Chapter 5
Somniloquy: Talking while asleep
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder, where you fall asleep uncontrollably - the only disorder involving a flaw in the
primary sleep systems
Without sleep, animals die
The Nature of Consciousness (p. 192)
Consciousness: Awareness of internal and external stimuli
Some of what enters the conscious is intentional - other things meander in
Mind wandering: Experience of task-unrelated thoughts - people spend 15-50% of their time mind wandering
Mind wandering is less likely to occur when engaged in a cognitively difficult task, and is associated with
less accurate awareness of external information
Controlled mental processes: Judgements or thoughts we have control over, and intend to occur
Automatic mental processes: Happen without intentional control or effort
Consciousness seems to be related to activity in a distributed network of neural pathways - the best way to
measure this is with an EEG
Electroencephalograph (EEG): Monitors the electrical activity in the brain using electrodes attached to the
scalp - displays readings in brainwaves which are divided into four types based on frequency
-
Beta wave (13-24 cycles per second): Waking thought and problem solving
Alpha wave (8-12 cycles per second): Deep relaxation, meditation
Theta wave (4-7 cycles per second): Light sleep
Delta wave (<4 cycles per second): Deep sleep
Biological Rhythms and Sleep (p. 196)
Biological rhythms: Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning - a sort of biological clock
Circadian rhythms: 24-hour biological cycles in humans and other species
Body temperature varies in a daily cycle - peaking in the afternoon and lowest in the middle of the night - and
generally people fall asleep as their body temperature drops and awaken as it begins to ascend again
Circadian rhythms leave people with an 'ideal' time for going to bed, increasing sleep quality
Circadian rhythms persist even without external time cues, but daily exposure to light readjusts biological
clocks - when exposed to light, receptors in the retina send signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the
hypothalamus
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) then sends signals to the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin
If you get less sleep than you need, you accumulate 'sleep debt,' which must be paid back by getting extra sleep
Getting out of sync with your circadian rhythm also causes jet lag - your biological clock continues normally,
while the official time changes and you sleep at the 'wrong' time - you'll have difficulty falling asleep and likely
sleep poorly
Flying east seems to cause more jet lag, because you're losing time, whereas flying west and gaining time is a bit
easier
Shift work can also cause people to get out of sync with their biological rhythms
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Shift work can also cause people to get out of sync with their biological rhythms
Melatonin can be given to travellers to help with jet lag, but the timing of the dose is crucial - calculating the
optimal time is very complicated
The Sleep and Waking Cycle (p. 199)
Sleep labs use a number of devices to measure people's sleep - the EEG, the EMG, and the EOG
Electromyograph (EMG): Records muscular activity and tension
Electrooculograph (EOG): Records eye movements
Sleep occurs in five stages, with changes that can be measured by EEG, EMG, and EOG
Measurements of a sleeping person
Non-REM sleep (stages 1-4)
The onset of sleep is gradual, and there's no clear transition point - the amount of time it takes to fall asleep
depends on a large number of factors, such as circadian rhythms, the environment, stress, and more
Stage 1 - A brief transition stage of light sleep, where breathing and heart rate slow as muscle tension and body
temperature decline - alpha waves are dominant before this stage, but they give way to theta waves
Hypnic jerks: Brief muscular contractions that occur as people fall asleep
Stage 2 - Features brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles
Stages 3 & 4 - Called slow-wave sleep, these stages have high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves
After passing through slow-wave sleep, sleepers move back up through the lighter stages of sleep
REM sleep (stage 5)
Upon returning to what would be stage 1, sleepers go into the fifth stage of sleep - REM sleep
REM is an abbreviation of rapid eye movement - measured using an electrooculograph
REM sleep is very deep, and it's hard to be awakened from it - muscles are extremely relaxed, and the body is
essentially paralyzed
Yet REM sleep is dominated by high-frequency brainwaves, similar to those of people who are awake - for this
reason, it can be called paradoxical sleep
Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, and because they tend to be more vivid and memorable, it was once
thought it was the only time that dreams occur
Brain activity during sleep seems to be used to consolidate information gained during the day - stage 2 sleep
seems important for procedural motor tasks, while REM is important for complex logic tasks
REM Sleep: Relatively deep sleep with rapid eye movements and high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves, as
well as vivid dreaming
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well as vivid dreaming
Non-REM sleep: Sleep stages 1-4, with no rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG
activity
Usually the sleep cycle is repeated four times throughout the night, with REM periods becoming longer each
time, and non-REM intervals getting shorter
Most slow-wave sleep occurs early in the sleep cycle, and you get a lot of REM sleep in the second half of the
sleep cycle
Brain wave patterns during different stages of sleep
Age trends in sleep
Age alters the sleep cycle - infants spend as much as 50% of their sleep in REM, compared to 20% for adults
In their first year, REM sleep goes down to 30%, then gradually decreases to the adult level
Later in life, the percentage of slow-wave sleep declines
Culture and sleep
Sleep is more or less the same across all cultures - the only differences seems to be sleep arrangements and
napping customs
For example, in some cultures, it is acceptable for children to sleep with their parents - in most Western
cultures, it is discouraged
In tropical regions, it's common to take a nap in the middle of the afternoon to avoid the intense heat
Neural bases of sleep
Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS): The afferent fibre running through the reticular formation that
influence physiological arousal.
When these fibres are cut in the brainstem of a cat, the result is continuous sleep. Meanwhile, electrical
stimulation along the same pathways produces arousal and awareness.
Because the pons, medulla, thalamus, and other areas of the brain are implicated in sleep and waking, the ebb
and flow of sleep are controlled by activity in a variety of brain centres
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No single structure in the brain functions as a sleep centre, nor does a specific neurotransmitter serve as a sleep
chemical
Sleep deprivation
Partial sleep deprivation (sleep restriction): When someone gets by with significantly less sleep than they need
over a long period of time - effects depend on the amount of sleep lost and what they're doing at the time
- Sleep deprived university students showed impairment on measures of their cognitive performance, but
felt they were fine - we tend to underestimate the effects sleep deprivation has on the body
Selective sleep deprivation: When a subject is awakened as they got into REM or slow-wave sleep, they enter
that stage of sleep far more often - they have to be awakened more and more frequently as they are deprived
of REM/slow-wave sleep
- When left to sleep normally, they'll rebound and get far more REM/slow-wave sleep than normal
Memory consolidation: Firming up of learning that has taken place during the day - a key function of sleep that
seems to occur during REM and slow-wave sleep
- Studies have shown that sleep seems to enhance subjects' memory of learning activities that occurred
during the day - it seems as though good sleeping habits are essential to learning
Insomnia
Insomnia: Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep, usually occurring in three basic patterns: difficulty
getting to sleep, difficulty staying asleep, and persistent early-morning awakening
Insomnia is associated with daytime fatigue, impaired functioning, elevated risk for accidents, reduced
productivity, depression, and health problems
Nearly everyone has occasional problems sleeping because of stress or other temporary circumstances, but
about 35% of people report problems with insomnia
Pseudo-insomnia (sleep state misperception): When someone simply thinks they aren't getting an adequate
amount of sleep - about 5% of insomniacs show normal patterns of sleep, and many people underestimate just
how much sleep they get
Insomnia is frequently a side effect of emotional problems such as stress and depression, as well as health
problems such as back pain and asthma
The most common treatment for insomnia is sedative drugs, or sleeping pills, with benzodiazepine being the
most common
Sedatives can be a poor long-term solution for insomnia, because they have carry over effects that make people
drowsy and sluggish the next day, and as they become less effective, people tend to increase their dosage and
create a vicious circle of dependency
- Most sedative drugs decrease the time spent in slow-wave sleep, which has its own health problems
- Sedatives are useful for treating short term treatment of insomnia, but because it is so complex, it's hard
to find one perfect cure
Behavioural treatments can be just as effective as sedatives and, in the long term, likely have better results
Other sleep disorders
Narcolepsy: A disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep - the sufferer goes directly from fully
awake to being in REM sleep, usually for a short period of time
- The causes of narcolepsy aren't well understood, but some people seem to be genetically predisposed to
have it
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Sleep apnea: Frequent, reflexive gasping for air that disrupts sleep - occurs when someone stops breathing for
at least 10 seconds
Nightmares: Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep - after awakening from a
nightmare, you usually remember a vivid dream and have trouble getting back to sleep
- Usually, nightmares occur later in the sleep cycle
- Higher frequencies of nightmares have been associated with increased amounts of neuroticism, trait
anxiety, state anxiety, and depression
Night terrors (sleep terrors): Abrupt awakenings from non-REM sleep, accompanied by strong autonomic
arousal and feelings of panic
- Usually, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep early in the sleep cycle
- After waking up, the panic usually fades quickly and return to sleep is fairly easy - the dream is harder to
recall, although there may be a single, frightening image
Somnambulism (sleep walking): Occurs when a person arises and wanders around while staying asleep - tends
to occur during the first two hours of sleep, during slow-wave sleep
- Sleepwalkers may wake up, or they may simply return to bed, though they are prone to accidents
- The causes are unknown, but it seems to have a genetic predisposition
Timing of sleep problems throughout the night
The World of Dreams (p. 209)
The usual view of dreams is that they are mental experiences during REM sleep with a story-like quality, have
vivid visual imagery, are often bizarre, and seem real to the dreamer
However, these things aren't always true - and dreamers often realize they're dreaming more often than was
thought
One reason dreams seem so bizarre is that we tend to remember our strangest dreams, making them seem
more prevalent
Generally, despite some inconsistencies, dreams feature coherent worlds with a solid sense of self
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Men report more positive themes in their dreams, while women report more negative themes
Reports of dreams from children under five consists mainly of static, blurry images - it isn't until 11-13 that
children begin to dream like adults
Not all daytime events affect dream content - the spill over is called day residue
Content of dreams can also be affected by stimuli experienced while asleep - the incorporation of these
external stimuli shows that the worlds of our dreams isn't entirely separate from the real world
Lucid dreams: Dreams where the dreamer realizes they are asleep, and may be able to exert some control over
the dream
Culture and dreams
Cultural beliefs around dreams are extremely varied - in Western cultures, they're written off as insignificant,
but in many other cultures they're viewed as important sources of information, and many view the events of
dreams as another type of equally important reality
Theories of dreaming
Wish fulfillment: Freud's theory that dreams fulfill ungratified needs from waking hours, though the true
meaning may be disguised
Cognitive problem solving: The theory that dreams allow people to creatively think about the problems in their
life without being restrained by logic - for example, women going through divorce often dream of divorcerelated problems
Activation-synthesis model: The theory that dreams are simply side effects of the neural activation produced
during REM sleep - the cortex synthesizes a dream to make sense out of these signals
This theory downplays the emotional aspect of dreams - but it cannot account for dreaming outside of
REM sleep
Hypnosis: Altered Consciousness or Role Playing? (p. 214)
Hypnotism was started by an Austrian physician named Franz Mesmer, who did his work in Paris - he
supposedly cured people using an elaborate routine
He inspired followers, who practiced his mesmerism - who continue today as hypnotists
The term hypnotism comes from the Greek word for sleep, and was popularized by James Braid
Hypnotism has been used as a clinical tool for pain relief - but its reputation mainly involves entertainers in the
tradition of mesmerism
Hypnosis: A systematic procedure that induces a heightened state of suggestibility
Hypnotic induction: Putting someone into a hypnotic trance
People differ in how they respond to hypnosis, based on a variable called hypnotic susceptibility - people who
are highly hypnotizable may even slip into hypnotic states spontaneously without being aware of it
High hypnotisability seems to be made up of three parts: absorption, dissociation, and suggestibility
Absorption: The capacity to reduce of block peripheral awareness and focus attention
Dissociation: The ability to separate aspects of perception, memory, or identity from the rest of conscious
awareness
Suggestibility: The tendency to accept directions and information relatively uncritically
People who are responsive to suggestion under hypnosis are just as responsive to suggestion normally - this is
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called imaginative suggestibility
Hypnosis and brain wave patterns
Hypnotic phenomena
Anaesthesia: When hypnotized, some people can undergo serious medical procedures - some physicians and
doctors use hypnosis as a substitute for anaesthetic drugs, though they are typically more reliable
Sensory distortions and hallucinations: Participants may be led to experience auditory or visual hallucinations they may hear or see things that are not there, or fail to notice things that are
Disinhibition: Hypnosis can sometimes reduce inhibitions, but typically they won't do anything they wouldn't do
normally - those who do show disinhibition may do so because they feel they cannot be held responsible for
their actions
Posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia: Suggestions made during hypnosis may influence a subject's behaviour
later - the most common being posthypnotic amnesia, where the subjects seem to remember nothing, though
they generally remember when pressed
Theories of hypnosis
People often think that hypnosis produces an altered state of consciousness, or a hypnotic trance, but their
patterns of EEG activity are the same as when awake - for this reason, many people have concluded that
hypnosis is characterized by dramatic role playing
Hypnosis as role playing:
This theory state that people simply act out the role of a hypnotic subject, and respond as they think they are
supposed to - their expectations produce assorted hypnotic effects
Many of the drastic effects of hypnosis have been duplicated by non-hypnotized participants, or are
exaggerated
Hypnotized subjects are often acting out a role - when asked to remember something by a hypnotist, people
will almost always invent inaccurate memories
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will almost always invent inaccurate memories
Hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness:
Hypnotized subjects continue to show signs of being hypnotized when left alone, suggesting that they aren't
merely playing a role
Hypnotized participants may in fact show changes in brain activity related to hallucinations or pain suppression
Dissociation: A splitting off of mental processes into two separate streams of awareness - this is thought to be
the cause of hypnosis
One stream is in communication with the hypnotist and external world, while the other is in contact with a
"hidden observer" - when experiencing pain, subjects may not respond to it, because the portion of
consciousness registering it is the hidden observer
Pain registered by hypnotized and unhypnotized subjects - blue represents the evaluation of pain by hypnotized
subjects when asked if some other part of them could feel the pain
Such divided consciousness is a common experience - for example, highway hypnosis
Some now believe that both an altered state of consciousness and social interactions are involved in hypnosis
Meditation: Pure Consciousness or Relaxation? (p. 217)
Meditation: A family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under
control
The practice of meditation largely has nothing to do with religion - however, it does involve a deliberate effort
to alter consciousness
Many critics believe that meditation is simply an effective relaxation technique
During meditation, alpha and theta waves become more prominent, and subjects' heart rate, skin conductance,
and respiration rate decline - suggests that meditation leads to a beneficial physiological state by suppressing
bodily arousal
There is increase activity in the prefrontal cortex during meditation - this would be the active process of
intentionally concentrating on meditation
Different approaches to meditation seem to produce different changes in brain activity, but these wouldn't
happen just because of relaxation
Long-term benefits
Meditation may lead to reduced stress and enhanced immune response, as well as improving mental health,
reducing anxiety, and increasing overall physical health and well-being
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However, these effects may also be possible using systematic relaxation, and may be influenced by placebo
effects, sampling bias, and methodological problems - many meditation studies do not use rigorous research
design and are often based on small samples
Altering Consciousness with Drugs (p. 219)
Psychoactive drugs: Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural functioning
Narcotics (opiates): Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain - examples include heroin and
morphine
- Can produce a sense of euphoria and well-being - side effects include lethargy, nausea, impaired mental
and motor functioning
Sedatives: Sleep-inducing drugs that decrease central nervous system activation - example would be include
barbiturates (sleep pills)
- Loosens inhibitions and brings a relaxed, pleasant state of intoxication - side effects include drowsiness,
emotional swings, severe impairments in motor and mental functioning
Stimulants: Drugs that increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activity - examples include
cocaine and amphetamines
- Cocaine is a natural substance, while amphetamines are synthesized - cocaine has a briefer high
- Freebasing extracts nearly pure cocaine from street cocaine
- Produce an energetic, elated feeling and increase alertness - side effects include restlessness, anxiety,
paranoia, and insomnia
Hallucinogens: A diverse group of drugs that produce varied effects, the most prominent being distortions in
sensory and perceptual experience - examples include LSD and mescaline
- Produce euphoria, increased sensory awareness, distorted sense of time, and may lead to profound,
dreamlike feelings that are difficult to describe - side effects include impaired judgement and jumbled
thought processes, and may also produce anxiety and paranoia
Cannabis: Hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived - marijuana is parts of the plant,
hashish comes from the resin, while THC is the active chemical and can be synthesized separately
- Produce mild, relaxed euphoria and enhanced sensory awareness - side effects include anxiety, sluggish
mental functioning, and impaired memory
Alcohol: A variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol
- Produces relaxed euphoria that boosts self-esteem, with diminished inhibitions - side effects include
severe impairment in mental and motor functioning, mood swings, and quarrelsomeness
MDMA (ecstasy): A compound drug related to amphetamines and hallucinogens, particularly mescaline
- Produces a short-lived high, giving feelings of warmth, friendliness, euphoria, and alertness - side effects
include increased blood pressure, muscle tension, sweating, blurred vision, insomnia, and anxiety
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Factors influencing drug effects
Drug effects can vary from person to person and even based on situation - the impact depends on age, mood,
motivation, personality, previous experience, weight, and physiology, not to mention dose, potency, and
method of administration
Expectations can influence perception of a drug's effects - if people think they are drinking alcohol, even if they
aren't, they'll act intoxicated
Tolerance: A progressive decrease in responsiveness to a drug - leads people to consume larger and larger doses
Mechanisms of drug action
Psychoactive drugs work primarily by altering neurotransmitter activity
Amphetamines increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine and interfere with reuptake - both
contributing to increase dopamine and norepinephrine
Cocaine blocks reuptake at dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin synapses
Opiate drugs bind to endorphin receptors and elevate activity in the dopamine pathways that modulate reward
There are also specific receptors in the brain for THC - these are also used by internal chemicals similar to THC
that influence GABA and glutamate synapses
Mesolimbic dopamine pathway: A neural circuit that has been characterized as a reward pathway that seems
linked to the reinforcing effects of most abused drugs
Drug dependence
Physical dependence: When a person must continue taking a drug to avoid withdrawal - effects vary based on
the drug
- Some of the withdrawal symptoms experienced by addicts are conditioned responses elicited by stimuli
paired with them in the past - if an addict always injects in a particular room, entering that room may
produce withdrawal symptoms
- This can also contribute to tolerance - situational cues prompt the body to lessen the effect of the drug
Psychological dependence: When a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy mental and emotional
cravings for the drug
- Dysregulation in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway seems to be the main cause for this
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Drugs and health
Overdose - Particularly dangerous for overdose are sedatives, narcotics, and alcohol - many overdoses involve
lethal combinations of these central nervous system depressants, with the respiratory system grinding to a halt
- With central nervous system stimulants, overdoses may result in heart attack, stroke, or cortical seizures
Direct effects - Some drugs may cause tissue damage, such as liver damage for alcohol or nasal membrane
damage from snorting cocaine
Indirect effects - Most of the negative effects from drugs come from indirect results on attitudes and
behaviours - people using stimulants tend to not eat or sleep properly, for example
- Alcohol seems to have the most diverse negative effects on physical health, despite being the only legal
recreational drug
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