WRITING GUIDE for AP ENGLISH LITERATURE On Reading ..............................................................................................
2 On Essay Prompts ....................................................................................
4 Thesis statements .....................................................................................
o Thesis Statements and Interpretation ...........................................
o Summary versus Interpretation.....................................................
Introduction ..............................................................................................
5 7 8 9 Body Paragraphs ...................................................................................... 10 o Principles of Analyzing Literature ............................................... 11 o Topic Sentences ........................................................................... 12 o Sample Paragraphs ....................................................................... 13 o Close Reading .............................................................................. 16 o Using Textual Evidence ............................................................... 18 Transitions ............................................................................................... 21 Conclusion ...............................................................................................
Analysis Templates ..................................................................................
Sample Essay ...........................................................................................
24 26 27 1 ON READING In an AP English course, you may feel you have never been given so much to read. AP English demands plenty of serious reading, and you might be tempted to "speed-­‐read." You may try to scan paragraphs and pages as fast as you can while hunting for main ideas. In a word: Don't. First, main ideas usually aren't quickly accessible from "speed-­‐reading" complex texts. Also, if you race through good writing, you are likely to miss the subtlety and complexity. A paragraph of text by Frederick Douglass or Joyce Carol Oates, a speech by Abraham Lincoln, or a letter by E. B. White cannot be appreciated—or even minimally understood—without careful, often-­‐repeated readings. In reading your AP assignments, be sure to: • Read slowly • Reread complex and important sentences • Ask yourself often, "What does this sentence, paragraph, speech, stanza, or chapter mean?" Make Your Reading Efficient How can you balance the careful reading AP English requires with your demanding chemistry and calculus workloads, plus get in play practice, soccer games, and whatever else you've got on your busy schedule? We've compiled some helpful tips to make your AP reading more efficient, fun, and productive. • Get a head start. Obtain copies of as many assigned texts as you can. Then you won't waste time searching for a text when you absolutely need it. • Preview important reading assignments. By previewing, you carefully note: o Exact title o Author's name o Table of contents o Preface or introduction; this section often states the author's purpose and themes o In essays and certain types of prose, the final paragraph(s). • Pause to consider the author's principal ideas and the material the author uses to support them. Such ideas may be fairly easy to identify in writings of critical essayists or journalists, but much more subtle in the works of someone such as Virginia Woolf or Richard Rodriguez. 2 •
Know the context of a piece of writing. This technique will help you read with greater understanding and better recollection. A knowledge of the period in which the authors lived and wrote enhances your understanding of what they have tried to say and how well they succeeded. When you read Truman Capote's In Cold Blood, find other sources to learn about social attitudes and cultural conditions that prevailed in the late 1950s. •
Read text aloud. Slow down when you are having trouble with complex prose passages, and read them aloud. Reading aloud may help you to understand the tone of the passage. •
Reread difficult material to help you understand it. Complex issues and elegant expression are not always easily understood or appreciated on a first reading. •
Form the habit of consulting your dictionary, thesaurus, encyclopedia, or atlas. Through such resources, you'll discover the precise meanings of words as well as knowledge about the content of what you are reading. Similar resources are available online or as computer software. 3 ESSAY PROMPTS Before you even begin crafting your thesis statement, you must analyze the essay prompt to ensure that your essay addresses the correct elements of literature. Prompts may concern a variety of literary ideas, but most AP English Literature prompts call for you to analyze either theme or characterization. Theme The term “theme” means the central idea that a work conveys, either directly or implicitly. In its broad sense, the terms refers to an abstract concept that recurs in many works of literature—for example, the horrors of war, relationships between men and women, the relationship of the individual to society, or conflict between parents and children. Prompts on theme often use specific language that should help you identify them. Below are some examples of prompts. • In great literature, no scene of violence exists for its own sake. Choose a work of literary merit that confronts the reader or audience with a scene or scenes of violence. In a well-­‐organized essay, explain how the scene or scenes contribute to the meaning of the complete work. Avoid plot summary. • Some works of literature use the element of time in a distinct way. The chronological sequence of events may be altered, or time may be suspended or accelerated. Choose a novel, an epic, or a play of recognized literary merit and show how the author's manipulation of time contributes to the effectiveness of the work as a whole. Do not merely summarize the plot. • Choose a novel or play that depicts a conflict between a parent (or a parental figure) and a son or daughter. Write an essay in which you analyze the sources of the conflict and explain how the conflict contributes to the meaning of the work. Avoid mere plot summary. Characterization An author’s “characterization” of an individual in a work involves the techniques by which the author represents the moral, intellectual, and emotional natures of the characters. Characters can be simplistic or complex, and authors often use figurative language, imagery, and tone to reveal their characteristics. Prompts on theme often use specific language that should help you identify them. Below are some examples of prompts. • In some works of literature, a character who appears briefly, or does not appear at all, is a significant
presence. Choose a novel or play of literary merit and write an essay in which you show how such a
character functions in the work. You may wish to discuss how the character affects action, theme, or
the development of other characters. Avoid plot summary. • In a novel or play, a confidant (male) or a confidante (female) is a character, often a friend or relative of
the hero or heroine, whose role is to be present when the hero or heroine needs a sympathetic listener to
confide in. Frequently the result is, as Henry James remarked, that the confidant or confidante can be as
much "the reader's friend as the protagonist's." However, the author sometimes uses this character for
other purposes as well. Choose a confidant or confidante from a novel or play of recognized literary
merit and write an essay in which you discuss the various ways this character functions in the work. • Choose a distinguished novel or play in which some of the most significant events are mental or
psychological; for example, awakenings, discoveries, or changes in consciousness. In a well-organized
essay, describe how the author manages to give these internal events the sense of excitement, suspense,
and climax usually associated with external action. Do not simply summarize the plot. 4 THESIS STATEMENTS
One method that students find helpful for developing a rough thesis statement is called the Sheridan
Baker thesis method.
Step 1: First come up with the topic under consideration:
o the film 9 to 5
o Internet censorship
o The West Wing
Step 2: Turn the topic under consideration in the first Step into a debatable issue—take a position.
o The film 9 to 5 makes a more feminist comment on working conditions for women than many
more contemporary films.
o The Internet should not be censored.
o The West Wing isn’t all that.
Step 3: Add a rationale to help defend your position from those who might disagree. The rationale
clause is sometimes called the because clause.
The film 9 to 5 shows the interventions that three
women make in one company to improve working
conditions. Those interventions are structural
changes at an institutional level that are more
feminist than more contemporary films that address
only the role of one woman in the workplace and her
success, like Working Girl.
This thesis basically defines a feminist film as
one that attempts to educate viewers about
changes that will help society as a whole rather
than exception individuals. The problem? The
author isn’t very specific about those vague
“structural changes at an institutional level.”
Because the internet was designed to be decentralized
and, as a result, is notoriously hard to police, internet
censorship would only temporarily stop people’s
access to problematic material, and so, we should not
attempt to censor the Internet.
As written here, this thesis has a logical flaw. It
basically says, we shouldn’t do this because it is
too hard. Watch how in the next step that flaw
gets fixed.
The show The West Wing has received a great deal
of praise for its fast-paced dialogue and its seamless
blending of humor and drama. However, that praise
is unwarranted because the show appeals to a narrow
group of viewers who share a privileged collection of
knowledge, and, as a result, serves only to allow
those people to feel smug.
The writer clearly thinks that the show appeals
only to an elite group of viewers, and that
viewers enjoy watching and “getting” the
references made in the show. The problem?
Every single viewer who watches the show is a
well-educated, middle class person living in an
urban area? The drama seems a bit too high
rated for that to be true.
5 Step 4: Polish and Qualify
In this step, you want to begin to make your thesis impervious to arguments by people who might not
agree with you. There are several important ways to do that. First, look at ways to make the language
more specific. Secondly, look for ways to add qualifying words like usually, often, most, or their
fancy academic versions to make the thesis still more specific. And third, consider adding an although
clause or a subsequent sentence that will show undecided or opposed readers that you’ve considered
more than just your side of the argument.
Feminism has long been concerned with
encouraging people to look at institutional causes
rather than blaming the individual when inequality
is at work. Although other more recent films
might seem to portray individual women as having
attained greater equality in corporate boardrooms
on the silver screen, the more dated film 9 to 5 is
more feminist because the women in that film
manage to create structural changes in their
workplace that help all employees, not just
themselves.
Notice that the qualifier that defines the
importance of looking at the institutional vs. the
individual has been moved to a lead in sentence. It
is important information, but isn’t the heart of the
argument. Also notice that the film is called “more
feminist,” avoiding the tendency to set up a strict
binary, or black and white division, between
feminist or not feminist.
Despite the fact that the Internet may allow some
people, including minors, access to dangerous or
inappropriate material, the United States should
not adopt strict censorship laws because given the
global and decentralized nature of the net, such
laws would not only be ineffective, but would not
place the United States in a fortuitous position on
the world financial and cultural stage.
Ah, see, we’ve taken the circular logic of the last
statement (the Internet shouldn’t be censored
because you can’t censor the internet) and
qualified it at the same time that we gave it an
argument. Censoring the Internet in only one
country won’t work, and since the U.S. likes to be
a world leader, we shouldn’t censor it here
because that would put us at a disadvantage in the
international arena.
Although the television series The West Wing
pays lip service to equality, in fact, the show
glorifies a liberal politics particular to welleducated, upper middle class Americans living in
urban centers—a fact that is seen in the show’s
overly nostalgic and emotional portrayal of the
characters’ feelings about the same sorts of issues
that would appeal primarily to that demographic
group.
This thesis is much more specific and more
focused on most levels, if a slightly different focus
than what we started with. That shift is okay.
Papers evolve. It’s to be expected.
6 THESIS STATEMENTS and INTERPRETATION There is no one way to write. Some writing prompts lend themselves to lengthier thesis statements, as you would create with TPR; however, other writing prompts might be best served with shorter, more direct thesis statements. Interpretation is the central idea that you are trying to communicate, and it is established in your thesis sentence—often (but not always) the last sentence in your introduction. It should be extremely clear and should be a statement, not a question. Your thesis, according to Axelrod and Cooper, is your “focal point” (566). Every paragraph in the essay should further it and prove it in some way. Additionally, the thesis should give clues about how the paper is organized. When writing literary analysis, it is often helpful to use one or two of the elements of literature in the thesis. These are key words that the writer can touch on throughout the paper. Several types of thesis sentences are acceptable. Example 1: In Henry James’s The Portrait of a Lady, the imagery of architecture is used to create characterization. The thesis is short and direct. The writer thinks that one element is used to enhance another. We would expect the paragraphs that follow to indicate specific examples of how James uses architecture to "build" his characters' personalities. Example 2: Peter Straub’s A Ghost Story and Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw are alike in that they both apply characterization in the same ways: they use multiple viewpoints, they use contradictory explanations of the same events, and they emphasize the changeable nature of their characters. In this example, two works are compared by using three methods. The reader expects that the next paragraph will discuss Straub’s use of characterization by using multiple viewpoints, followed by James’s treatment in the same way. The writer will then move on to a discussion of contradictory explanations in each work. Example 3: The poems “i thank you God,” by e. e. cummings, and “The Swing,” by Robert Louis Stevenson, use visual and tactile imagery to create the sensation of movement. In this example, two types of imagery will be discussed in two separate works. They will be presented in the order in which they are mentioned in the thesis. 7 THESIS STATEMENTS: SUMMARY VS. INTERPRETATION The following are examples of thesis statements that contain either summary, which does not make for a good or reasonable thesis statement, or interpretation, which is exactly what a thesis statement should have. Summary: In Trifles, the women notice evidence that the men do not. Interpretation: In Trifles, the differences in the evidence the men and women notice suggest different worldviews and value systems. The summary statement simply tells what happened during the course of the play, but the interpretative statement takes that same point and explains why it happened. It answers the question: Why do the women notice evidence that the men do not? Summary: Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters discover a birdcage and a dead canary, which provide clues to what actually happened to Mr. Wright. Interpretation: When Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters discover a birdcage and a dead canary wrapped in silk, they associate the silenced songbird with the joyless and repressed life that might have motivated Mrs. Wright to commit murder. The summary statement is accurate, but it is not an interpretation. Anyone who reads the play can tell you that these women find a birdcage and a dead canary and see both as clues to understanding the murder. But what else is there to say? Why were the birdcage and the dead canary clues? What is the connection between the canary, the birdcage, and Mrs. Wright? An interpretation will reveal these connections, while a summary will not. So how do you know if you have interpretation? Ask yourselves these questions: • Can I write a whole essay on this idea? • Would anyone else see this point differently? Remember that an interpretation should be debatable. • Would a reasonable reader NOT respond with “Duh!” or “So what?” or “Gee, no kidding!” or “Who cares? If you cannot answer “YES” to these questions, you will If your answer to these questions is yes, then you are probably writing an interpretation. If not, you need to make some revisions. 8 THE INTRODUCTION An Introduction •
Identifies the author, title of the literary work, and dramatic situation: the situation, in a narrative or dramatic work, in which characters are involved in conflicts. In other words, the central conflict(s) in a work of literature. •
States a thesis statement that: o Addresses the prompt o States the function of a literary device(s), often how it represents theme—often referred to as “the meaning of the work as a whole” EXAMPLE: In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Fall of the House of Usher,” siblings Roderick and Madeline Usher suffer and die on their crumbling ancestral estate, destroyed by the legacy of inbreeding in the Usher family line. Though Roderick Usher will not explain his family tragedy openly to his friend, he does provide hints through the art he shares with him. In effect, Poe uses descriptions of art in the story to reflect Usher’s failed attempts to repress inherited guilt. 9 BODY PARAGRAPHS & LITERARY ANALYSIS A literary analysis explains a work of fiction, poetry or drama by means of interpretation, which is your individual response that addresses meaning. It is not summary, and it does not state the obvious, i.e. the literal, or something explicitly stated. It is your claim about the underlying meaning of a literary work, something not explicitly stated. An interpretation is a combination of commentary (opinion) and textual evidence a.k.a. support or concrete details or (quotes and brief summary). Textual evidence is used to defend commentary. * * * The purpose of the body paragraph is to prove your thesis statement. Moreover, it serves to support one idea. Again, a body paragraph only focuses on a single idea. Discussing more than one idea leads to weak analysis, because the ideas will not be fully discussed. STRUCTURE OF A BODY PARAGRAPH: I.
Topic Sentence (TS): This states what your paragraph is about, namely one reason that supports your thesis. No matter what you see in other writing samples, always begin your paragraph with a topic sentence. II.
Analysis: This consists of two parts. A.
Textual Evidence (TE): This is evidence that should be either paraphrased or directly quoted from the story you are analyzing. When using TE, use proper MLA formatting, i.e. signal phrases and citations. B.
Commentary (COMM): This explains the purpose, function, and/or deeper meaning of your TE, which should support your topic sentence. Some helpful sentence starters you can use for your commentary include but are not limited to: -­‐This event shows/proves/explains/indicates/suggests… -­‐Because of this… -­‐This image conveys/represents/reveals/indicates/suggests… -­‐His/her words/dialogue conveys/reveals/indicates/suggests… -­‐The author includes this in the story to show/reveal/demonstrate… C.
Concluding Sentence (CS): This should wrap-­‐up your body paragraph by re-­‐
wording the topic of the paragraph in a fresh way. 10 PRINCIPLES of ANALYZING LITERATURE Now that we’ve reviewed the structure of a body paragraph, let’s take a closer look at how to analyze literature. 1. Offer a thesis or topic sentence indicating a basic observation or assertion about the text or passage. 2. Offer context1 for your textual evidence without offering too much summary. 3. Present textual evidence (using correct MLA format). 4. Then add some combination of the following elements: o Discuss what happens in the passage and why it is significant to the work as a whole. o Consider what is said, particularly subtleties of the imagery and the ideas expressed. o Assess how it is said, considering the use of literary devices, e.g. diction, figurative language, etc., contribute to the meaning of the passage. o Explain what it means, tying your analysis of the passage back to the significance of the text as a whole. 5. Review your writing. Ensure that you haven’t simply provided an elaborate summary and that you have explained your textual evidence. Most students will not explain their textual evidence as well as they think they do, so explain, explain, explain. 6. Repeat the process of context, quotation and analysis with additional support for your thesis or topic sentence. 1 Context (noun): the circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood and assessed 11 TOPIC SENTENCES One of the most important sentences in your paragraph is the topic sentence, which clearly states the subject of the whole paragraph. In this class, the topic sentence must be the first sentence of the paragraph because it gives an overview of the sentences to follow. The supporting sentences after the topic sentence help to develop the main idea. These sentences give specific details related to the topic sentence. The concluding sentence often restates or summarizes the main idea of the topic sentence. A good topic sentence: • informs the reader of the subject that will be discussed in the paragraph, • refers to an idea discussed in the thesis statement • conveys an interpretation • is not vague, rambling, too narrow or too broad. • is not merely summary of the text Example #1: THESIS STATEMENT: TS #1: TS #2: Example #2: THESIS STATEMENT: TS #1: TS #2: Orwell believes that strict adherence to idealist beliefs can lead to the deterioration of society. The pigs’ insistence to build the windmill diminished the morale of the animals. The animals’ fealty to Napoleon blinded them to their harsh working conditions and Napoleon’s cruelty. The end of 1984 reveals how a government with too much power can obliterate individuality and the capacity for thought. When the government has the ability to control language, it also has the ability to limit thought. Invasive government surveillance and draconian laws requiring conformity strips people of their individuality. 12 SAMPLE PARAGRAPHS EXAMPLE #1 INTRODUCTION: Although Sammy is the central character of the story “A & P,” John Updike seems to invest as much effort in describing the setting as he does Sammy. The title, after all, is not “Youthful Rebellion” or “Sammy Quits” but “A & P.” [Thesis] In fact, the setting is the antagonist of the story and plays a role that is as important as Sammy’s. BODY PARAGRAPH: (1) Sammy's descriptions of the A & P present a setting 1. TS 2. COMM. that is ugly, monotonous, and rigidly regulated. (2) 3-­‐4. TE that highlights the Most people can identify with the uniformity Sammy “uniformity” in the A & P. describes because almost everyone has been in chain stores. (3) The fluorescent light is as blandly cool as the 5. The A & P is never described as “dehumanizing,” so that’s COMM "checkerboard green-­‐and-­‐cream rubber tile floor" since that is the writer’s idea, which (486). (4) The "usual traffic in the store moves in one she supports with TE that likens direction” (except for the swim suited girls, who move shoppers as animals. against it), and everything is neatly organized and 6. CS that reinforces the TS—the categorized in tidy aisles. (5) The author suggests that customers walk “in a stupor” this routine is dehumanizing through Sammy's offhand because their actions are “regulated”—and the thesis that the references to the typical shoppers as "sheep," "house setting is the antagonist. slaves," and "pigs." (6) These regular customers seem to walk through the store in a stupor; as Sammy notes, not even dynamite could move them out of their routine (485). 13 EXAMPLE #2 BODY PARAGRAPH: (1) This chess game between John Grady and Alejandra’s godmother symbolizes the competition that they are in for Alejandra herself. (2) Although John Grady wins the first couple of games and seems to be well on his way to achieving his goal, in the end it is the godmother who triumphs. (3) This directly mirrors John Grady’s and the godmother’s lives: although John Grady wins Alejandra’s affections initially, in the end he loses her. (4) When he takes “her queen,” he is literally winning the chess match by taking the queen, but he is also on a symbolic level attempting to take the godmother’s true “queen,” Alejandra, whom the godmother is determined to keep from suffering the same misfortunes she endured. (5) The lack of dialogue between the characters during the match further reinforces the quiet competition they are engaging in; one that is not violent but is indeed fierce. (6) The intellectual nature of the chess match also enhances the choice that Alejandra ultimately makes near the end of the novel: leaving John and opting instead for the security (and wealth) of her family. (7) This choice reflects the cool and calculating logic of a chess match rather than the passion of the heart. 1. TS 2. Context and COMM. 3. COMM. and TE (summary) 4. COMM. (discussing the symbolism of the chess game) and TE (summary) 5. COMM. 6. COMM. and TE (summary) 7. CS that reinforces the TS. 14 EXAMPLE #3 THESIS STATEMENT: Shakespeare portrays both the hostility and despair of Wosley’s reaction through dramatic diction, figurative language and a shift in tone. BODY PARAGRAPH: This paragraph will discuss the second idea (highlight in bold) in the thesis statement: dramatic diction. The words Shakespeare chooses reflect Wosley’s complex reaction because they represent strong emotion. [Notice the use of TPR.] Wosley describes himself as “weary,” [TE] which implies that he has poured everything he has into his position, leaving him exhausted. [COMM.] “Weary” connotes aging as if Wosley has expended a great amount of time in his dedication to this work. [COMM] Even more powerful is the selection of the word “wretched,” [TE] which Wosley uses to characterize men such as himself who lived their lives depending on the approval of the monarch. The connotations of “wretched” are despair and utter hopelessness. [COMM] This word choice suggests that Wosley has no hope whatsoever for the future, leaving him in a state of utter desperation. The loaded diction Shakespeare uses illuminates the extremity of Wosley’s emotional state. [CS] 15 CLOSE READING
What is close reading? “Close reading” is a method of literary analysis involving reading and writing. When you “close reads” a text, you analyze it based on individual words, or groups of words, rather than by long quotes. Despite its name, close reading has a lot more to do with writing than reading! Why is it important? “Close reading” is an essential college skill, regardless of a writer’s subject area. It is often a more effective way of explaining a text than by using long quotes, as you have been taught to do throughout high school. How are we going to use it? Learning the entire technique and style of “close reading” pertains more to the study of literature than anything else, so we are going to focus on a few skills related to the overall literary technique. Those of you who choose to study literature in college will have a jump-­‐start on your 200-­‐level English classes, and those of you who are pursuing other disciplines or careers will have a widely applicable skill under your belt that can be used in presentations, letters, essays, and projects. All of you will find it helpful and advantageous to use these skills next semester in your selective classes. How do we do it? First, develop a thesis or topic sentence. Then, instead of using long quotes in your paragraphs of response, you should use the most essential word or words from the text as part of your answer. Unlike traditional quoting, where you provide a sentence of introduction (a signal phrase) before a quote and a sentence of explanation after, when you “close read” a text, you actually use the language of the text as your own to explain your answer, setting up the example/quote to be discussed and expressing your main idea at the same time. For example: Traditional Quote with Discussion:
In Vonnegut's personal opening chapter, during a conversation he had with the movie producer,
Harrison Starr, Starr says, “ʼIs it an anti-war book?ʼ”, to which Vonnegut responds, “ʼYes, I guess,ʼ”
(4). Later in the conversation, Starr suggests, “ʼWhy donʼt you write an anti-glacier book instead?ʼ”
(4). In this conversation, Vonnegut is unsure about the purpose of his book, and Starr clearly
believes that wars, like glaciers, are inevitable and part of life on the planet. Close-read Quote with Discussion:
In Vonnegut's personal opening chapter, he remarks upon a conversation he had with the movie
producer, Harrison Starr. When asked if his book was an “anti-war” book, he says “Yes…I guess”
(4). Starr jokes with him and says he should write an “anti-glacier” book instead (4). Vonnegut
understands this to mean “that there will always be wars, that they were as easy to stop as
glaciers”(4). For more examples of close reading, refer to any of the body paragraphs in this handout.
16 A successful close reading will integrate quotes as if they were your own words. This is extremely important! If you merely use long quotations (even important quotations), you interrupt your own voice as a writer and jump to someone else’s voice. Since this analysis is your writing, you need to be sure that it “sounds like you.” Some tips for close reading: 1. When completing reading assignments, read carefully, paying attention to determining what the most powerful and meaningful words are. In the Vonnegut quotation above, the most important phrases are “anti-­‐war” and “anti-­‐glacier”; you can easily paraphrase the rest of the quotation. As you read above, this allows you to maintain your own voice. 2. Read the question first and develop a clear idea of your main idea/thesis before looking for passages that support your answer. 3. Choose meaningful passages and review them, selecting the most important language. 4. Use the author’s language to answer the question/support your main idea. 5. Keep your quoted material short. Integrating a word or a few words into your own writing is easier than integrating an entire sentence! 6. Lastly, do not use close reading for mere summary. You have to explain the words you use. For example: [Topic Sentence] The tone of “The Bean Eaters” by Gwendolyn Brooks is depressing. [say] In the poem, Brooks describes an old couple “who have lived their day” (6), [mean] insinuating (implying) that their lives are over. [say] This idea is further illustrated when Brooks states that the couple is “putting things away” (8), [mean] as if their belongings will no longer be needed or used. [matter] Brooks sees this couple with little time to live and cannot help but focus on how they are seemingly waiting for death. You must explain every detail you use, that is, unless the details are self-­‐explanatory. [Topic Sentence] Gwendolyn Brooks conveys an optimistic tone in “The Bean Eaters.” [say] Although Brooks describes the couple “remembering, with…twinges” (10), she also describes them “remembering, with twinklings” (10), [mean] which minimizes the power of the “twinges.” [say] And while the old couple “eat beans mostly” (1) and have “Plain chipware” (3), revealing what appears to be a meager existence, [mean] the final line catalogs (lists) evidence of something more substantial: the couple’s long life together: “As they lean over the beans in their rented back room that is full of beads and receipts and dolls and cloths, tobacco crumbs, vases and fringes” (11). [matter] What these people have is not much, but it is something. *Note: it may be necessary to use a long quote, especially when it calls attention to itself. 17 USING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE Read the following paragraph and take note how the writer uses and embeds textual evidence into her analysis. Sammy's descriptions of the A & P present a setting that is ugly, monotonous, and rigidly regulated. We can identify with the uniformity Sammy describes because we have all been in chain stores. The fluorescent light is as blandly cool as the "checkerboard green-­‐and-­‐cream rubber tile floor" (486). The "usual traffic” in the store moves in one direction (except for the swim suited girls, who move against it), and everything is neatly organized and categorized in tidy aisles. The dehumanizing routine of this environment is suggested by Sammy's offhand references to the typical shoppers as "sheep," "house slaves," and "pigs." These regular customers seem to walk through the store in a stupor; as Sammy tells us, not even dynamite could move them out of their routine (485). The skillful use of textual evidence—summary, paraphrase, specific detail, and direct quotations—
can illustrate and support the ideas you are developing in your essay. However, textual evidence should be used judiciously (with caution) and only when it directly relates to your topic. The correct and effective use of textual evidence is vital to the successful literary analysis essay. SUMMARY If a key event or series of events in the literary work support a point you are trying to make, you may want to include a brief summary, making sure that you show the relevance of the event or events by explicitly connecting your summary to your point. Below is an effective summary (with its relevance clearly pointed out) from the essay already quoted above on "The Secret Lion”: Example: The boys find the grinding ball, but later attempt to bury it (summary). Burying it is their futile (pointless) attempt to make time stand still and to preserve perfection (commentary-­relevance). SPECIFIC DETAIL Various types of details from the text lend concrete support to the development of the central idea of your literary analysis essay. These details add credibility to the point you are developing. Below is a list of some of the details used in the paragraph above. o "usual traffic" o "fluorescent lights" o "checkerboard green-­‐and-­‐cream rubber-­‐tile floor" o "electric eye" o shoppers like "sheep," "houseslaves," and "pigs" 18 USING DIRECT QUOTATIONS Quotations can illuminate and support the ideas you are trying to develop. A judicious use of quoted material will make your points clearer and more convincing. As with all the textual evidence you use, make sure you explain how the evidence is relevant—let the reader know what you make of the quotations you cite. Below are guidelines and examples that should help you use quotations effectively: Brief quotations (four lines or fewer of prose and three lines or fewer of poetry) should be carefully introduced and integrated into the text of your paper. Put quotation marks around all briefly quoted material. Prose example: As the "manager" of the A & P, Lengel is both the guardian and enforcer of "policy." When he gives the girls "that sad Sunday-­‐school-­‐superintendent stare," we know we are in the presence of the A & P's version of a dreary bureaucrat who "doesn't miss much" (487). Make sure you give page numbers when necessary. Notice that in this example the page numbers are in parenthesis after the quotation marks but before the period. Poetry example: From the beginning, the Duke in Browning's poem gives the reader a sense of how possessive he really is: "That's my last Duchess on the wall, / Looking as if she were alive" (1-­‐2). We can't help notice how, even though the Duke is talking about her portrait, his main concern is that she belongs to him. Notice that line # 1 is separated from line # 2 by a slash. Make sure you give the line numbers when necessary. 19 OMITTING WORDS You must use ellipsis if you omit any words from the original source you are quoting. Ellipsis can be used at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the quotation, depending on where the missing words were originally. Ellipsis is formed by four dots before the quotation marks—the fourth dot is really a period that ends the sentence. Original Quote: "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." Example (omission from beginning): This behavior ". . . makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Example (omission from middle): This maxim claims that "Early to bed . . . makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Example (omission from end): He said, "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy . . . ." 20 TRANSITIONS
Moving Smoothly from One Idea to the Next
Effective transitions connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of
treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions help readers understand how paragraphs work
together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing effective transitions
is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs.
When writing a new paragraph, reference relevant material from previous one. Thus you can develop
a smooth argument or explanation that is easy for readers to follow.
It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off. (Instances where this is especially
challenging may suggest that the paragraphs do not belong together at all.) Picking up key phrases
from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious
progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead of
writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition that
could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph.
Examine the following transition. Note that the first is awkward and creates a “gap” that the reader
must navigate, while the second flows smoothly from one idea to the next.
Example of an awkward transition: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The
Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the bestseller list.
There are other things to note about Tan as well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical
garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders with Stephen King and Dave Barry.
Revision: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed
up the bestseller list.
Though her fiction is well known, her work with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom
Remainders receives far less publicity.
How do you know if your transitions need work?
How can you tell whether you need to work on your transitions? Here are some possible clues:
• Your instructor has written comments like "choppy," "jumpy," "abrupt," "flow," "need
signposts," or "how is this related?" on your papers.
• Your readers (instructors, friends, or classmates) tell you that they had trouble following your
organization or train of thought.
• You tend to write the way you think. If your brain often jumps from one idea to the next rather
quickly, this probably shows itself in your writing.
• You wrote your paper in several discrete "chunks" and then pasted them together.
21 Types of transitions
Now that you have a general idea of how to go about developing effective transitions in your writing,
let us briefly discuss the types of transitions your writing will use.
The types of transitions available to you are as diverse as the circumstances in which you need to use
them. A transition can be a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or an entire paragraph. In each case, it
functions the same way: first, the transition either directly summarizes the content of a preceding
sentence, paragraph, or section or implies such a summary (by reminding the reader of what has come
before). Then it helps the reader anticipate or comprehend the new information that you wish to
present.
1. Transitions within paragraphs—As with transitions between sections and paragraphs,
transitions within paragraphs act as cues by helping readers to anticipate what is coming before
they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single words or short phrases.
2. Transitions between paragraphs—If you have done a good job of arranging paragraphs so
that the content of one leads logically to the next, the transition will highlight a relationship that
already exists by summarizing the previous paragraph and suggesting something of the content
of the paragraph that follows. A transition between paragraphs can be a word or two (however,
for example, similarly), a phrase, or a sentence. Transitions can be at the end of the first
paragraph, at the beginning of the second paragraph, or in both places.
What words/phrases can you use as part of effective transitions?
Effectively constructing each transition often depends upon your ability to identify words or phrases
that will indicate for the reader the type of logical relationships you want to convey. The table below
should make it easier for you to find these words or phrases. Whenever you have trouble finding a
word, phrase, or sentence to serve as an effective transition, refer to the information in the table for
assistance. Look in the left column of the table for the type of logical relationship you are trying to
express. Then look in the right column of the table for examples of words or phrases that express this
logical relationship.
Keep in mind that each of these words or phrases may have a slightly different meaning. Consult a
dictionary or writer's handbook if you are unsure of the exact meaning of a word or phrase.
22 LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Similarity
also, in the same way, just as ... so too,
likewise, similarly
Exception/Contrast
but, however, in spite of, on the one
hand ... on the other hand,
nevertheless, nonetheless,
notwithstanding, in contrast, on the
contrary, still, yet
Sequence/Order
first, second, third, ... next, then, finally
Time
after, afterward, at last, before,
currently, during, earlier, immediately,
later, meanwhile, now, recently,
simultaneously, subsequently, then
Example
for example, for instance, namely,
specifically, to illustrate
Emphasis
even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Place/Position
above, adjacent, below, beyond, here,
in front, in back, nearby, there
Cause and Effect
accordingly, consequently, hence, so,
therefore, thus
Additional Support or Evidence
additionally, again, also, and, as well,
besides, equally important, further,
furthermore, in addition, moreover, then
Avoid the overuse of transitions.
Transitions are supposed to guide readers through your writing, but overuse of transitional words and
phrases can have the opposite effect and can make your writing confusing. Example:
Writing an essay can be challenging. However, there are techniques that can make the process a little
easier. For example, taking plenty of notes on the subject can help the writer generate ideas. Therefore,
note-taking is an important "pre-writing" strategy. In addition, some people "free-write," writing
quickly for ten or twenty minutes to see what ideas arise. However, taking notes and free-writing are
only the beginning. Ideas must eventually be organized in a logical way. Consequently, an outline can
help the writer make sense of the rough material generated through the note-taking and free-writing
process. Therefore, writing an outline is another important step in the writing process. However, some
writers are able to conceptualize a sense of logical order for their ideas without actually writing an
outline. Nevertheless, these writers seem to have some kind of outline in their minds. In addition, an
outline should help the writer formulate a thesis for the essay. Consequently, an outline can help give
focus to the essay.
23 CONCLUSION The purpose of the conclusion is to bring the essay to a satisfactory ending. You don’t want to introduce new ideas in the conclusion, but you can extend the thinking into the realm of personal reflection (your thinking about the “so what?” question). WRITING A CONCLUSION A.
In two or three sentences, briefly summarize or re-­‐state the points made in your introduction. Do not simply rewrite the introduction. B.
Write a final sentence that draws a general conclusion from the thesis of the essay. PARTS OF A SAMPLE ESSAY The following essay is one student’s response to the following writing prompt. Read the opening passage from Henry James’s story “The Pupil”, and then write an essay in which you analyze the author’s depiction of the three characters and the relationships among them. Pay attention to tone and point of view. THESIS Through his tone and point of view, James creates the simultaneously realistic and caricature-­‐
like characters of Mrs. Moreen, Morgan Moreen, and Pemberton and exposes the nuances and buffoonish characteristics of the aristocratic class. BODY PARAGRAPH [thesis statement] By making the narrator limited omniscient and allowing the reader to experience Pemberton’s point of view, James creates a sympathetic bond between the reader and the protagonist and provides a basis for judgment outside the socially aristocratic realm. Pemberton, introduced as a “poor young man,” is portrayed as a well-­‐educated and timid student, both practical over the concerns of money and traditional in regards to propriety and manners. However, the reader is left to decipher Mrs. Moreen and Morgan Moreen’s characters 24 from their actions, aided by James’ skilled use of tone and diction. Characterizing Mrs. Moreen primarily as someone who “spoke only of feelings...of the aristocracy” creates a first impression of her that carries throughout the passage. Described as a “large, affable lady” with a “fat, jeweled hand”, James characterizes her as a well-­‐meaning, but almost buffoonish aristocrat, which is reflected in his light tone with her. The description of Morgan Moreen differs greatly and James’ tone and diction become more realistic to describe a more cunning character. Described as “sickly without being delicate,” “intelligent,” and “cynical,” Morgan embodies the exact contrast to his more lackadaisical mother. The introduction of Morgan as “the little boy Mrs. Moreen...sent...to fetch her fan” further accentuates their isolation from each other – in no place does it seem readily apparent that they are in fact mother and son. Out of propriety’s sake, Pemberton notes Morgan’s insolence and decides he must teach him to “address himself to his mother,” the first time it is at all hinted they are related. James characterized Pemberton as skittish and “timid”, repeating throughout the passage Pemberton’s “nervousness.” CONCLUSION By allowing all three characters’ actions and personalities to evolve without a heavy-­‐handed reliance on tone, James further emphasizes the nature of society and the complexity of the social order. At once exposing the vacuity2 and extravagance of the aristocracy through Mrs. Moreen and its more cynical and snobbish side through Morgan, James sets up an intriguing opening scene that reflects society as a whole and creates a slightly amusing world for his protagonist Pemberton to navigate through. Note how the conclusion (A) refers back to the thesis statement and (B) how the last sentence draws a conclusion from your thesis statement: that the characters reflect the society—in other words, the setting—in which they live. * * * Avoid the following errors when writing an essay conclusion: O
Do not introduce new ideas in the conclusion. A beginning writer might feel the need to write a final sentence that reads, “The three significant characters help the reader to enjoy the story more fully.” Unless the essay has demonstrated how each idea helps the reader “enjoy the book more fully,” the reader’s enjoyment should not be part of the conclusion. The conclusion should only refer what has actually been argued in the body of the essay. 2 Vacuity (noun): the state of having or showing a lack of thought or intelligence. 25 ANALYSIS TEMPLATES
A literary analysis explains a work of fiction, poetry or drama by means of interpretation, which is an individual response that addresses meaning. It goes beyond the literal and explains the figurative, the underlying meaning of a literary work. Thesis Statement & Topic Sentence Templates These templates will help you write topic sentences that explain what you will analyze in a body paragraph of your essay. As you can see in the templates below, the beginning of each sentence includes: • the literary device that you will analyze • a verb that explains the function of the literary device • the significance of the literary device 1. The image of ______________ is used to further develop the idea of _________________ in the novel/play/poem. 2. The tone of the (novel, passage) is best exemplified through the author’s use of (repetition, personification, imagery, alliteration, etc), which can be seen when (s)he writes, “ _______”. 3. Through ______________________, the author shows the reader ______________. 4. The author’s use of (repetition, personification, imagery, alliteration, etc) works to emphasize_________________. 5. In the same way [a specific event literally shows/conveys/highlights] , ________________ represents/conveys/exemplifies______________ [this other idea] . Analysis Sentence Templates These templates will help you write sentences within your body paragraphs. Remember that you must focus on analysis rather than summary. Instead of simply stating events that happen in the work, you must explain the significance of those events. Using these templates will make that process easier. 1. In other words, ___________. 2. This furthers the central argument that______. 3. The author’s (word choice, use of__________) here is significant in that it shows _______________. 4. This scene reveals that _____________________. 5. This moment demonstrates that ____________. 6. This (pattern, conflict, image) exemplifies/conveys. 26 SAMPLE ESSAY Writing Prompt: “The Man He Killed” by Thomas Hardy In a well-­‐written essay, analyze how the literary techniques used in the poem contribute to its meaning.
In “The Man He Killed” by Thomas Hardy, the speaker considers the odd nature of war: of killing a man he’d likely befriend in any other circumstance. [thesis statement] Hardy uses repetition and fragmented sentence structure to question the righteousness of the killing in war. [topic sentence] The use of repetition indicates the speaker’s doubts for what he has done. The speaker states that he “shot [the man] dead because—/because he was my foe” (9-­‐10). The repetition of the word “because” expresses his hesitation with offering the only justification he has for killing the man. This hesitation is seemingly dispelled in the next line when he reiterates that the man was his “foe” (10); however, the repetition of the word “foe” combined with the emphatic phrase “of course he was” conveys not a conclusion of fact, rather an attempt to assuage3 his guilt. Clearly, the speaker knows why he had to kill the man, but he struggles accepting the justification that the man he killed deserved to die by virtue of being on the opposing side of the war. [topic sentence] The fragmented sentence structure in the third and fourth stanzas further demonstrates the speaker’s doubts. In the first two stanzas, when the speaker describes what could have happened and what actually happened, his sentence structure is clear, concise, and parallel, reflecting a confidence in his words. However, in the third and fourth stanzas, when he attempts to justify his actions, his sentence structure becomes fragmented, revealing a sense of uncertainty. The short phrases, conjoined by varying punctuation, in the third stanza mimic the speaker wracking his brain for an answer that seems appropriate and, thus, emphasizing his inability to settle on a justification for why he killed the man. When he finally settles on a reason—that the man “was his foe” (10), his uncertainly reemerges with the last word and fragment sentence in the third stanza: “although” (12), which contrasts the other four stanzas that conclude with complete sentences. In the end, the speaker cannot offer a more reasonable justification for why he killed the man. He sees no glory in killing someone who, possibly like himself, was “out of work” (15) and enlisted in the army as a last resort. Instead of offering a better justification, he resigns himself to the “curious” and cruel nature of war. Note: Words in bold indicate analysis words. 3 Assuage (verb): to make (an unpleasant feeling) less intense. 27