THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION
ODC 043: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Imani M. Mwakamele
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….
4
LECTURE ONE: MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
7
1.0Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. 7
1.1 What is Psychology?……………………………………………………………....
7
1.2 Branches of Psychology……………………………………………………….......
9
LECTURE TWO: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:MEANING AND ITS
IMPORTANCE
11
2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 11
2.1 What is Educational Psychology?…………………………………………………
11
2.2 Historical background of Educational Psychology………………………………… 12
2.3 Importance of Educational Psychology…………………………………………….
14
LECTURE THREE: EARLY CHILDHOOD
18
3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….
18
3.1 Early childhood…………………………………………………………………...
18
3.2 Why studying children development is important?...................................................
19
3.3 Processes and periods of child development…………...…………………………..
21
3.4 Periods of Development………………...………………………………………….
23
LECTURE FOUR: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
26
4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….
26
4.1 Cognitive development…………………………………………………………...
27
4.2 The Brain and Children’s education……………………………………………...
28
4.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive development………………………………………
28
4.4 Piaget’s Key Ideas………………………………………………………………..
28
4.5 Stages of Cognitive Development…………..………………………...
30
1
4.6 Educational implications of Piaget’s Theory………………………………………. 32
LECTURE FIVE: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
34
5.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..
34
5.1 Meaning and Features of a Language……………………………………………..
34
5.2 How Language develops in children……………………………………………...
35
5.3 Functions of Language in learning…………………………………………………
39
5.4 Educational implications of language development……………………………….
39
LECTURE SIX : SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
41
6.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..
41
6.1 The meaning of socio-emotion ………………….………………………………...
41
6.2 Socio-emotional development…………….……………………………………….
42
6.3 Aspects of socio-emotions………………………………………………………..
42
6.4 Functions of Emotions…………………………………………………………….
45
6.5 The role of teachers in enhancing socio-emotional development to pupils……….
46
LECTURE SEVEN: INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
48
7.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..
48
7.1 Meaning of individual variations………………………………………………….
48
7.2 Physical Differences………………………………………………………………
49
7.3 Intellectual differences……………………………………………………………
50
7.4 Differences in interests……………………………………………………………
50
7.5 Source of individual variations……………………………………………………
50
7.6 Teaching Strategies related to Individual variations among pupils……………….
51
LECTURE EIGHT: LEARNING
53
8.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..
53
8.1 Meaning of learning……………………………………………………………….
53
8.2 Three Laws of Learning…………………………………………………………...
54
2
LECTURE NINE: THEORIES OF LEARNING
57
9.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 57
9.1 Theories of Learning……………………………………………………………….. 57
9.2 Behavioral Learning Theories (Behaviourism)……………………….....................
58
9.3 Social Learning Theory…………………………………………………………….
59
9.4 Constructivism………………………………………..……………………………
61
LECTURE TEN : MOTIVATION AND TEACHING
64
10.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….
64
10.1 What is Motivation?................................................................................................
64
10.2 Importance of motivation………………………………………………………...
65
10.3 Motivation as a trait and as a temporal state……………………………………..
65
10.4 Motivation Theories………………………………………………………………
65
10.5 Impacting motivation in the classroom…………………………………………...
67
10.6 Teacher’s attitude and personality………………………………………………..
68
LECTURE ELEVEN: ADRESSING LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
72
11.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………
72
11.1 Pupils with Disabilities…………………………………………………………...
72
11.2 Helping pupils with Special Needs……………………………………………….
74
11.3 Important resources for Teachers…………………………….…………………...
77
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….
79
3
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This course is intended to introduce issues of Educational Psychology to students taking
the Diploma in Primary Teacher Education Programme in the Institute of Continuing
Education (ICE). Moreover, the Course may be used by students aspiring for a degree in
Education. It aims at enabling the prospective teachers have necessary skills to interact
with pupils in primary and secondary schools. At the end of the Course, the students are
expected to be able to apply Educational Psychology and skills in improving
learning/teaching process in schools.
(Students taking this course, however, should be aware that) Due to the depth and breadth
of the field of Psychology in general, and Educational Psychology in particular, this
course is only an introduction. More is yet to come. As a student and educator who
continually seek for improvement in the field will find more knowledge as one moves to
more higher levels of education.
This course is divided into six parts. Part one (lecture one and two) provides definition
and scope of Psychology and Education Psychology. Part two (lecture three, four, five
and six) covers child development. Part three (lecture seven) dwells on individual
variations, while part four (lecture eight and nine) focus on learning and major theories.
Part five (lecture ten) is on motivation and the last part is on addressing learners with
special needs.
4
COURSE OBJECTIVES
This course aims at enabling student teachers to:
1. Demonstrate adequate knowledge and skills in Educational Psychology
2. Use principles of educational psychology in explaining human development
3. Explain how psychological aspects impact teachers, learners and teaching and
learning processes
4. Adapt current and effective theories and models of Educational Psychology in
teaching and learning.
5
Assessment procedures
This course will be assessed in the following manner:
1. Main Timed Test 30%
2. Final Examination which will carry out 70%
6
LECTURE ONE
MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
In this first lecture, we shall discuss the meaning of psychology, the home base of the
study of Educational Psychology. We shall also learn some branches of Psychology.
Before we embark on Educational Psychology it is very important to understand what it
is Psychology.
Probably you have heard about the term ‘Psychology’ on several
occasions but you have not studied it scholarly. If you do not study Educational
Psychology, you will lack something of value as a professional teacher.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Define Psychology (both etymologically and in context)

List down branches of Psychology
1.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
To students commencing the first year at the College or University, Psychology is a new
subject as it is not studied at Secondary school level. However, for you might have come
across this subject when you were training to be a teacher some few years ago. On the
other contrast, subjects such as Mathematics, Geography, History and Chemistry are
quite familiar to every first Year College /University student.
Whatever it may appear to you, Psychology, in reality it is a subject which all of us are
familiar with as we have lived with it from the time we were born, or even earlier, as life
begins at conception.
We live with Psychology everyday and in every moment. Why? Simply because the
main concern of psychology is you and me; it is about you as a person, you and your
7
siblings, yours parents, your relatives and your neighbors. In what way is it about you and
me? It focuses on our behavior or what we do and what we do not from moment to
moment, and the reasons why we do what we do!
Now what is the meaning of the term ‘Psychology’? The term ‘Psychology’ comes from
two Greek words ‘Psyche’ which means ‘mind’ or ‘soul’ and ‘logic’ which means the
study of. Therefore in Greek the original meaning of psychology means “the study of
mind or soul”. Mind or souls are elements believed to differentiate innate objects and
plants from animals and human beings (Lema, 2004).
Psychology is presently defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental
processes. Issues regarding behavior and mental processes are inevitable issues of human
beings as well as animals. Everyday in our lives we portray behavior which means
‘actions’ or responses that come unconsciously or in a conscious way. As human beings,
we also portray mental activities such as thinking, memorizing, understanding and
perceiving. Based on scope of the field, you can agree that every moment we encounter
psychology in our lives.
Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion,
phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal
relationships. Psychologists also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ
empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial
variables.
ACTIVITY
Why do we say that we have lived with Psychology from the time we
?
were conceived, born and until now?
8
According to Lema (2004), the objectives of psychology are to:

Understand behavior

Explain behavior

Predict behavior

Control behavior
NOTE
It is important to note that psychology is a science because its
methods of studying behavior are based on observation and
experimentation, an approach commonly used in natural science
such as physics and chemistry.
1.2 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
After learning what psychology is, let us now briefly discuss some branches of
psychology. There are many branches that have been developed, since Psychology is a
growing and broad subject. The first branch of psychology is Social Psychology which
studies the behavior of people in different groups. It investigates the influence of people
on one another. It addresses questions like why do we like some people and dislike
others, why do people behave differently and other many questions. Secondly, we have
Developmental Psychology which covers aspect of development of human behavior. We
have Clinical Psychology that deals with diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior.
Clinical Psychologists treat groups as well as individuals and may be in private practice
or may work in public health centers. Further more, there is Industrial Psychology that
deals with the study of production in industries. Industrial and Organizational
Psychologists address the problem of training personnel, improve working condition and
the issues related to employ and production.
Counseling Psychology – it performs
personal and interpersonal operations in a person’s being wherein the main concern are
the emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and
organizational areas. Although we have many other branches of psychology, we should
not forget Educational Psychology which is our main focus in this Course.
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ACTIVITY 2
List down and describe at least five branches of psychology not
?
mentioned in this lecture.
SUMMARY
In this first lecture, we have covered in general terms, what
psychology is. We traced the original meaning of psychology as well
as what does psychology means today. We also discussed some
branches of psychology. However our main focus in this Course is
Educational Psychology.
EXERCISE
In your words, what do you understand by the term
‘Psychology’?
Briefly discuss branches of psychology.
REFERENCES
Bernstein, A.D (1988). Psychology. Houghton Company:
Dallas
Campbell, C.Y. (2002). Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Lahey, B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill
New York.
Lema, V.I. (2004). General Psychology. OUT: DSM
Perrin, L. (1986). Understanding Psychology. (4th Ed.). McGraw
Hill: California.
10
LECTURE TWO
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND ITS IMPORTANCE
INTRODUCTION
In the previous lecture, we learnt about the meaning of Psychology. We also explained
some branches of psychology, one of it being Educational Psychology. Having defined
and described the nature of Psychology let us now look specifically at Educational
Psychology. We will discuss it in terms of its definition and more importantly, why is it
an essential area of study for prospective teachers. This knowledge will enable us to asses
the measure in which our knowledge meets the objective of preparing us for a teaching
career.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lecture, you should be able to:

Define Educational Psychology.

Describe historical background of Educational Psychology.

Explain the importance of studying Educational Psychology
to teachers.
2.1 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
Educational Psychology is the branch of Psychology that specializes in understanding
teaching and learning in education settings (Stantrock, 2004). It is the study of how
humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the
psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.
Educational Psychology is concerned with the study of learners, learning and teaching. Its
principle focus is on the processes by which information, skills, values and attitudes are
transmitted from teachers to pupils in the classroom situation. Educational psychology is
concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as
11
gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. In short, it focuses on the
applications of principles of psychology to the practice of teaching and learning.
Educational Psychology discusses in details, the characteristics of learners and how to
apply psychology principles in making the learners and learning process effective. This
branch of psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and
adolescence, but includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved
in learning throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology
incorporates a number of other disciplines, including developmental psychology,
behavioral psychology and cognitive psychology.
NOTE
It should be noted that the major principle underlying Educational
Psychology is that there are certain strategies which are likely to be
effective in the interaction between teachers and students.
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Educational Psychology did not start as an abstract field. It has history as well as
pioneers. The field of educational psychology was founded by several psychologists
before the start of 20th Century. Some of the great educational psychology pioneers
include the following:
(i)William James (1842 – 1910): He gave a series of lectures to teachers in which he
discussed the application of psychology in educating children. James argued that lessons
should be given to children just beyond the child’s level of knowledge and understanding,
in order to stretch the child’s mind.
(ii)John Dewey (1859 – 1952): A second major pioneer in shaping the field of
educational psychology.
psychology to education.
He became the driving force in practical application of
He established his first major educational psychology
12
laboratory in the United States of America in 1894. He believed that children should not
be narrowly educated in academic topics but should learn how to think and solve
problems for themselves.
(iii) E.L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949): He initiated an emphasis on assessment and
measurement and promoted the scientific underpinnings of learning. Thorndike argued
that one of schooling’s most important tasks is to motivate children’s reasoning skills.
Furthermore, he suggested the idea that Educational Psychology must have a scientific
base that it should focus strongly on measurement.
(iv) Jean Peaget (1896-1980): Best known for his research on children's cognitive
development, Piaget studied the intellectual development of his own three children.
Piaget's theory described stages that children pass through in the development of
intelligence and formal thought processes. The theory describes four stages; (1)the
sensorimotor stage, (2)the preoperational stage, (3)the concrete operational stage, and (4)
the formal operation stage.
Jean Piaget provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults. His
research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children.
His work also generated interest in cognitive and developmental psychology. Piaget's
theories are widely accepted and studied today by students of both psychology and
education.
(v) B. F. Skinner (1904-1990): Was an American Psychologist born in Pennsylvania. In
1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard University where he remained for
the rest of his life. He became one of the leaders of behaviorism and his work contributed
immensely to experimental psychology. He also invented the 'Skinner box,' in which a rat
learns to obtain food by pressing a lever.
B.F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant conditioning and negative
reinforcement. He developed a device called the "cumulative recorder," which showed
13
rates of responding as a sloped line. Using this device, he found that behavior did not
depend on the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained. Instead, Skinner
found that behaviors were dependent upon what happens after the response. Skinner
called this operant behavior. In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also
discovered and described schedules of reinforcement.
In the last several decades of 20th Century Educational Psychologists have increasingly
focused on socio-emotional aspects’ of pupils’ lives and information processing.
Educational psychology is now one of the major branches of psychology we should not
miss to learn it.
ACTIVITY
John Dewey argued that children should not sit quietly in their seats
?
and learn in a rote manner. Do you agree with Dewey? Why or why
not?
2.3 IMPORTANCE OF EDUACATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Education is a purposive attempt to bring about desirable changes in the students
behavior. The objectives of education are realized in terms of behavioral changes among
the students. Teachers have to create the learning conditions to provide knowledge and
experiences to the students for the changes of behavior. They have to relate teaching to
learning by appropriate method of teaching.
Knowledge of psychology can be helpful in many areas of education. It aids the teacher
in understanding the basic behavior and/or motivation of his/her pupils, students,
colleagues and administrators. Educational psychology provides insights into learning
processes.
Information and skills obtained from educational psychology is not just
theoretical but apply practical methods of dealing with classroom problems.
14
Each country, including Tanzania, has certain national objectives and goals which should
be achieved by education offered. On this basis a curriculum is prepared. Educational
psychology is therefore important in this area to assist teachers to prepare instruction that
will suit the age, needs and interests of the pupils required to follow such a course of
study and thus maximize its benefits to both the pupils and the nation as a whole. The
course of a particular class level is prepared by teachers. Knowledge of psychology is
helpful in developing curricular of different levels of students in different subjects. The
developmental characteristics and needs of the students are also taken into account in the
formulation of curriculum.
Educational Psychology contributes to the theories of child and adolescent development
in a number of ways. It enables us to identify the stages of growth and development and
what kind of teaching is likely to be effective at each of these stages and to understand
the role played by hereditably and environmental factors in the development of a child or
a person. This is a topic which is widely misunderstood among many African ethnic
groups. Any abnormality is often attributed to hereditably without considering
environmental factors (Davidoff, 1987).
A teacher acts as a philosopher and a guide to the students. He must know the growth and
development of the child and his requirements at different levels. Educational psychology
helps the teacher to study the ability, interests, intelligence, needs and adopt different
techniques of teaching for effective communication. The utility of educational
psychology for the teachers has been emphasized in both theory and practices of teaching
and learning.
A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of students in class room situation. As there,
are wide variations in different abilities among the students. Therefore it is very essential
to understand the individual difference of students regarding their ability, interests,
attitudes and need at different levels of growth and development.
15
A well developed theory of class room teaching and learning is helpful for transacting the
content to the students effectively, which includes class-room climate and the teaching
competence which are required for effective communication and presentation of content.
A teacher must know the appropriate principles of teaching-learning, different
approaches to teaching for better result of teaching-learning process.
Another important point is about mental health of teachers and pupils. In the process of
teaching and learning activities in the classroom, mental health of the teacher and the
pupils plays significant role. As the mental condition influence directly the achievement
of pupils. The mental health of teacher and students must be normal or healthy. There are
different causes of mental illness of the teacher and the pupils. It should be known to the
teachers to regulate teaching - learning process.
Measuring learning outcomes is another function of educational psychology. Teacher has
to perform two important activities in classroom such as teaching and testing. The testing
activities help in measuring learning outcomes of the students to judge their improvement
and effectiveness of teaching-learning process.
Psychological training can help the teacher select motivating methods of teaching pupils
and improve his or her attitude of teaching. The method of teaching is based on the
developmental characteristic of the students. For example History is taught effectively to
small children with the help of storytelling method because small children like stories. So
the classroom teaching depends on the teachers’ knowledge about the interest of students
and methods of teaching for the students of different age-groups.
In short, educational psychology is important because it helps the teacher to understand:

How people learn

The needs and problems of pupils/children/learner.

Why pupils behave the way they do, and how to motivate them.

Teaching and learning situations.

Application of teaching and learning principles.
16
Thus, Educational Psychology is an effective tool for teachers. The study of educational
psychology is thus very useful for teachers for planning, organizing and evaluating the
teaching learning activities in the class. This is why Educational Psychology is included
in the curricula of teacher education in all countries.
SUMMARY
In this lecture, we have covered meaning of Educational
Psychology, historical background of Educational Psychology
including some key pioneers of educational psychology. In the last
part of this lecture we have discussed the importance of studying
educational psychology. Educational psychology contributes a lot
for increasing the teaching efficiency of the teacher in different areas
mentioned above.
EXERCISE
1. Who were the key thinkers in the history of Educational
Psychology and what were their main ideas?
2. How is Educational Psychology important to teachers?
REFERENCES
Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology. (3rd Ed). McGraw
Hill: New York
Slavin, R.E. (1988). Educational Psychology: Practice and Theory.
Cliffs Inc., New Jersey.
Santrock, J.W. (2004). Educational Psychology. (2nd Ed.) McGrawHill: New York.
17
LECTURE THREE
EARLY CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
We are now in a position to think about the learner. Learning starts from early years of
the life of a child. In Psychology we believe that learning does not start when a child is
seven years old as many Tanzanians believe.
As a teacher you will be responsible for a new wave of children each year in your
classroom.
The more you learn about children’s development, the more you can
understand what level is appropriate to teach them. In this lecture therefore we shall
learn childhood growth and developmental experiences in relation to the teaching
process.
OBJECTIVES
After you have completed studying this lecture you should be able
to:
Define what early childhood is.

Explain the value of studying children’s development

Classifies the general processes and periods in child
development.
3.1 EARLY CHILDHOOD
Early childhood can be defined as a period that extends from the end of infancy to about
five or six years. Sometimes this period is commonly known as “pre-school age”.
During this period children become more self-reliant and develop school readiness skills
such as learning to follow instruction and identify letters. This period is very important
as it acts as a foundation to the whole process of education to a particular individual.
18
3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
From the moment parents greet their newborn, they watch the baby's progress eagerly,
anticipating every inch of growth and each new developmental milestone along the way.
But how can they tell if their child is growing properly?
Physical growth refers to the increases in height and weight and other body changes that
occur as a child matures. Hair grows; teeth come in, come out, and come in again; and
eventually puberty hits. It's all part of the growth process.
Human development is a lifelong process of physical, behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional growth and change. In the early stages of life—from babyhood to childhood,
childhood to adolescence, and adolescence to adulthood—enormous changes take place.
Throughout the process, each person develops attitudes and values that guide choices,
relationships, and understanding.
ACTIVITY
1. What does “pre-school age” mean in Tanzania?
?
2. What should you expect as your child grows? Learn how to
understand and deal with your child's changing body and
mind from infancy through the teen years.
A child's growth and development can be divided into four periods:

Infancy

Preschool years

Middle childhood years

Adolescence
Immediately after birth, an infant normally loses about 5 - 10% of his or her birth weight.
However, by about age 2 weeks, an infant should start to gain weight and grow quickly.
19
By age 4 - 6 months, an infant's weight should be double the birth weight. During the
second half of the first year of life, growth is not as rapid. Between ages 1 and 2, a
toddler will gain only about 5 pounds. Weight gain will remain at about 5 pounds per
year between ages 2 - 5.
Between ages 2 - 10 years, a child will continue to grow at a steady pace. A final growth
spurt begins at the start of puberty, sometime between ages 9 and 15.
The child's nutrient needs correspond with these changes in growth rates. An infant needs
more calories in relation to size than a preschooler or school-age child needs. Nutrient
needs increase again as a child gets close to adolescence.
Generally, a healthy child will follow an individual growth curve, even though the
nutrient intake may be different for each child. Parents and caregivers should provide a
diet that is appropriate for their child's age. They should offer a wide variety of foods to
ensure their child is getting enough nutrition.
3.3 WHY IS STUDYING CHILDREN DEVELOPMENT IS IMPORTANT?
Childhood has become a distinct phase of human life span that is hard to imagine that it
was not always thought of it that way. Today we view children quite differently from the
way there were viewed in the past. We conceive childhood as a highly eventful and
unique time of the life that lays an important foundation for the adult years. We value
childhood as special time for growth and change, and we should therefore invest more
resources in caring for and educating children in this stage.
In this case, education for children should be developmentally appropriate to cater for
their needs. That is, teaching should take place at a level that is neither too difficult nor
stressful, and not too easy and boring for the age of a child. This is the reason why we
should study child development.
The physical development which occurs during early childhood has a number of
educational implications. First, as a result of engaging in a variety of physical activities,
20
the child’s motor skills are facilitated and consolidated. Second, nutrition contributes to
physical development, and therefore it is vital that a pre-scholar receives adequate food if
he is to engage in vigorous activities. If the diet is deficient, the pupil is likely to show
retardation in weight and height. Third, poor physical growth of a child may cause or
may result to poor cognitive development as we shall discuss in the forthcoming lectures.
All teachers (including you) are required to study child psychology, which includes child
development. The reason for this is that we need to understand the ways in which
children's attitudes and abilities develop so that we may have a better chance of
understanding the children and how to teach them. By understanding child development,
we are better able to teach and manage our students.
There are many scenarios that will come up in the classroom where it will certainly be
beneficial for a teacher to have a basic understanding of child development. Children are
not "little adults." Their emotional, physical, mental, and intellectual foundations are still
forming.
Therefore, it is the role of parents, guardians and teachers to ensure that child growth and
development are not impaired. This can be facilitated in collaboration with the teachers
and parents.
3.4 PROCESSES AND PERIODS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several
processes: biological, cognitive and emotional. Development can therefore be described
as biological, cognitive and emotional processes.
Biological processes or physical development involve changes in the child’s body.
Genetic inheritance plays a large part. Biological processes underlie the development of
brain, gains in height and weight. In general children during the first two years of life
quadruple their weight and increase their height by two-thirds. This rate slows down
between 2 and 3 years when children gain only about 4 pounds and grow only about 3.5
21
inches. Between the ages 4 and 6, the increase in height slows still further and children
grow about 2.5 inches and gain 5 to 7 pounds on the average. As a result of the slower
growth rate following age 2, most 3 and 4 year olds seem to eat less food. While causing
alarm in some parents, the change in food intake is normal. Children do not eat less food
but rather they eat fewer calories per pound of body weight. The decrease growth rate
requires less calories to build their developing muscles, bones, and nerves. Although
normal children follow the same growth pattern, there are wide individual variations. A
child with a slow growth rate may continue to gain in height and weight until age 20
while a child with a fast growth rate may complete full growth by 16 years of age.
Cognitive processes involve changes in child’s thinking, intelligence and language.
Cognitive development of child is learnt in relation with the growth of the brain; its parts
and functions. Good brain developments will result to good cognitive development of a
child.
Emotional processes involve changes in the child’s relationship with other people,
changes in emotion and personality. It involves child’s understanding and control of
emotions such as joy, laughter, sorrow, love, anger, jealousy and aggression
The role of environment on child development.
The prenatal environment:
• The chemical balance of the mother's body and the presence of conditions or
potentially toxic substances that can alter development processes.
• Examples are the mother's use of drugs or alcohol, viral or bacterial diseases, and
direct traumatic injury to the fetus.
The physical environment
• The air the child breathes, the nutritional value of food the child eats.
• Exposure to conditions that can lead to disease, accident, or injury, including child
abuse and neglect.
22
The social/cultural environment
• Consists of the norms, values, belief systems and morals.
• Standards of behavior that regulate life in the cultural group in which the child is
raised.
The learning environment
• The degree and type of stimulation available in the child's immediate environment.
• Sensory input promotes and shapes cognitive development.
• Stimulation, in adequate quantity and intensity, promotes establishment of, and
"shapes," neural pathways in the brain.
The emotional environment

The nature of the child's interpersonal relationships.

The degree of nurturance available to the child.

The emotional environment shapes personality and affects the development of
self-esteem, identity, trust, the ability to enter into intimate relationships, and
personal resilience.
These changes and development will be discussed in details in the following lectures. Just
try to get some brief insights of the process of development of a child.
3.5 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
This part of the lecture will expose you in tracing different periods a child goes through.
But before we discuss this part do the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2
Can you remember the age at which your parents did send you to
?
school? Why did you think they sent you early or late?
23
For the purpose of organization and understanding we commonly describe development
in terms of periods. In the most widely used system of classification, the developmental
periods of a child can be classified as follow:
(i) Infancy which extends from birth to eighteen to twenty-four months. It is a time of
extreme dependence on adults in a number of ways. This is the beginning of many
activities such as social learning, sensor motor coordination and language development.
(ii) Early childhood extends from the end of infancy to about six years. During this
period children become more self dependence, develop school readiness skills such as
learning to follow instructions and identify letters and also spend many hours with peers.
During this time a child starts pre-school/kindergarten education commonly known as
‘Chekechea’ in Tanzania.
(iii) Middle and late childhood this extends from six years to eleven. For the Tanzanian
child or African child in general this is the age in which a child starts primary school.
Under this category children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing and simple
mathematics. At this age children interact more socially beyond the family level.
(iv) Adolescence involves the transition from childhood to adulthood. For African
children it begins with the age of eleven and ends around eighteen to twenty.
Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including gains in weight and height.
Their thinking becomes more abstract, logical and idealistic. In early adolescence, the
child will experience development in sexual functions.
NOTE
It is important to note during the early and middle childhood of
African children, a small proportion of children go to school, while
the majority remain at home furthering non-formal education. In
Tanzania, parents are now quite serious in sending their children to
formal education at a prescribed going-school age.
24
SUMMARY
It was very important for you to study about early childhood
education since it lays a firm foundation in understanding children.
This is because in primary schools we have the pool of our pupils
most of whom are still growing. In this lecture therefore, we
discussed important issues of early childhood, growth and
development and how they relate to teaching and learning process.
EXERCISE
1. In your words, what do you understand by the term
‘Psychology’?
2. Briefly discuss branches of psychology.
REFERENCES
Brandt, T. (1997). Child Development. (2nd Ed.) Brown &
Benchmark: Chicago.
Bruce, T. (1997). Early Childhood Education. Holders &
Stoughton: Bristol.
Coon, D. (1986). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and
Application (4th Ed.). West Publishers: New York.
Minett, P (1999). Child Care and Development.
Publishers: London.
John Murray
Santrock, J.W. (2001). Adolescence. McGraw-Hill, New York
25
LECTURE FOUR
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
We have discussed some basic ideas about the nature of development in the previous
lecture. In this lecture, we will examine cognitive development in greater length. In
examining different processes of development in biological, cognitive and emotional –
we indicated that these processes interact. In keeping with this topic, in our exploration
of cognitive development, we will describe the physical development of the brain and
what happens when the brain functions.
OBJECTIVES
To complete this lecture, you should be able to:
Describe what is meant by cognitive development.

Discuss the development of the brain.
4.1 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development involves the process whereby a child experiences changes in
thinking, intelligence and language. It is the development of a person’s mental capacity
to engage in thinking, reasoning, organizing information, analysis and problem solving
(Morris, 1982).
Cognitive development processes enable a growing child to memorize things, imagine
how to solve a problem, come up with a creative strategy or speak meaningfully
connected sentences.
26
4.2 THE BRAIN AND CHILDREN’S EDUCATION
Until recently, little was known for certain about how the brain changes as children age
and body grow. Considerable progress is being made in charting developmental changes
in the brain, although much is still unknown, and connections to children’s education are
difficult to make (Blair, 2002).
The number and size of the brain’s nerve endings continue to grow until adolescence.
There is a process known as myelination in which many cells of the brain and nervous
system are covered with fat cells, myelination in brain is important in focusing attention
(Tanner, 1978). Myelination is not complete in children until the end of elementary
school years.
The brain continues to grow rapidly during the preschool period. At age 2, the child's
brain has reached 55% of its adult size; by six years of age it has grown to more than
90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). While brain growth during this period is often
uneven, most has occurred before 4 to 4.5 years of age. There appears to be a spurt in
growth at age 2 followed by a major decrease in growth rate between 5 and 6 years of
age. The increase in brain size reflects changes in the organization and size of nerve cells
rather than an increase in the number of cells. The growth also reflects an increase in the
number of glial cells that feed and support the nerve cells and to the increasing
myelination of nerve fibers. Myelin is the coating around nerve fibers that serves to
channel impulses along the fibers and to reduce the random spread of impulses between
adjacent fibers, thus helping the nervous system to function quickly and accurately.
In appearance the human brain consists of two symmetrical hemispheres that specialize in
different functions. The left hemisphere controls verbal, reasoning, and mathematical
skills, while the right hemisphere specializes in nonverbal skills such as spatial ability,
perception of patterns and melodies, and the expression and recognition of emotion.
27
4.3 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
One of the famous poets once asked;
“Who knows the thought of a child? More than anyone, the famous Swiss psychologist
Jean Peaget knew!” (Noah Perry in Santrock, 2004 p.39)
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) a psychologist who stated that in learning children uses
schemas. A schema is a concept or framework that exists in person’s mind to simple to
organize and interpret information. A schema, in psychology and cognitive science,
describes any of several concepts including:

An organized pattern of thought or behavior.

A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas.

A mental structure that represents some aspect of the world.

A specific knowledge structure or cognitive representation of the self.

A mental framework centering on a specific theme that helps us to organize social
information.

Structures that organize our knowledge and assumptions about something and are
used for interpreting and processing information.
Schemas range from simple to complex.
Also according to Piaget children use
Assimilation – a mental process that occurs when a child incorporates new knowledge
into existing knowledge.
information.
Accommodation occurs when a child adjusts to new
The last mental process is organization which is Piaget’s concept of
grouping isolated ideas into higher order.
4.4 PIAGET’S KEY IDEAS
While working in Binet's IQ test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children
think. He noticed that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older
children who suggested to him that the younger ones were not dumber (a quantitative
position since as they got older and had more experiences they would get smarter) but,
28
instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought
differently.
The following are some key elements of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
Adaptation
What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and
accommodation
Assimilation
The process by which a person takes material into their mind
from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of
their senses to make it fit.
The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of
assimilation.
Accommodation
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't
have one without the other.
Classification
The ability to group objects together on the basis of common
features.
Class Inclusion
The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that
some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class.
(E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class
called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of
animals includes that of dogs)
Conservation
The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even
when they are changed about or made to look different.
Decentration
The ability to move away from one system of classification to
another one as appropriate.
Egocentrism
The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything
revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world
as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just
an early stage of psychological development.
Operation
The process of working something out in your head. Young
children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to
act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like
29
count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their
heads.
Schema (or scheme)
The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas,
and/or actions, which go together.
Stage
A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of
understanding some things
4.5 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development:
(i) Sensorimotor stage (Infancy).
This stage lasts from the birth of a baby to about two years. The child’s capacity to
organize results in adaptive behaviour involving both assimilation and accommodation as
we have learnt in the previous part of the lecture. In the case of assimilation new
experience are perceived in terms of existing knowledge. For example, a child tends to
suck anything placed in its mouth on account of the experience of its mother’s breast. In
this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity
without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because
it’s based on physical interactions /experiences. Children acquire object permanence at
about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to
begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are
developed at the end of this stage.
(ii) Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood).
The majority of pre-scholars (2-7 years) operate at this stage. In this period (which has
two sub stages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use
matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a
30
nonlogical, nonreversible manner. This means the child cannot reason logically. The
child begins to represent the world with words and images.
(iii) Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence).
This stage is refereed to as the concrete operational stage because the child is capable of
using a logical process of reasoning on the basis of concrete evidence. The period begins
from 7-14 years of age. In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number,
length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical
and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking
develops (mental actions that are reversible). Under this stage the child can now reason
logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
(iv) Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood).
The stage of formal operation as proposed by Piaget is the highest level of thinking
attained by human being. For African environment the stage covers adolescents with the
age of 15 and 20 years. In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use
of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric
thought. At this level a person is no longer restricted to reasoning based on concrete
evidence but is capable of going beyond concrete evidence as he uses his imagination. If
children are to attain this stage it is essential that they are provided with suitable
environment. At this level, the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic and logical
ways.
ACTIVITY
Do you consider yourself to be a formal operational thinker? Give
?
examples.
31
4.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET’S THEORY
Many pre-school and primary programs are modeled on Piaget's theory, which, as stated
previously, provides part of the foundation for constructivist learning. Discovery learning
and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional
techniques. It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child's abilities, but
NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also
recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child
learn (e.g., use of manipulative, working in groups to get experience of seeing from
another's perspective, field trips, etc).
It is in this context that Piaget has stressed the importance of actions in the acquisition of
knowledge and that the child should be given opportunity to do experiments which is
likely to enhance his learning. Ready made answers are not what Piaget views as
learning.
NOTE
Young children at preschool and primary schools learn more
effectively when concrete objects, actions, materials and examples
are used. You as a student teacher whenever possible make sure that
your pupil’s senses should be drawn into explanations of concepts,
relationships, and cause and effects. This will facilitate your pupils
understanding of abstract and complex topics.
ACTIVITY 2
1. How does the brain develop in human being?
?
2. What implications does this development have for the
children’s education?
32
SUMMARY
Examining the shape of children’s development allows us to
understand better children’s cognitive development. This lecture has
provided you with knowledge necessary to understand the function of
brain and cognition in general. It has also provided you with
information on Jean Peaget who was among the pioneers who studied
children cognitive ability.
EXERCISE
Using Piaget’s Theory, explain the cognitive behavior of your
standard III pupils at your school.
REFERENCES
Blair, C. (2002). Integrating cognition and emotion in
Neurobiological conceptualization of children’s function at school
entry: America Psychologist 57-127.
Bruce, T. (1997). Early Childhood Education. Holders &
Stoughton: Bristol.
Tanner, J.M. (1978). Fetus into man. Cambridge, M.A. Harvard
University Press.
33
LECTURE FIVE
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to imagine what our world would be without language as a tool of
communication. As your tutor, I am now communicating with you using language on the
printed page. This shows how important language is.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Define what language is.

Identify key features of a language.

Discuss development of language in a child.
Think about how important language in our lives. We need language to speak to others,
listen to others, read, and write. We need language to describe past events in detail and to
plan for the future. No change is as dramatic and interesting for a child than the
acquisition of language. As we have touched a bit in previous lectures, language plays a
central role in children’s cognitive development. In this good lecture, therefore, we shall
discuss how language develops in a child
5.1 MEANING AND FEATURES OF A LANGUAGE
Language is a form of communication, whether spoken; written or signed that is based on
a system of symbols. Spoken language is made up of basic sounds, or phonemes. All
human languages follow the organizational rules of phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics and pragmatics. These are called features of a language. Let’s define each of
the features briefly.
34
(i)Phonology is a sound system in a language. This system or rules allow some sound
sequence to occur (like sp, ba or ar) while the rules prohibit other sound sequence to
occur (for example, zx or qp).
(ii) Morphology refers to rules of combining morphemes. Every word in English
language is made up of one or more morphemes. For example; the word help-has single
morpheme, but helper has two morphemes (help+er)
(iii) Syntax involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and
sentences. For example; if someone says to you, “Madeda was slapped by Emmanuel”,
you know who did the slapping and who was slapped because you understand the
sentence structure.
(iv) Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences. Every word has a set of
semantic features. For example, a boy and a man share the same semantic denotations of
male and human but differ in their meaning regarding age.
(v) Pragmatics involves the use of appropriate conversation. This involves knowledge
about context in which to say to whom and how to say it. For example, when to use polite
language and rude, when to talk seriously and when to joke.
5.2 HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPS IN CHILDREN
Both biological and environmental influences are necessary to the development of a
language to a child. Famous linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) argued that humans are
endowed with language at a certain time and in a certain way. The strongest evidence for
the biological basis of a language is that all over the world, children learn language at
about the same time and the same order despite great differences in the language input
they receive. For example, in some homes adults never talk to their infants less than one
year of age, yet these infants still acquire language. In all cases, environment plays a
great role in shaping the language of a child. The presence of family members and peers
35
make children acquire the language fast. The process of language acquisition is still
debatable but this is not our concern in this lecture.
A dramatic accomplishment during this period is the acquisition of language. In late
infancy children learn to say a few individual words and, by paying attention to context,
they can also understand some of the language used around them. At approximately 2
years of age, their ability to use language suddenly increases rapidly. The size of the
vocabulary increases and they begin to string words together in short sentences. The
ability to represent objects, people and events through language, develops at about the
same time as representation in children's imitation, play and other actions. While
representation is not required in uttering simple individual words, it is necessary for
organizing words into simple statements.
Despite intensive research, the process of language acquisition remains elusive, and no
single theory has sufficiently uncovered its mystery. What is evident is that the growth of
children's vocabulary and their increased ability to use complex sentence structures
accompanied by a corresponding growth in their ability to engage in conversation
appropriately tailored to the listener's needs, requires both participation in responsive
human interactions and exposure to a rich language environment (Bruner, 1983). Most
research on language development has focused on how children acquire the rules that
govern our use of language.
Children must also learn the grammar and the rules for forming words, phrases, and
sentences. They must be able to express such states and relations as possession, negation,
past action and conditional action. One of the most basic concepts is organization of
words into sentences. In order to distinguish one sentence from another, each group of
words in a sentence has a certain pitch, and stress, so that listeners can distinguish one
sentence from the next. English speakers generally drop the pitch at the end of a
statement and raise it at the end of questions. For Kiswahili and vernacular languages like
Kifipa or Kinyakyusa the case may be opposite. Most children recognize and can infer
meaning from intonation patterns sometime in the first year of life. This enormous
36
accomplishment reflects the special adaptation of the human species for acquiring
language.
Children speaking the same language seem to acquire rules in a similar order. Rules that
are simple and used often are acquired first followed by an understanding of and an
ability to combine more complex rules. Because the complexity of a given grammatical
form differs from one language to another, the age at which children master the rule for a
particular form depends partly on the complexity of the language. Some grammatical
forms that are not particularly difficult to understand may enter a child's speech late
because they are difficult to hear. Because young children can only listen to language,
they often make mistakes due to the way a word or phrase sounds.
Preschool children are obsessed with language. They listen to it carefully and try to
imitate for hours on end. By the age of six or seven they have acquired and mastered
most of the rules for speaking in their native language. This amazing feat suggests that
there is a critical time, or sensitive period for acquiring language that begins at one or two
years of age, peaks in the later preschool years, and continues to some degree until 13 to
15 years of age. This special human sensitivity for learning language in the preschool
years seems to correspond to certain systematic changes in the brain and in the rest of the
nervous system at about this time, which are closely related to speech.
ACTIVITY
Can you remember the difference in mastering of language
?
(Kiswahili or English) when you were at primary school and now?
In this part of the lecture, we have discussed how the language develops in a child from
infant to about middle childhood when most of normal children have mastered their
language. Essential steps in language development in a child are summarized below:
37
Age Period
0 to 6
Months
Child’s Language Development/Behaviour
Language in a child begins with sounds. The first form of language
is crying, cooing, discriminating vowels and babbling
6 to 12 Months
Babbling expands to include sounds of spoken language. Use of
gestures to communicate about objects.
12 to 18 Months
First words spoken. Understand vocabulary 50+ words on average
Able to say single words such ‘mama’ ‘baba’,’bye’
2 Years
Vocabulary rapidly increases.
Correct use of plurals.
Start
producing sentences, Use of past tense, use of some prepositions.
Sentences produced are not very complete e.g. ‘eat lunch’ ‘akula
ugali’, ‘akwenda cheza’, ‘Deda apiga hapa’ etc.
3 to 4
Years
Use of 3 to 4 morphemes.
Use of ‘Yes’, ‘No’ questions, wh-
question. Use of imperatives. Increased awareness of pragmatics.
5 to 6 Years
Vocabulary reaches about 10,000 words coordination of simple
sentences.
6 to 8 Years
Vocabulary continues to increase rapidly more skilled use of
syntactical rules. Conversational skills improved.
9 to 11 Years
Words definitions include synonyms.
Conversational strategies
continue to improve.
11 to 14 Years
Vocabulary increases with additional of more abstract words. Use
of complex grammar.
15 to 20 Years
Can understand adult’s literary works.
38
NOTE
Given the close relationship that exists between a mother and her
child during infancy and early childhood, the mother plays an
important role in the language development of a child.
I hope that you have now understood how language develops in a child. You should,
therefore, be able to observe what happens to your own child or your siblings. By doing
so, you will be learning practically.
5.3 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE IN LEARNING PROCESS
Language play greater role in teaching and learning process. According to Halliday
(1999) language performs seven functions for children learning:

The instrumental function: using language to get things;

The regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of others;

The interactional function: using language to create interaction with others;

The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings;

The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;

The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination;

The representational function: using language to communicate information.
Learning activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the
learner in meaningful and authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice
of language patterns).
5.4 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
One major distinction between animals and human beings is that human beings are
capable of learning, mastering and using language (Mwamwenda, 1996). Language is of
special importance to teachers in that their ideas are communicated to pupils through the
medium of language. Therefore teachers must ensure that their pupils acquire adequate
competence in language for better learning environment. This is because information is
communicated via language and children must use language to understand ask questions
39
and communicate among each other. Teachers should also learn how to teach children
according to the level of mastering the language.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have learnt that Language is of special significance
to teachers in that their ideas are communicated to pupils through the
medium of language. Language is a means by which learning is
acquired. Therefore teachers must ensure that their pupils acquire
adequate competence in languages.
EXERCISE
1. Describe features of any spoken language. You can use
English or Kiswahili as an example.
2. What important steps does a child go through in the course of
learning language?
3. How have your former teachers encouraged or discouraged
your own mastery of language?
REFERENCES
Minett, P. (1994). Child Care and Development. John Murray
Publishers. London.
Mwamwenda, T.S. (1989). Educational Psychology: An African
Perspective. Butterworth P. Durban.
Santrock, J.W (2001). Adolescence. Mc-Graw-Hill Co., New York.
40
LECTURE SIX
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Before we open up our discussion start by smiling! Let all your front teeth be seen. Why
do I give you this exercise? Simply because we want to discuss an interesting topic,
emotions. Enjoy our journey through this lecture!
In this lecture we shall discuss another important development, socio-emotion. Socioemotional growth is a very important aspect because a child does not only grow
physically but also emotionally. Even emotions of a child can never stay within the
child’s body. Every aspect of emotion affects child’s relationship with his/her parents,
siblings, teachers and other people around.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Discuss how the social contexts of families, peers and schools
affect learning of a child.

Explain influence of parenting styles on children’s social
emotional development.
6.1 THE MEANING OF SOCIO-EMOTION
Before we move to an interesting discussion of socio-emotional development of the child,
let us understand what does the word ‘emotion’ means. The word emotion takes the name
from the Latin root meaning to move (Morris, 1982); which means to move human being
to some kind of action. The process of acting takes place whether we are aware of it or
not. A joy, for example, may come simply because someone has praised you or given you
a gift. So emotion is a feeling of joy, sorrow, sadness, anger, just to mention few. For
41
example, when we say, “Mary shouted for joy when her husband bought her a new car”.
Mary being joyful or happy is showing emotion.
Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation.
Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective
component to motivation, positive or negative. It includes happiness, sadness, tenderness,
angry etc. Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our
attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on
around us (Myers, 2004).
ACTIVITY 1
?
Quickly list as many different emotions as you can.
6.2 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotional development involves the child’s understanding and control of emotions such
as joy, laughter, sorrow, love, anger, jealousy and other aspects relating to the individual.
During early childhood a child’s social network grows from an intimate relation with
parents or other guardians to include other family members, non-related adults, and peers.
Social interactions extend from home to neighborhood and from nursery school to formal
or primary schools.
6.3 ASPECTS OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
a) Parenting
Parents normally have the earliest and strongest influence on socio-emotion of a child.
There can be times when you as a teacher will be asked to give parents advice. There also
might be times when it is helpful for you as a teacher to understand how parents are
rearing their children and the effects this has on the children.
42
It’s time now we discuss parenting styles that have influences on the emotional
development of a child. Let us try to explore four types of parenting styles.
(i) Authoritarian parenting is restrictive and punitive. It is a style in which parent’s
authority matters. Parents exhort children to follow their instructions and respect them.
They place firm limits and control of their children and allow little verbal exchange. For
example, an authoritarian parent might say, “Do what I say only, otherwise you will see!”
or, “I say call Lusekelo, no discussion!” This kind of parent is accompanied with frequent
use of punishment. Children with this kind of parenting are likely to behave in socially
incompetent ways; they fail to initiate activity and may have poor communication skills.
(ii) Authoritative parenting encourages children to be independent but still places limits
and controls on their actions. Verbal communication and bargaining is allowed. In this
style parents are supportive and nurturing. Respect of children abilities and parental
directions are involved. An authoritative parent might put the arm around the child and
say, “You should have not done that Debora. Next time don’t do that way! If you do I will
punish you, ok!” Children of authoritarian parents often behave in socially very
competent ways. They tend to be self reliant, get along with peers and show high self
esteem.
(iii) Neglectful parenting is a style in which parents are not involved in their children’s
lives. Sometimes they usually come late at home. They do not even ask where are the
children and what are they doing. The children under this parenting style behave in
incompetent ways. They tend to have poor self control and may be very stubborn and
misbehave. They actually achieve nothing.
(iv) Indulgent parenting (Sometimes known as permissive) is a parenting style in which
parents are highly involved with their children but place few limits or restrictions on their
behaviors. These parents often let their children do what they want, wear what they want
and eat what they want. For example, you can hear a child saying, “Mom, today I will
never eat ugali, I want only rice, no more!” Then you can hear the mother ordering the
43
house girl, “Hallow Yusta, cook rice for Emmanuel quickly!” Under this parenting style,
children are given much freedom. The result of this kind of parenting is that the children
usually do not learn to control their own behavior. These parents do not take into account
the development of their whole aspects of the child.
b) Peer relationships
In addition to parents and family members, peers also play powerful role in child’s
emotional development. In fact, peers form the second strong influence to child’s socioemotional development.
But who are peers? In the context of child development, peers are children of about the
same age or maturity level. Same-age peer interactions play a unique role. One of the
most important functions of the peer group is to provide a source of information and
comparison about the world outside the family. Good peer relations might be necessary
for normal development. Social isolation or the inability of a child to interact with peers
may cause many socio-emotional problems and disorders such as delinquency and
depressions. Peer plays allow children to interact with other individuals whose level or
development is similar.
c) Friendships
Centre to socio relationship between peers during childhood, one of major aspects of
socio-emotional development is brought by friendships. Between ages of 3 – 7 children
view friends as momentary playmates. Friendships contribute a lot in emotional
development of children.

It provides companionship. It gives a familiar partner, someone who is willing to
spend time with them and join in plays.

It provides physical support such as play resources

It provides social approval and helps children feel competent

It provides intimacy and affections. It gives warmth, trusting, close relationship
with others and children therefore feel comfortable.
44
NOTE
Having friends can be developmental but not all friends are alike. Not
all friends are good. Some of them are very aggressive and they can
destroy good behavior of other children.
d) Schools
When a child reaches school going age he/she must be sent to school. There he/she will
meet another kind of ‘family’. In school children spend many years as member of a small
society that produces a strong influence on their social emotional development. The
classroom still remains to be the main context for socio-emotion development in schools.
The child interacts with teachers and fellow class members. As children move to high
level classes such as for Tanzania, standard two or standard three, the school environment
increases in scope and complexity. The social field is now the whole school not just a
classroom. Interactions become wide, ranging from negative to positive interactions that
can affect the socio- emotional development of a particular child.
6.4 FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS IN RELATION TO LEARNING
The emotional state has the power to open or close access to learning, memory, and the
ability to make novel connections. Faced with frustration, despair, worry, sadness, or
shame, kids lose access to their own memory, reasoning, and the capacity to make
connections.
The mere prospect of being asked to read aloud in class is enough to freeze some pupils.
Having to take a written test or exam, with its combined requirements for memory,
reasoning, handwriting, planning and organization, can lock out some pupils. The sight of
a math word problem knocks some kids sideways. Scared kids perform poorly, and don't
learn new information well. Anxiety is the enemy of memory. And, sadly, in many of
today's classrooms, we see children whose intellectual energies and capacities are drained
by negative emotional states. Emotion is the on / off switch for learning.
45
Deep, emotional attachment to a subject area allows a deeper understanding of the
material and therefore, learning occurs and lasts. When reading, the emotions one is
feeling in comparison to the emotions being portrayed in the content affects ones
comprehension. Someone who is feeling sad will understand a sad passage better than
someone feeling happy. Therefore, a student’s emotion plays a big role during the
learning process.
ACTIVITY 2
How well do you think your own socio-emotional development can
?
be described when you were in primary school?
6.5 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN ENHANCING SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT TO PUPILS
The role of teachers is to enhance children’s self-control, self esteem and positive
thinking about others by using positive guidance techniques such as modeling and
encouraging expected behavior. Other procedures a teacher may take include redirecting
children to a more acceptable activity and setting clear limits.
NOTE
It is important to note that although we have discussed that parents,
peers and schools are important elements in shaping child’s socioemotion aspect, there are other influences that today the television
offer. You should advice parents to reduce TVs negative impact and
increase its positive impacts on child’s development.
46
SUMMARY
We have learnt from this lecture that parents, peers, friends and
schools form an important part of social relationship to children.
Teachers should therefore train their pupils to interact positively and
avoid unsocial behaviour. Also parents may be advised to help their
children develop good viewing habits from early years of life by
looking and directing children to view suitable information
educational channels.
EXERCISE
1. Explain the effects of the following on socioemotional
development of a child:
 Parenting
 Peers
 Teachers
 Television
2. In most cases which is likely to be the most effective
parenting style and why?
3. Is emotion the same as feelings? Explain your answer.
4. Do emotions serve practical purpose in classroom learning?
Give examples.
REFERENCES
Robert, S. (2000). Relationship among Children. Elvis Co. London
Santrock, J.W. (2004). Educational Psychology. McGraw-Hill, New
York.
47
LECTURE SEVEN
INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Although people may have many things in common, no two people are identical in every
respect. Children may be born from the same parents, reared in the same house, eat the
same kind of food but they will eventually appear different from one another. Pupils, like
any other group of people, are likely to differ in a number of ways such as appearance,
temperament, anxiety, honesty, intelligence and other aspects of development.
Therefore, in this lecture we are going to discuss about individual differences so that it
may help us in taking care of our children and pupils.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of discussion you should be able to:

Explain what individual variations are.

Discuss the physical, intellectual and emotional differences
among individual.

Analyze the implication of environmental differences in
teaching the pupils.
7.1 MEANING OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
Individual variations refer to differences among people of the same group in terms of
physical appearance, intellectual as well as emotional. It is the study of all various ways
in which individuals differ from one another. We can discuss this further in reference to
our own families. As you know, may be your brother’s or sister’s behavior is quite
different from the rest of the family members. If you have children at home try to note
their differences.
48
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that
result from predisposition, learning and development. These manifests as individual
differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation and the capacity to
process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities
found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include
mental retardation, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.
Each student in a classroom is different - they learn in different ways, they have different
likes and dislikes, they have different unbringings. So although you may never open the
education psychology books ever again when you get into your own classroom as a
teacher, you do need to ensure you are catering for each student’s individual needs in
order to be an effective teacher. Education psychology helps you to better understand
where each student is coming from so you can cater for them efficiently.
ACTIVITY
Suppose you are given a class with highly diverse behavior and
?
intelligence level, how will this influence your lesson preparations?
7.2 PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES
Differences in growth, height, weight and appearance may be due to genetics,
environment or an interaction of the two factors. Variations of this nature are likely to
have corresponding social intellectual and emotional effects. The physical activities
pupils can engage differ according to their physical development.
On account of physical development, we are in a position to determine a child’s stage of
intellectual adjustment and therefore plan our instructions accordingly. For example,
shorter pupils may seat in front of the classroom while taller pupils may be directed to
seat at the back of the classroom.
49
7.3 INTELLECTUAL DIFFERENCES
These are individual differences in intelligence, so that among 11 – year olds mental ages
of 6, 10 and 16 are likely to be found. This means that in one class the reading ability of
pupils may range from the average level to faster reading. It is not surprising that
children/pupils from the same background class and age may have differences in school
achievements.
7.4 DIFFERENCES IN INTERESTS
There are individual differences in interests which should be fostered by students since in
society there are many types of occupations to match such interests. The important
question here is how well are diverse interests are taken into consideration during
classroom learning? Some pupils have special interest in languages, while others are
interested in science and others in art subjects. Interests in subjects may be influenced by
many factors including; the way the subject is taught, the nature of subject itself though
any subject can be interesting, if a pupil does well in a certain subject and other factors.
Interest on a certain subject also can be influenced by parents’ wishes for their children,
the availability of and the status of professions.
NOTE
It is important for the teachers, especially in African context, to
encourage these various interests to extent to other subjects/fields in
order to widen their options to avoid overspecialization
7.5 SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
Individual differences in academic achievement will continue to affect performance at
school. These are many factors for variations among children. We have mentioned in
previous sections that heredity and environment may attribute to differences.
But
majority of them are functions of both environment and heredity. For example conditions
at home (parental care, availability of proper nutrition, resources) and at school (school
50
administration, lack of efficiency, poor curriculum planning, etc) may bring about
differences among children.
7.6 TEACHING STRATEGIES RELATED TO INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS
A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of pupils in class room situation. As there,
are wide variations in different abilities among the students. Therefore it is very essential
for you as a teacher to understand the individual difference of your pupils regarding their
ability, interests, attitudes and need at different levels of development.
The following points are some strategies you can use to make sure that learning goes well
even if your pupils in the class show varied behaviours.
 Show attention to and respect every individual pupil regardless of his or her
behaviour such as temperament
 Consider the structure of pupils’ environment. Overcrowded, noisy classrooms
often pose greater problems to interact with pupils variations
 Avoid labeling your pupils such as calling him or her difficult, poor, “emolo”,
“jinni” “ yeboyebo” and other irritating labels
 Help your pupils to set goals for their achievements. Tell all of them can do well
and be winners at last.

SUMMARY
This lecture has been about individual variations. Because individual
variations are so important in effectively teaching the children, this
lecture has provided you with some skills of how to handle such
variations.
51
EXERCISE
Why do pupils of the same age group or class differ in intelligence
and other elements of behaviour?
REFERENCES
Mwamwenda, T. S. (1989). Educational Psychology: An African
perspective. Butterworths, Durban.
Stanberg, R.J. (2000). Looking back and forward in intelligence.
OTS. New York.
52
LECTURE EIGHT
LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
Learning is the primary reason for the existence of schools and a means by which
socialization is effected. It is difficult to imagine how human beings can be separated
from learning, for the two are not separated. Think for a moment, a state that human
being would be if there was no learning or he/she did not have capacity to learn. Without
learning people would not know their names, their parents and children would not even
know where they came from. In this lecture we are going to discuss in details about
learning.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Define the term learning.

Discuss three laws of learning.
8.1 MEANING OF LEARNING
By definition learning involves a change of behaviour as a result of what one has
experienced, and this may be shown in the way a person thinks, acts and feels (Hilgard
and Bewer, 1975). This definition claims that there are certain behaviours that may be
not the result of learning but due to normal biological development just like walking and
seeing.
Learning is a continuous process lasting from a moment when a person is born to the end
of his/her life on this surface of the earth (Mwamwenda, 1996). Learning may also be
defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour following practice or experience.
53
Many of us think of learning as the process of only acquiring facts and that it is only
taking place in schools. But there are many kinds of learning taking place at all times,
although our discussion is basically on school learning.
ACTIVITY
Try to imagine the possibility that even the animals like dogs can
?
learn just like human beings. What is your opinion?
8.2 THREE LAWS OF LEARNING
On the basis of research findings, Thorndike (1932) formulated Three Laws that govern
learning.
(i) The Laws of effect
This law states that a satisfying state of affairs leads to repetition of a given behaviour,
whereas an annoying state of weakness delays a response. If putting up his hand in class
gains a pupil the teacher’s attention and recognition, his behaviour has resulted in a
satisfying state of affairs, thus this is likely to repeat. On the other hand, if a pupil raises
hand to attract teacher’s attention and the teacher does not recognize it, the pupil is less
likely to repeat such behaviour. This, too, shows how learning occurs.
(ii) The Law of readiness
Given a situation where a person is ready or prepared to engage in certain behaviour and
is provided with an opportunity, the whole experience will be pleasing or satisfying one.
Therefore it is important to note that learner’s readiness is important in learning.
Secondly, if a person is denied the chance to engage in behaviour for which he /she is
prepared, this will result in frustration and annoyance. Third, if a person is forced to
engage in certain behaviour for which is not ready, the end result will be annoying.
54
(iii)The Law of exercise
A strong connection or bond is established between a stimulus and a response as a result
of practice. Indeed as it is often said “practice makes perfect”. The more the skill or
body of information is practiced the more it will be mastered, applied and retained in
memory. In Tanzanian primary schools for example, it a common practice for pupils to
memorise multiplication tables. This practice applies the law of exercise.
NOTE
It is very important for teachers to consider all the three aspects when
dealing with classroom learning: effects, readiness and exercise as
discussed above.
SUMMARY
In this short lecture we have discussed the meaning of learning and
also we have explained some principles guiding learning. In the next
lecture we shall learn in details, the learning theories and how they
can be applied to teaching practice.
EXERCISE
Provide as many as you can different meanings of the term
‘learning’, as you can.
55
REFERENCES
Hilgard, E.R. and Bower, G.H. (1975). Theories of learning.
Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Laley, B. (1998). Psychology:
Boston
56
An Introduction.
McGraw-Hill
LECTURE NINE
THEORIES OF LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
In the previous lecture we discussed the meaning of learning and the principles or laws of
learning. In this lecture we shall pass through some theories guiding learning. Over the
years, psychologists have isolated and studied a number of ways that learning takes place.
The objective of a classroom teacher is to bring about learning which encompasses longterm changes in behaviour and cognition. Some of the main learning theories include
behaviorism, cognitivism, constructionism, etc. and each has contributed towards an
understanding of human learning – they have provided us with various models,
approaches, tools and techniques to bring about effective teaching and learning.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lecture you should be able to:

Explain some theories related to learning.

Apply learning theories in teaching.
9.1.0 THEORIES OF LEARNING
There are many theories that explain how learning takes place. However in our case we
are going to consider three main theories of learning. For your interest you can read more
theories from the references listed at the end of this lecture.
ACTIVITY
In your group discussion, every one of you should try to give his or
?
her own view of how learning takes place before you read the lecture.
57
9.1.1 BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES (Behaviorism)
9.1.1 Definition
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning
as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.
The behavioral views of learning is based on a model of a stimulus and responce (S-R)
which advocates that learning occurs on the basis of association made between the
stimulus and the response, as well as the presence of some form of reinforcement.
9.1.2 Discussion on the Behaviorism
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There
are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:
9.1.2.1 Classic conditioning occurs when neutral reflex responds to a stimulus. Ivan
Pavlov, Russian physiologists is credited with having developed a learning theory known
as classical conditioning. The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs
salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically
"wired" so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.
9.1.2.2 Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
9.1.2.3 How Behaviorism impacts learning This theory is relatively simple to understand
because it relies only on observable behavior and describes several universal laws of
behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective--both
in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior.
Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors.
58
9.2 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
9.2.1Definition
Social learning, also called observational or imitation learning theory, occurs when an
observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's
behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences--called vicarious
reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior.
Albert Bandura (1977) was a social psychologist who encouraged learners to learn by
observation. The theory is based on the fact that the child learns his/her environment as
he/she interacts and observes others. Social learning is facilitated by factors such as
attention, memory, motor skills and reinforcement. From teachers students can learn
about cleanliness, self-discipline and organization.
9.2.2 Guiding principles of Social learning
There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning
theory:
 The observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses
characteristics-- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or
popularity--that the observer finds attractive or desirable.
 The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's
behavior. When the model's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to
reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, the observer is
less likely to reproduce the same behavior.
 A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and
"performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the
behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where
there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
 Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention,
production and reinforcement.
59

Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's
happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of
the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and
by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or
level of emotional arousal.

Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but
also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the
observer's ability to code or structure the information in an easily
remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's
actions.

Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of
producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary
responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve
skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a
circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.

Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have
some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or
punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most
important in this process.
 Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior;
production and motivation control the performance.
 Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's
behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called
reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics,
personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence either his or her behavior and
environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behavior can
affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others.
Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources
such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a
person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person's behavior
also contributes to his environment.
60
9.2.3 How Social Learning Impacts Learning in a classroom
Curriculum-- Students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to
a positive reinforcement.
Instruction-- Teachers must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning
happens within important social and environmental contexts.
Assessment--A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right
environment for it. Teachers must provide the incentive and the supportive environment
for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.
9.3CONSTRUCTIVISM
9.3.1Definition
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on
our experiences, in social context we construct our own understanding of the world we
live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make
sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our
mental models to accommodate new experiences.
9.32. Guiding principles of Constructivism:
Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around
which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in
the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not
isolated facts.
In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to
perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose
of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize
the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently
interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment
61
part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality
of their learning.
9.3.3 How Constructivism can be applied in learning
Curriculum--Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum.
Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it
emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Instruction--Under the theory of constructivism, as teachers you should focus on making
connections between facts and fostering new understanding in pupils. Teachers have to
tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze,
interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions
and promote extensive dialogue among students.
NOTE
We have discussed some of learning theories that can be applied in
educational contexts. Teaching and learning activities can be
designed and implemented to take principles of learning into account.
Also, it is interesting to think about individual differences among
learners and to work towards including activities that have variety
and interest for all the learners in educational programs.
62
SUMMARY
Learning is the primary reason for existence of schools and means by
which socialization is affected. This lecture has offered us broad
information about learning and learning theories. In this lecture we
have discussed three important learning theories which are behavioral
learning theory, classical conditioning and social learning theory and
constructivism.
EXERCISE
Explain how learning has many views.
REFERENCES
Dweck, C.K. (2002). Social Learning:
Perspective. McGraw-Hill: San Diego.
A
Twining, K. (2001). Success in Psychology.
Publishers: London
63
psychological
John Murray
LECTURE TEN
MOTIVATION, TEACHING AND LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
In this Lecture, we shall once again discuss another crucial psychological aspect of
motivation which is also very important for teachers to know. The focus of this lecture is
to find ways and means of making learners attend and respond to learning tasks so that
learning itself becomes a source of motivation.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
Define motivation

Discuss the important processes in motivation.

Describe motivation theories

Recommend how to help and motivate pupils.
10.1 WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
The word motivation is coined from the Latin word "movere", which means to move.
Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction
towards a goal.
Motivation involves the process that energizes, direct, and sustains certain behaviour.
Motivation is a concept used as an explanation or rationale for the way a person or an
organization behaves (Santrock, 2004). Motivation is like a driving force, a desire or an
urge that causes an individual to engage in certain behaviour.
Therefore, the term motivation can be viewed as:

Internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;

Desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;
64

Influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.
NOTE
In the learning context, motivation can be defined as what the teacher
does to his/her pupils to make them want to learn. Teachers must
know the needs of pupils academically, socially, psychologically,
economically and culturally in order to make him/her learns better.
10.2 IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all
learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The
major question among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or
secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by
principles of environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive
development, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to
motivation more pertinent?
10.3 MOTIVATION AS A TRAIT AND AS A TEMPORAL STATE
Motivation can be viewed in two different ways, namely as a trait and temporary state.
As a trait motivation is not only stable but also permanent. Motivation is also temporal
depending on the nature of endowment – whether it is interesting or dull.
10.4 MOTIVATION THEORIES
The term motivation theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how
human behavior is activated and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important
areas of study in the field of educational psychology. However, for our purpose we shall
not go into details on theories.
There are several theories of motivation such as Learning Theory - which states that
formation of behaviour is greatly influenced by rewards or punishment. Psychoanalytic
65
Theory which states that motivation is a function of unconscious state of men displayed
by the behavior. However, our interest here is to talk a bit about one interesting theory of
motivation.
The most famous theory is called the Need Theory by Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of
human needs. Maslow introduced five levels of basic needs through his theory. Basic
needs are categorized as physiological needs, safety and security needs, needs of love,
needs for self esteem and needs for self-actualization.
The five levels of motivation are:
Physiological needs
These are biological needs, which include hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, shelter and
clothing. A learner may be motivated by providing tangible things such as food, water,
clothes, housing, and refreshments.
Safety/security needs:
This is when an individual is out of danger. A learner may have feelings of insecurity due
to threats of bullying or punishment can not learn comfortably.
Belonginess and Love
This is when an individual is affiliate with others, be accepted; and feel loved. A learner
thus is motivated when he/she is welcome in groups of friends and feels comfortable. An
isolated pupil cannot learn comfortably.
Self Esteem
Self esteem involves an individual desire in view of the society. The pupil has a desire to
achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition. Appointing a pupil to be class
monitor or prefect can be motivating.
66
Self actualization
A pupil will be highly motivated if is told his/her inherent potentials. It is the role of
teacher to develop and appreciate potentials in a child.
As a teacher, it is important to understand the level of needs of your pupils. This is at the
root of developing effective programs and curriculum that would fit the level of children,
and in maximizing learning outcome.
10.5 IMPACTING MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM
Stipek (1988) suggests there are a variety of reasons why individuals may be lacking in
motivation and provides a list of specific behaviors associated with high academic
achievement. This is an excellent checklist to help students develop the cognitive
component of their lives. In addition, as stated previously in these materials, teacher
efficacy is a powerful input variable related to student achievement.
There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase motivation on
classroom tasks. In general, these fall into the two categories: intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is when a person is motivated by internal factors, the forces within a
person while extrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is motivated by external
factors. For example, for the case of extrinsic motivation is provided outside a learning
task, such as providing tangible materials like food, sweets, a pencil or pen etc., so as to
encourage a child to learn.
Intrinsic motivation on the other hand, in learning situation, includes encouraging
academics excellence to the pupil. No tangible things are required. Telling a student the
importance of the topic you are teaching is one example of intrinsic motivation. See the
table below for clarification.
67
Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation
Explain or show why learning a

Provide clear expectations
particular

Give corrective feedback
important

Provide valuable rewards

Create and/or maintain curiosity

Make rewards available

Provide a variety of activities and
content
or
skill
is
sensory stimulations

Provide games and simulations

Set goals for learning

Relate learning to student needs

Help student develop plan of action
As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic suggestions as possible
while recognizing that not all students will be appropriately motivated by them. The
extrinsic suggestions will work, but it must be remembered that they do so only as long
as the student is under the control of the teacher. When outside of that control, unless the
desired goals and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease the desired
behavior and operate according to his or her internal standards or to other external
factors.
10.6 TEACHER’S ATTITUDE AND PERSONALITY
A teacher’s attitude and personality play a great role in motivation in the classroom
Teachers who have positive attitude towards the subject and pupils are more motivating
than those who have less positive attitude.
You as a teacher you should try hard to develop positive attitude towards your subject. In
this case you will be a good teacher. The better you become, the more rewarding your
work will be. And the more respect and success you achieve in the eyes of your pupils,
the better you will feel about your commitment to teaching.
68
ACTIVITY 1
With that mind, stop for a moment and think about the images you
have for your own former teacher in primary school in the village
you studied or even one of your former teachers of secondary school
where you studied.
?
May be you could have the following images.
Characteristics of good teachers

Have a sense of humour

Make the class interesting

Have knowledge of their subjects

Explain things clearly

Spend time to help students

Are fair to their students

Treat students like adults

Relate well to students

Considerate to student needs and feelings

Do not show favour to some students
Characteristics of bad teachers

Have a boring class

Don’t explain things clearly

Show favour to some students

Have a poor attitude towards students

Expect too much from students

Do not relate well to students

Give too much home works

Too strict

Find of using the can

Don’t help individual pupils
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Lack class control

These characteristics and others that reflect pupil’s images of good and bad teachers
reflect the way your pupils could be motivated to learn and even to like or dislike your
subject.
ACTIVITY 2
Which theory of motivation do you think is most applicable to
?
teaching pupils in primary schools?
SUMMARY
The concern of this lecture was to introduce to teachers to be able to
find ways and means of making learners attend and respond to
learning tasks so that learning itself becomes a source of motivation.
In this lecture we covered the definition of motivation and briefly
explained some theories of motivation and the implication to
education.
EXERCISE
1. Why is it important for teachers to be committed and motivated?
2. What is most likely to make teaching rewarding for you?
3. How can you help the student who has a problem of low self
esteem?
REFERENCES
Coon, D. (1986). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and
Application (4th Ed.). West Publishers: New York
Mwamwenda, T.S. (2000). Educational Psychology in African
Perspective (2nd Ed.) Butterworths. Durban.
70
LECTURE ELEVEN
ADRESSING LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
INTRODUCTION
Students are all different. That is what makes students unique and interesting. Obvious
differences include hair color, height, size, and eye color. Other differences may not be so
obvious, but definitely affect learning and behavior in the classrooms. Although
classroom management plans are written for most classroom settings, classroom
management is also affected by student characteristics. Individual goals, interests,
culture, home background, age, academic ability levels, mental health issues, behavior
problems, eating disorders, sexual practices, use of drugs, and addiction problems
influence the classroom management plan. Classrooms are also affected by life
circumstances of the children and adolescents. Students come from a wide range of
experiences and situations that determine how they react to classroom activities and
classroom management procedures. Although schools should be places of safety and
security, they often provide opportunities for student-on-student bullying and
inappropriate interactions between students. Providing for the needs of disabled pupils
will certainly be one of your greatest challenges as a professional teacher. This lecture
will provide you basic skills for addressing special needs in your classroom and school in
general.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

Appreciate pupils differences

Describe various types of disabilities and disorders

Plan how to assist pupils with special needs

Identify important resources for teachers
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11.1 PUPILS WITH DISABILITIES
As a classroom teacher, you will sometimes work with a large number of identified
special-needs students. That may be difficult at times and, at other times, quite joyful.
Pupils who have difficulty learning always present a challenge: What can I do to help this
child reach his or her potential? How can I help this pupil succeed in school?
Before we discuss on how to help pupils with special needs let us briefly discuss some
common types of disabilities in regular classroom.
Pupils with Learning Disabilities
Learning disabled students are those who demonstrate a significant discrepancy, which is
not the result of some other handicap, between academic achievement and intellectual
abilities in one or more of the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written
expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation,
mathematics reasoning, or spelling.
Following is a list of some of the common indicators of learning disabled pupils. These
traits are usually not isolated ones; rather, they appear in varying degrees and amounts in
most learning disabled children. A learning disabled pupil:

Has poor auditory memory—both short term and long term.

Have a low tolerance level and a high frustration level.

Has a weak or poor self-esteem.

Finds it difficult, if not impossible, to stay on task for extended periods of time.

Is spontaneous in expression; often cannot control emotions.

Is easily confused.

Has some difficulty in working with others in small or large group settings.

Has difficulty in following complicated directions or remembering directions for
extended periods of time.
Visually Impaired Pupils
All visually impaired pupils exhibit different levels of visual acuity. However, it is quite
likely that you will have students whose vision is severely hampered or restricted. These
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students may need to wear special glasses and require the use of special equipment.
Although it is unlikely that you will have a blind student in your classroom, it is
conceivable that you will need to provide a modified instructional plan for visually
limited students.
Pupils with Physical Impairments
Physically challenged pupils include those who require the aid of a wheelchair, canes,
walkers, braces, crutches, or other physical aids for getting around. As with other
impairments, these youngsters' exceptionalities may range from severe to mild and may
be the result of one or more factors. What is of primary importance is the fact that these
students are no different intellectually than the more mobile students in your classroom.
Pupils Who Have Emotional Problems
Children with emotional problems are those who demonstrate an inability to build or
maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships, develop physical symptoms or fears
associated with personal or school problems, exhibit a pervasive mood of unhappiness
under normal circumstances, or show inappropriate types of behavior under normal
circumstances.
Pupils with attention problems
Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) offer significant and
often perplexing challenges for many teachers. These are children who have the problem
of being attentive. They have one or more of the following characteristics:

Has difficulty following directions.

Has difficulty playing quietly.

Talks excessively.

Is easily distracted.

Often engages in dangerous play without thinking about the consequences.

Has difficulty awaiting turns.

Interrupts or intrudes.

Doesn't seem to listen.
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
Has difficulty paying attention.

Has difficulty remaining seated.

Often shifts from one activity to another or from one place to another.
ACTIVITY
Considering the age group of children and the subject that you plan to
teach, which of the disabilities that we have discussed do you think
?
will present the most difficulty for your teaching?
11.2 HELPING PUPILS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Special-needs students need a great deal of encouragement. What often happens is that
the pupil may want to achieve, but feels separated from other pupils when he or she is
unable to complete certain tasks. That causes intense frustration. Without proper
encouragement and reassurance, special-needs students often come to see themselves as
dumb. This feeling can lead to apathy toward school. Why should I try when I will just
fail? Iam stupid anyway, so I don’t need to do this activity. One way you can move a
pupil from such a negative attitude is to focus on his or her strengths. All special-needs
students are capable of success. Each will succeed according to his or her individual
ability -- but all can succeed. Keep that constantly in mind when working with a specialneeds child in your class. Focus on your students strengths and be supportive of their
weaknesses. Let each student know that you believe in him or her. The rewards will be
tremendous for both you and your students.
Teachers may want to list pupils assigned to their classroom who have factors that impact
behavior, learning, socialization, or other factors. The following chart is an example of
what a classroom teacher might do to better understand the make-up of the students in the
classroom. The needs and disabilities presented are common ones in Tanzanian schools.
However, it is not a complete listing of how needs should be addressed. It is a format to
document individuality in the classroom.
74
Type of impairment
Special Needs
Teacher’s Strategies
Visually impaired
Cannot see
Use IEP classroom modifications
Allow the use of tape recorder
Use of Braille
Sees partially
Seat near the instruction activity
Provide larger handwriting charts
When using the chalkboard, use white
chalk and bold lines. Also, be sure to say
out loud whatever you write on the
chalkboard.
Be aware of any terminology you may
use that would demand visual acuity the
student is not capable of. For example,
phrases such as “over there” and “like
that one” would be inappropriate.
Partner the student with other students
who can assist or help.
Behavioral disorder
Loss of attention
Use Behavior Intervention Plan
Provide an hourly schedule of class
Failure
to
build events
interpersonal
Use of positive reinforcement (verbal and
relationship
written praises)
Create an atmosphere in which a true
“community of learners” is facilitated and
enhanced.
75
Learning Disability
Slow
acquisition Assign advance reading before each topic
rates of learning
Face the class when speaking
Give the child plenty of time to respond
Improve organizational and study skills
Make
activities
concise
and
short,
whenever possible. Long exercises are
particularly frustrating for a learning
disabled child.
When
necessary,
plan
to
repeat
instructions or offer information in both
written and verbal formats.
Pupils with language Problems in learning Create safe and loving environment
problem
new materials
Hearing Impairment
Cannot
Teach listening skills
hear Use of gestures
instructions
Provide written or pictorial directions.
Seat a hearing impaired child in the front
of the classroom and in a place where he
or she has a good field of vision of both
you and the chalkboard.
Face the pupils to whom you are
speaking because the pupils needs to read
your lips and see your gestures
It may be necessary to wait longer than
usual for a response from a hearing
impaired student. Be patient
Whenever possible, use lots of concrete
objects
such
as
models,
diagrams,
samples, and the like. Try to demonstrate
what you are saying by using touchable
items.
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NOTE

Modification refers to changes to the instructional outcomes;
a change or decrease in the course content or outcome.

Individualized Education Programme (IEP) refers to a
designed programme to help an individual pupil learn.
11.3 IMPORTANT RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS
 Take advantage of the expertise and experience of the teachers in your school and
other specialists who work full time with special-needs students.
 Ask to meet with the special education coordinator/lecturer at the university (if
OUT center is close to you) to discuss those pupils who provide an extra
challenge. Ask about strategies that might be successful with that pupil.
 When teaching a particular unit, do not rely on just your textbook; see if the
experts in special education have any ideas to help your special-needs students
better understand and process the information presented.
 Other important resource available to help you teach a special-needs student is the
I.E.P. That individualized education plan usually is a list of very specific goals
and objectives for the student -- and it often includes strategies to help the child
succeed. Possible modifications are listed as well. The tool is designed to help the
classroom teacher know how best to meet the needs of a particular child.
77
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have covered very important aspects of assisting
pupils with special needs in your classroom. We have discussed
common types of disabilities as well as how to identify them. We
have also covered on different strategies of helping special needs
pupils to learn and achieve their expected goals. At the end of our
discussion we embarked on identifying important resources for
helping teachers to reach their goals.
EXERCISE
1. What is learning disability? Discuss the common learning
disability and how you can identify them.
2. What do you think will present the greatest challenges to you
in teaching pupils with disability?
REFERENCES
Omari I. M. (2011). Educational Psychology for Teachers. Oxford
University Press. Dar es Salaam.
Santrock. J. W. (2004). Educational Psychology. (2nd Ed). McGrawHill; New York.
78
GENERAL REFERENCES
Bernstein, A.D (1988). Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Company: Dallas
Blair,
C.
(2002)
Integrating
Cognition
and
Emotion
in
Neurobiological
Conceptualization of Children’s Function at School entry:
American Psychologist, 57-127.
Brandt, T. (1997). Child Development. (2nd Ed.) Brown & Benchmark: Chicago.
Bruce, T. (1997). Early Childhood Education. Holders & Stoughton: Bristol.
Campbell, C.Y. (2002) Psychology. Rand McNelly Co.
Charles, C.M (2002).Building Classroom Discipline, (7th Ed) Allyna Bacon; Boston
Coon, D. (1986). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application (4th Ed.).
West Publishers: New York
Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology. (3rd Ed). McGraw Hill: New York
Dweck, C.K. (2002). Social learning: A Psychological Perspective. McGraw-Hill.
San Diego.
Hilgard, E.R. and Bower, G.H. (1975). Theories of Learning. Prentice Hall. New York.
Laley, B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction: McGraw-Hill, New York.
Lema, V.I. (2004). General Psychology. OUT, Dar es Salaam.
Minett, P. (1999). Child Care and Development. John Murray Publishers: London.
Mwamwenda, T.S. (1989). Education Psychology:
An African Perspective.
Butterworths. Durban.
Mwamwenda, T.S. (2000). Educational Psychology. (2nd Ed.) Butterworths. Durban.
Perrin, L. (1986). Understanding Psychology.(4th Ed.). McGraw Hill: California
Robert, S. (2000). Social Relationship among Children. Elvis Co. London.
79
Slavin, R.E. (1988). Educational Psychology: Practice and Theory. Cliffs Inc., New
Jersey.
Santrock, J.W. (2004). Educational Psychology. (2nd Ed.) McGraw-Hill; New York.
Stipek, J.M (1988). Motivation in Schooling. Precious Co. New Jersey.
Tarner, J.M. (1978). Foetus into Human. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press.
Twining, K. (2001). Success in Psychology. John Murray Publishers. London.
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