GLOBALIZATION FROM BELOW: How Ladakh is
Responding to Globalization with Education
http://secmol.org/img/Ka-GM's-speech.jpg
Public Intellectual Essay
Juliet Marie Randall Dana
Education, Globalization and Civil Society
Professor Ruthanne Kurth-Schai
May 29, 2007
(2)
Introduction
In the northernmost tip of the India, nestled between the Karakoram and Himalaya mountains,
a vibrant Tibetan-Buddhist community has existed for centuries. Ladakh, often referred to as
“Little Tibet” because of its large population of Tibetan refugees and their strong Tibetan
influence, sits in the southern half of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Known for its
peaceful, hospitable people, Ladakh started to gain popularity as a tourist location in the 1970s
after the first roads accessible to motor vehicles were built. Like many beautiful, self-sufficient
regions in the world, Ladakh has been impacted by the forces of globalization, causing
tremendous changes to take place in recent years. Most notably, the changing structure of the
culture’s labor and education patterns, paired with an influx of tourism and a general push
towards “development,” have posed a great threat to the traditional Ladakhi culture.
Unfortunately, however, this threat is not unique to Ladakh. What is unique is the region’s
collective response to the globalization. While globalizing forces present undesirable
consequences worldwide, Ladakh stands out as an impressive example of how to make use of
globalization from below. In Ladakh, people are working together and using grassroots
organizations that make use of the ever-changing and international forces, protecting that which
is vitally Ladakhi. Some of the most remarkable of these organizations target the educational
system of Ladakh and, indeed, education is a crucial venue through which to create change. The
lessons that Ladakh serves to teach are crucial for the rest of the world to understand if we are to
have any hope of mitigating the negative forces of globalization and using these trends to our
advantage.
(3)
The Region of Ladakh
The mountain peaks of the western Himalaya surround Ladakh in one of nature’s most harsh
displays of beauty; the jagged peaks look as if they were clawed into their majestic existence and
yet the icing of snow softens the visible infinity of barren alpine desert. While the region of
Ladakh is almost half of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the population density is so low that it
barely accounts for two percent of the whole state.1 The Ladakhi culture (which, it should be
mentioned, is an amorphous construct at best2) has been praised for the successful and selfsufficient methods with which it has survived centuries. “Religion permeates all aspects of life in
Ladakh inseparable from art and music, culture and agriculture. … Ladakh is beautiful with its
people. These peaceful followers of Buddhism have a unique quality of every life and remain
satisfied in their life despite the fact that they are materially poor and try to survive in this difficult
land which takes up most of their energy.”3 Traditional Ladakhi culture is based on subsistence
agriculture. The traditional schooling system worked with the seasons, allowing children to be in
school during the dark, cold months unsuitable to farming. Ladakh is full of unique, sacred
communities that have protected Tibetan and Himalayan customs for generations.
1
Leonora C. Angeles and Rebecca Tarbottom, “Local Transformation through Global
Connection: Women’s Assets and Environmental Activism for Sustainable Agriculture in
Ladakh, India,” Women’s Studies Quarterly 29.1 & 2 (Spring-Summer. 2001): 101
2
See Martin van Beek’s thorough discussion in the article “The Art of Representation:
Domesticating Ladakhi Identity” in Ethnic Revival and Religious Turmoil: Identities and Representations in
the Himalayas, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003
3
Prem Singh Jina, “Modernisation and Buddhism in Ladakh,” Recent Researches on the
Himalaya, Ed. Prem Singh Jina, New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company, 1997., 106-107
(4)
Globalization and Ladakh
Globalization has taken all forms in Ladakh. From intervention by the World Bank and IMF4 to
tourist-driven cultural reforms, Ladakh is changing. One paper reports, “Started in 1993, the
festival used to be held during the peak time of June and July but was shifted [to September] to
attract tourists to the relatively lean season.” 5 An increasing need is placed on being a member
of the global community and along with this comes the growing value placed on “development,”
a concept with varying implications but that is most often defined in neoliberal economic terms.
The introduction of “development” into Ladakh has had many devastating effects. As Ted
Trainer argues of global development trends, “market forces inevitably yield inappropriate
development. In fact, market forces will draw the productive capacity people once had and used
for their own benefit, especially their land and labour, into production for rich people far away.”6
Ladakh has fallen prey to the “unquestioned assumption that the goal of development is to
become like the rich countries.”7 Ultimaetely, as Jina reports, “The younger generation now do
not have enough time to follow the ageold [sic] Buddhist traditional practices in their daily life.”8
In terms of education, the trends of development have dramatically changed the Ladakhi
education system. More children are being educated, but they are simultaneously losing many
aspects of their cultural heritage as they abandon their subsistence-agriculture ways of life. The
Indian compulsory school system offers a generalized, nation-wide education, but also imposes a
4
The Statesman (India). “World Bank Aid for Ladakh.” Asia Intelligence Wire 19 Oct. 2006.
LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. 28 May 2007 <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
5
Hindustan Times. “Leh’s Two-Week Long Cultural Fiesta, a Big Delight for Visitors.” Asian
News International 15 Sept. 2006. LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. 28 May 2007
<http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
6
Ted Trainer, “What Does Development Mean? A Rejection of the Unidimensional
Conception,” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 20.5-6 (2000): 95
7
Trainer 96
8
Jina Modernisation, 112
(5)
curriculum that enforces “progressive” ideas about the need for development and requires
courses to be taught in “modern,” non-native languages like Urdu and English.9 As it stands, the
current school system has promoted higher graduation rates and higher English proficiency.
However, as Pascale Dollfus notes, “For various reasons (spelling difficulties, lack of clear
guidelines in schools, usefulness in Indian administration and daily practices, etc.) a large
proportion of Ladakhis – both Buddhist and Muslims – can read or write Urdu or English, but
are illiterate in their own language.”10
In theory, the nationalized Indian education system boasts a “world-class” education and
exposure to ideas of the outside world. However, in practice the implementation has been
clumsy at best. Practical matters, such as maintaining a consistent faculty in schools, have been
overlooked; teachers in Ladakh are supposed to rotate throughout mountain villages every two
years – a nice idea but one that poorly serves the students. Moreover, teachers receive
inadequate training.
The implementation of a national Indian curriculum has devalued Ladakhi customs as it
places an increased value on Western principles and ways of being which are seen as more
developed. Aside from decreased time for agriculture and cultural practices, this shift has lead to
decreased perceived self-efficacy. The school system is failing Ladakhi students ideologically and
culturally. In 1988, 95% of Ladakhi students were failing the tenth-grade matriculation exams,
indicative of a systemic inadequacy.11 As a result, however, Ladakhi students are experiencing
9
Bill Bigelow, “Rethinking ‘Primitive’ Cultures: Ancient Futures and Learning from Ladakh,”
Rethinking Globalization: Teaching for Justice in an Unjust World, Ed. Bill Bigelow and Bob
Peterson, Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools Press, 2002, 308
10
Pascale Dollfus, “Comments [on van Beek’s “The Art of Representation”],” Ethnic Revival
and Religious Turmoil: Identities and Representations in the Himalayas, Ed. Marie LecomteTilouine and Pascale Dollfus, New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2003., 302
11
Students’ Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh. 11 Sept. 2006. SECMOL. 28 May
2007 <http://secmol.org/edureforms/index.php>
(6)
decreased self-confidence. Much of the younger generation are dislocating as they follow their
desires to live in larger cities.12 Communities are not invested in their public school systems.
http://secmol.org/img/failure_system.jpg
Globalization from Below
The situation in Ladakh is dire, but it is not necessarily unique nor is it hopeless. Nelly
Stromquist offers a framework by which educators might mitigate the effects of globalization
from above which is, concisely: by activating globalization from below. She succinctly explains
the difference between globalization “from above” and “from below:”
The first [“from above”] details how elites function within and across national
boundaries, while the latter emphasizes a popular process in the challenges of
12
Sarah Goodall, “Changpa Nomadic Pastoralists: Differing Responses to Change in Ladakh,
North-West India,” Nomadic Peoples 8.2 (2004): 196
(7)
globalization. In our view, there are indeed many instances of ‘globalization from below’
yet they tend to arise as reactions to ‘globalization from above’ rather than autonomous
initiatives.13
Globalization from below, then, would be the organizing of communities and between
communities – the actuation of civil society – to make use of the interconnectedness that has
come as a result of globalizing forces. She advocates using these constructs to create change.
Trainer argues that it is “reorganization”14 that will allow us to survive through these
globalized times. His concept of reorganization is consistent with the ideas put forth in
Stromquist’s book, Education in a Globalized World. In her conclusion, she defines a three-tiered set
of challenges to be overcome in order for educators (a role played by many that extends far
beyond traditional classroom teaching jobs) to take responsibility for this globalized world. Says
Stromquist, “The key connections between globalization and education may be less visible than
economic challenges, but they both must be underscored and faced.” Her system requires these
three things:
1.
That educators “recognize how globalization is changing the nature of schooling,”
understanding “the growing interconnection between knowledge and power, and
the cases in which education has become either a silent partner or a conscious
opponent.”
2.
The examination of “formal education (schooling and university teaching),
nonformal education (with adult groups), and informal education (particularly
through the venue of alternative media) as key venues in which to provide
understanding about the various positive and negative consequences of
13
Nelly P. Stromquist, Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power,
Technology, and Knowledge, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002, 13
14
Trainer 104
(8)
globalization.” She suggests a course such as “ecology and consumerism” or a
discussion group exploring mass media’s proliferation.
3.
That education becomes a means to create active citizens, “moving people from
passively observing the actions of others to undertaking action themselves.
Educators should play a central role in moving minds from ‘globalization’ with its
emphasis on expansion of markets and competition to ‘internationalism’….” She
goes on to use Phillip Jones’ definition of internationalism, which is “the
promotion of global peace and well-being through the development and
application of international structures, primarily but not solely of an
intergovernmental kind.”
Stromquist argues that by addressing these challenges, “the positive promise of globalization –
ensuring a better world for all – stands a good chance of being realized.”15 In Ladakh, citizens
have created their own civil society infrastructure with an emphasis on education. Here, we can
look to Ladakh for an indication of how a community might implement Stromquist’s ideas and
save their education system.
15
Stromquist 187-188
http://secmol.org/img/VEC_Group_discussion.jpg
(9)
Lessons from Ladakh
There are several prime examples of how Ladakh’s civil society has responded to the need for a
globalization from below. Anthropologist and linguist Helena Norberg-Hodge has been
instrumental in shaping the Western understanding of Ladakh. She has argued against the
modern development practices taking root in Ladakh and fought for the preservation of
traditional Ladakhi methods. While she began as an outsider, she was able to examine the
successes and struggles of Ladakhi society and start to inspire reform. Her activism in the region
grew into the Ladakh Project by 1980, and in 1991 became the International Society for Ecology
and Culture (ISEC).16 Since then, Norberg-Hodge has worked with organizations such as the
Students’ Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) and the Women’s Alliance
of Ladakh (WAL). These organizations are worthy of mention because, collectively, they are
implementing tools for change worth adding to the international toolkit for mitigating
globalization.
Of these three, SECMOL has done the most work directly within education. Created by
Ladakhis in 1988, SECMOL was founded “by a group of young Ladakhis with the aim to reform
the educational system of Ladakh.”17 Education reform has been the basis of their work, which,
in the past two decades, has grown to encompass all different manifestations of their same goal.
Norberg-Hodge explains SECMOL as seeking to involve young people in finding productive
alternatives to formal education.18 In response to Stromquist’s first challenge, SECMOL
embodies the it-takes-a-village philosophy. Ladakhis have committed to educating all of their
students. Entitled Operation New Hope (ONH), SECMOL has undertaken an overhaul of the
16
Helena Norberg-Hodge, Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh, San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books, 1991; 171
17
SECMOL <http://secmol.org/edureforms/index.php>
18
Norberg-Hodge 176
(10)
education system. Their initiatives have ranged from providing crucial teacher training to
writing new textbooks with culturally-appropriate references and themes. SECMOL is known for
creating enrichment programs for Ladakhi youth that supplement and enhance their regular
public education.
Many of SECMOL’s projects address environmental concerns, as well; responding to
Stromquist’s second challenge, Ladakhis have created alternative educational opportunities that
explore interconnected forces and suggest ways to use students’ talents in an increasingly
globalized world. They have done extensive work with solar power, making use of the region’s
300-day sunshine average. Their community-run school campus at Phey uses sustainable
architectural practices. SECMOL is a staunch supporter of eco-tourism, notably through the
Around Ladakh with Students (ALS) program. The ALS website explains, “ALS' mission is to
provide optimum economic, cultural and intellectual benefit to both tourists and local people
alike. ALS provides trips to Ladakh's most majestic places at competitive prices. All profits
earned by ALS fund educational projects in Ladakh.”19 The ALS program is a perfect example
of merging student needs with global interests.
SECMOL’s village mobilization efforts through the Village Education Project offer an
impressive and encouraging example of how a community might seek to create active citizens,
Stromquist’s third challenge, by using educators and civil society to shape the collective mentality
about globalization. Village Education Committees (VECs) raise a sense of community
ownership of the government schools and insure accountability. Committees are comprised of
elected community representatives and must be at least one third women and include at least two
students. VECs raise funds for their schools and help create new systems by which a better
19
SECMOL <http://secmol.org/als/index.htm>
(11)
education might be provided. Through utilizing exploratory democratic processes20 such as
group discussion, role-playing, and brainstorming, Ladakhis report, “VECs are the backbone of
people's participation in education.” They continue, “This has been one of the most important
and effective components of ONH.”21
Implications for the Rest of the World
Ladakhis have understood how we best secure our happiness within a large community for
centuries. As Norberg-Hodge explains, “I never met people who seem so healthy emotionally, so
secure, as the Ladakhis. The reasons are, of course, complex and spring from a whole way of life
and world view. But I am sure that the most important factor is the sense that you are a part of
something much larger than yourself, that you are inextricably connected to others and to your
surroundings.”22 Indeed, Trainer supports this view in his assertion that “the organisation of
existing resources, especially the labour, skill, and co-operative dispositions of the people into
forms which enable easy, pleasant, and secure production of basic goods and services” is what
contributes to the high quality of life found in Ladakh.23
Ladakhis have realized a number of important strategies in responding to globalization,
not the least of which are their cooperation, optimism, and active civil society. The efficacy of
their programs can surely be attributed to the ground-up motivation that drives the reforms;
globalization from below holds great potential for positive reform. The partnerships that exist in
20
See the work of Ruthanne Kurth-Schai and Charles R. Green, Re-envisioning Education and
Democracy, Greenwhich, CT: Information Age Press, 2006.
21
SECMOL <http://secmol.org/edureforms/#vec>
22
Norberg-Hodge 85
23
Trainer 111
(12)
Ladakh have made use of established structures and networks and broadened them for reform
work.
Lessons from Ladakh that might be extended to other communities are plentiful. Angeles
& Tarbottom directed their work on other aspects of civil society than SECMOL, but their
insights remain valuable. They argue, “It is when microprojects like the Ladakhi Farm Project
or WAL get to be scaled up and replicated, and their values and principles widely accepted as
desirable alternatives at different levels of society, that they provide promise....”24 As they explain,
“it is also possible for agents and organizations promoting a sustainable path of development to
gain moral and discursive ascendancy” through methods other than the widely accepted and
clearly destructive capitalistic methods. They suggest “bringing to light the practices, habits, and
images of noncapitalist economics and anticapitalist politics, as in Ladakh.”25
Stromquist’s three broad guidelines provide a useful framework with which to think about
how we might counter these tendencies of globalization. The activism in Ladakh clearly suggests
a way to engage civil society and mitigate the negative effects of globalization. SECMOL’s ability
to identify community needs and implement broad practices to engage citizens in addressing
those needs is admirable. This is the kind of action we ought be undertaking throughout the
world; Ladakh’s education system is not the only one in need of an overhaul. We need
community-based initiatives that remedy and enhance public education in practically every
community that has a public education system. Stromquist, and SECMOL, prove that through
education we can effect great change. This is our hope for a world full of strong communities
and international justice.
24
25
Angeles & Tarbottom 111
Angeles & Tarbottom 111
(13)
Selectively-Annotated Bibliography
Angeles, Leonora C., and Rebecca Tarbottom. “Local Transformation through Global
Connection: Women’s Assets and Environmental Activism for Sustainable Agriculture in
Ladakh, India.” Women’s Studies Quarterly 29.1 & 2 (Spring-Summer. 2001): 99-115.
While this article does not focus exclusively on education, Angeles and Tarbottom have done extensive
research on civil society within Ladakh and offer insightful commentary on how to foster effective
programming within this society that can be extrapolated to other communities around the world.
Bigelow, Bill. “Rethinking ‘Primitive’ Cultures: Ancient Futures and Learning from Ladakh.”
Rethinking Globalization: Teaching for Justice in an Unjust World. Ed. Bill Bigelow and
Bob Peterson. Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools Press, 2002. 308-15.
The Rethinking Schools series presents provocative, creative ways to understand and enhance public
education. In “Rethinking Globalization,” Bigelow includes an extremely interesting and helpful review of
the work of Helena Norberg-Hodge and puts these works in the context of education. The article gets to the
heart of the educational concerns in Ladakh, and was perhaps my most useful source at least in terms of
understanding the problem and directing further research. See also the annotations for “Ancient Futures”
and “Learning from Ladakh.”
Dollfus, Pascale. “Comments [on van Beek’s “The Art of Representation”].” Ethnic Revival and
Religious Turmoil: Identities and Representations in the Himalayas. Ed. Marie LecomteTilouine and Pascale Dollfus. New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2003. 302-6.
Francke, A. H. “Schools in Leh.” Trans. Gabrielle Reifenberg. Ladakhi Histories: Local and
Regional Perspectives. Ed. John Bray. Lieden, the Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV,
2005. 281-92.
“Schools in Leh” is an interesting portrait of the educational system a century ago in Ladakh. While there
is little information that is directly pertinent to the current situation, and it is presented from a European
perspective (Francke was a German-Moravian linguist and historian documenting the work of the
Christian missionaries who aimed to reform the educational structure of a Buddhist region), it creates an
interesting point of comparison for a 21st century conversation about many of the same concerns.
(14)
“From Deserts to the Icy Himalayas, It’s Quite a Contrast.” Indo-Asian Newswire 6 May 2007.
LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. Gould Lib. Carleton Coll., Northfield, MN. 27 May
2007 <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Ganguly, Avishek. “Ladakh’s Schools Are Now More Culturally Rooted, Thanks to SECMOL.”
Outlook India 25 June 2001. 28 May 2007 <http://www.outlookindia.com>. Path:
Search “Ladakh, SECMOL.”
Goodall, Sarah. “Changpa Nomadic Pastoralists: Differing Responses to Change in Ladakh,
North-West India.” Nomadic Peoples 8.2 (2004): 191-99. Sociological Abstracts.
Thomson Gale. Gould Lib. Carleton Coll., Northfield, MN. 28 May 2007
<http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/>.
Hindustan Times. “Leh’s Two-Week Long Cultural Fiesta, a Big Delight for Visitors.” Asian
News International 15 Sept. 2006. LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. 28 May 2007
<http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Jina, Prem Singh. “A. H. Francke’s Contribution in the Cultural History of Ladakh.” Recent
Researches on the Himalaya. Ed. Prem Singh Jina. New Delhi: Indus Publishing
Company, 1997. 43-52.
The articles in the Jina book are all very short but immediately address the issues they intend to explore.
They cannot go much expansive detail but they present a clearly focused vignette of whatever particular
issue. Sometimes there is awkward English translation, but overall I found this book and many of the
articles within it of great use.
Jina, Prem Singh. “Impact of Tourism on the Ecological Set up of Ladakh Himalaya.” Recent
Researches on the Himalaya. Ed. Prem Singh Jina. New Delhi: Indus Publishing
Company, 1997. 122-5.
Jina, Prem Singh. “Modernisation and Buddhism in Ladakh.” Recent Researches on the
Himalaya. Ed. Prem Singh Jina. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company, 1997. 105-113.
(15)
Jina, Prem Singh, Susma Mehra, and Manju Jina. “Utility of Nemo-Padam Road for the
Economic Development of Zangskar.” Recent Researches on the Himalaya. Ed. Prem
Singh Jina. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company, 1997. 126-8.
Kurth-Schai, Ruthanne and Charles R. Green. Re-envisioning Education and Democracy.
Greenwhich, CT: Information Age Press, 2006.
"The Ladakh Project: Counter-Development on the Tibetan Plateau." International Society for
Ecology and Culture. 2007. 28 May 2007
<http://www.isec.org.uk/pages/ladakh.html>.
Mortenson, Greg and David Oliver Relin. Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote
Peace… One School at a Time. New York: Penguin Books, 2006.
Though set in Pakistan, Mortenson’s book is an easy read that addresses many of the same concerns
present in Ladakh. Mortenson’s adventures suggest one way an individual might go about ameliorating
educational throughout the world.
Norberg-Hodge, Helena. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books, 1991.
Norberg-Hodge is the preeminent anthropologist for the Ladakhi region and her work is a must-read for
anyone exploring globalization and Ladakh. However, in my opinion, it is a very pedestrian book. Plenty
of further research is necessary is one is looking at any particular realm of Ladakhi society (such as
education). Furthermore, her book is more than fifteen years old now, and it would be useful to read a
second edition (if such a thing existed) to understand how these globalizing forces have continued to impact.
Page, John, and Helena Norberg-Hodge, prod. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. 1993.
Videocassette. International Society for Ecology and Culture.
This film, perhaps obviously, is a condensed version of Norberg-Hodge's book. It is a nice way to add
visuals to the scenes she sets in her book, and covers a lot of ground in a quick hour-long video. However,
it covers a lot of ground without going into much depth. The video would be a good teaching tool (and
Bigelow addresses this "Rethinking Schools") as a starting point for deeper discussions and explorations.
Rizvi, Janet. Ladakh: Crossroads of High Asia. 1983. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989.
(16)
Rizvi presents a nice overview of the Ladakhi region. Perhaps slightly outdated, her book contains a wealth
of regional history presented in a very accessible (though not brief!) manner.
Sharma, D. D. “Problems of Language and Education in Western Himalaya.” Recent
Researches on the Himalaya. Ed. Prem Singh Jina. New Delhi: Indus Publishing
Company, 1997. 141-153.
This article, like most in the Jina book, is short but detailed; this article in particular explicates the history
of language education in northern India and discusses the history of educational systems. It is a good
accompaniment to other research on education in Ladakh.
Snellgrove, David L., and Tadeusz Skorupski. “Present-Day Ladakh.” The Cultural Heritage of
Ladakh. Vols. 1 (Central Ladakh). Boulder: Prajña Press, 1977. 135-142.
Most of this book focuses on the monasteries of Ladakh, but chapter five offers a short overview of the last
50 years of Ladakhi history with beautiful (black-and-white) pictures and a thoughtful discussion of the
clash between old and new cultural tendencies in a region recently exposed to the pressures of globalization.
Stromquist, Nelly P. Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power,
Technology, and Knowledge. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002.
Students’ Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh. 11 Sept. 2006. SECMOL. 28 May
2007 <http://secmol.org>.
This website is an unbelievable wealth of information. The people at SECMOL do a tremendous job of
describing their home, explaining their work and the need for it, and reporting on their current projects.
Complete with colorful pictures and useful external links, this is the place to go to gain the most complete
picture of SECMOL and begin to understand the role of civil society in Ladakh.
The Statesman (India). “World Bank Aid for Ladakh.” Asia Intelligence Wire 19 Oct. 2006.
LexisNexis Academic. LexisNexis. 28 May 2007 <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Trainer, Ted. “What Does Development Mean? A Rejection of the Unidimensional
Conception.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 20.5-6 (2000): 95-113.
Trainer’s article is offers quite perceptive analysis of the effects of development and globalization, and he
uses Ladakh as a case study. Trainer has published extensively on these subjects and this particular article
is a relatively short, insightful view of the Ladakhi situation and how it relates to our greater global state of
affairs.
(17)
van Beek, Martijn. “The Art of Representation: Domesticating Ladakhi Identity.” Ethnic
Revival and Religious Turmoil: Identities and Representations in the Himalayas. Ed.
Marie Lecomte-Tilouine and Pascale Dollfus. New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2003. 283-301.