since). It is good, therefore, to reveal
your hands and to wear your cape or riding cloak as
I have said above. Moreover, you should doff your
bonnet (or hat) as I have taught in the rule for
doffing the bonnet; you should doff it with your right
hand, changing it to your left hand as soon as you have removed it, and turning the inside of your
bonnet toward the thigh corresponding to the hand in which you hold it. Upon appearing in the hall (or
room) where the king is, immediately make a grave Reverence; then take four or six steps forward, and
make another [Reverence]; and when you are a short distance from His Majesty, make the last one very
low, so as almost to touch the floor with your knee, pretending to kiss the king's knee. Then look up and
and kiss your petition, accompanying this act with another Reverence, and presenting it to him. After
this, having achieved your purpose or a suitable answer from His Majesty, take leave of him, once again
pretending to kiss his knee. You ought to know that in making the last Reverence you should not face His
Majesty, but [should face] a little to the side, so that the king is on your right; if the king is seated,
however, and you are standing, face him directly. Should the king walk along with you, stay a step
behind him at all times. In turning, follow the commendable Spanish fashion of falling back three steps,
always keeping His Majesty on your right. When taking your leave, make a Reverence by bowing so low
that your knee almost touches the ground (as I have said above); and upon rising, retire by making three
more Reverences without ever turning your back upon the king. Now I have nothing more to tell you
about this.
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Elsewhere, Caroso offers advice on sword wearing, another essential social skill of a
gentleman:
"When a gentleman wears a sword while dancing these lively dances, he should hold it with his left
hand, so that it will not wave around wildly; also if he find himself dancing in a very samll space, he
should hold it [still] with his left hand, turning it a bit by that hand so that the point will hang forward in
order to avoid offsense to those seated behind him. If you have space, however, allow it to move as
usual. Be careful not to push down on yoru sword hilt to such an extent that the tip points skyward, for if
you do so, you will resemble a Spanish Captain playing his part in the Commedia, and you will be
mocked at and ridiculed, rather than appreciated by any onlookers. After you have taken leave of your
lady and as you return to your seat, pay due respect to thoseenear where you will be sitting with a small
salutation; and with your hat in your right hand, and your left hand turning your sword toward the
front."
For a Lady
Here is Caroso’s description for a lady's comportment with a king or other nobility:
Now as soon as a lady espies a princess or noblewoman
(whichever the case), she should step out and go toward
her; and before approaching her, she should make a half
Reverence (that is, a little bow), and when she has come
close she should kiss her own right hand (without,
however, bringing it near her mouth, but holding it at
some distance), bending it a little, and not holding it so
rigidly that it appears to be crippled. While moving this
way, she should make a grave Reverence, as indeed I
showed you, pretending to kiss the princess's right hand.
If she is not the equal of that particular princess or great
lady, however, she should pretend to kiss the [princess's]
knee. Then the princess should make a Reverence,
making the same [gestures] as if she were her equal; if
[she is] not she should pretend to raise her with her
[own] hands, taking the visitor’s left hand in her right
hand. This is even more appropriate if she is her equal,
for anyone who is paid a visit should always receive the
caller most warmly and affectionately. Should the hostess
wish to put the caller on her own right to honour her,
however, the visitor should never permit it.
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It is interesting to note that it is assumed that public business will be conducted by men, and that women
engage in purely social behavior with other women. There aren't directions about how a woman should
behave in a court situation with a prince. The contexts in which men and women interact are actually
quite limited, dancing being one of the major ones, and one reason why deportment is so important a
part of dance instruction. Caroso's guidance on how a lady should invite a gentleman to dance provide
interesting insight into behavior between the genders:
[Sometimes] during a dance, some new brides and other ladies cast their eyes so low that the gentlemen
cannot tell which one of them has been invited [to dance], so that one rises to his feet rather than the
other. Or sometimes, in their great eagerness to dance, they [all] give her their hands, with the result
that she does not know which one to take. It would be better, then, for a lady to keep her eyes level, and
when she chooses to invite some gentleman, to look at him [directly], so that those sitting near to or
behind him will not need to rise, thus avoiding any ensuing scandal. Now as he rises, the gentleman
whom she has invited should remove his right glove (if he is wearing it) at the same time as she makes a
Reverence to him, and she should pretend to adjust her dress, making it sway, strutting slightly, and
turning a bit sideways toward the one she has just invited. On occasion a gentleman may wear his
gloves so tightly that removing his right glove takes longer than saying an 'Ave Maria', as I have said
above. It is not proper, however, for the lady to remain directly facing [the gentleman], for it would look
as if they were making love; therefore gentlemen should wear their gloves a little loose rather than tight.
This is interesting because it describes the polite way for women to interact with men -- not too direct,
but not so modest as to cause social confusion. The bit about not facing the gentleman for too long a
time is worth noting. Before the late 20th century, the phrase 'making love' referred to romantic
conversation. Being truly lady-like by the standards of the time is a difficult task!
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Discussion Questions
1. Orsino spends a whole lot of time and energy professing his "love" for Olivia. Is he really as smitten
with her as he says he is? Why or why not?
2. Olivia falls head over heels for "Cesario." What is it about "Cesario" that Olivia finds so attractive?
What textual evidence would you use to back up your claim? Does the play ever reconcile Olivia's
desire for "Cesario"? If so, how? If not, why not?
3. At the play's end, Viola reveals her true identity, which frees her up to marry Duke Orsino. But, Viola
remains in her "Cesario" disguise because the sea captain is keeping her "maiden weeds" for her. What
is Orsino's response to this? How does the situation influence our interpretation of their relationship?
4. Why does Viola disguise herself as a boy? How does Viola's gender-bending "Cesario" disguise
create comedic situations in the play? What is Viola's response to the way other characters treat and
respond to "Cesario"?
5. We know that Shakespeare wrote for an all-male stage, which means that Viola's role was played by a
boy actor who had to convince the audience that he was a woman who disguised herself as a man. How
does this complicate or challenge our notions about "masculinity" and "femininity"? Is it possible for a
person to have both characteristics? Why or why not?
6. What does Duke Orsino say about women's capacity to love? Is there evidence in the play to support
or disprove Orsino's opinion?
7. Why does Sir Toby Belch convince Sir Andrew Aguecheek to challenge "Cesario" to a duel? What
does this suggest about Toby's ideas about what it means to be a man?
8. Why do Maria, Toby, Fabian, and Feste decide to play such a cruel prank on Malvolio?
9. Is Malvolio really in love with Olivia? If not, why does he fantasize about marrying her?
10. Why does Orsino say that Sebastian's blood is "right noble"? Why should it matter?
11. Is the title of Twelfth Night, or What You Will an appropriate name for the play? Why or, why not?
12. How does Sir Toby Belch spend his time in the play? Why do other characters object to his
behavior?
13. Aside from the obvious depictions of drinking, eating, and over-indulging, what other kinds of social
unruliness does Twelfth Night portray?
14. We know that Twelfth Night refers to the Christian feast of the Epiphany. ("Epiphany" literally
means "appearance" or "manifestation.") Does the concept of revelation ever appear in the play? If so,
what is it that is revealed?
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Classroom Activity:
Part of teaching middle school and high school students is dealing with lovelorn, love obsessed, and
lovesick teenagers. While reading Twelfth Night, students will discover that the characters in the play
have as much trouble with love (and often times, more) as they do. This lesson allows students to toy
with the theme of love and explore the different characters' opinions about love before they begin the
play. Students will have a chance to play with language, engage in performance, and grow excited about
the play before it begins.
What To Do
1. Break students into groups of 5.
2. Each member of the group should receive a copy of the following speeches: Orsino, 1.1.1-15; Viola
2.2.18-26 and 33-41; and Olivia, 3.1.152-164.
3. Ask students to read each speech several times, circling any words or phrases that they find confusing.
4. Lead a class discussion with the students. Ask them to consider possible meanings for any words that
seem confusing.
5. Explain to students that, in their groups, they will break up the lines into sets (which can be anywhere
from 1–4 lines) that seem to convey a single idea or seem to want to stand on their own. Then, after the
group has broken all of the speeches up into pieces, the students must find a creative way to merge all
three speeches into a performance. This can be done in countless ways. For example, pick students to
play each character and read that character's lines, and then have the other students act out the scenes
silently. The only requirements are that all 5 members be involved in the presentation and that the lines
from the three speeches be intertwined in some way, so that the parallels between the speeches are clear.
6. After each group has performed, ask students to write a response addressing the following questions:
Describe each of the following characters in 2–3 sentences based on the speeches you read: Orsino,
Viola, Olivia. How do you think these characters are connected to each other in the play? Which of the
presentations did you find most effective? Why? What questions remain in your mind after today's
activity?
7. Extension activity: Have students revisit their written response as they read the play, adding in
insights and opinions of the characters.
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Sources:
http://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/play-summary/twelfth-night/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night_(holiday)
www.schmoop.com/twelfth-night
http://www.latourdulac.com/manners/Elizabethan.html
http://pages.simonandschuster.com/images/ckfinder/26/pdfs/Folger%20Curriculum%20Guides/GuidesApr2012/Folger_TwelfthNight.pdf
http://www.folger.edu/eduLesPlanDtl.cfm?lpid=632
Fabritio Caroso, Courtly Dance of the Renaissance, a New Translation and Edition of the Nobilta di
Dame (1600), trans. Julia Sutton, Dover Publications, NY.
Lancelot de Casteau, Ouverture de Cuisine, Liege, 1604.
Baldassarre Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, trans. George Bull, Penguin, 1976.
Natalie Zemon Davis, The Gift in Sixteenth-Century France, University of Wisconsin Press, 2000.
Frederick J. Furnivall, editor, The Babees Book, The Bokes of Nurture of Hugh Rhodes and John
Russell, Wynkyn de Worde's Boke of Kervynge, The Booke of Demeanor, The Boke of Courtasye,
Seager's School of Vertue, & c. &c. with some French & Latin Poems on like Subjects and some
Forewords on Education in Early England, London, 1868.
Michel de Montaigne, The Complete Works of Montaigne, Donald Frame, translator and editor,
Stanford University Press, 1971.
Kristen B. Neuschel, Word of Honor, Interpreting Noble Culture in Sixteenth Century France, Cornell
University Press, 1989.
Sara Paston-Williams, The Art of Dining, A History of Cooking and Eating, The National Trust, Great
Britian, 1999.
William Leon Wiley, The Gentleman of Renaissance France, Harvard University Press, 1954.
All photos by Rich Sofranko. http://www.richsofranko.com/