AD4049
Psychology of the Image
Colin Davies
Essay Assignment
Colin Hopson
0482647
January 2009
i
Contents
1
2
Essay Descriptive ................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Essay Statement ............................................................................................. 1
1.2
Essay Brief ..................................................................................................... 1
1.3
Essay Abstract................................................................................................ 1
Essay Text .............................................................................................................. 2
2.1
Case Study 1 – Fundamental Principles......................................................... 7
2.2
Case Study 2 – Comparison between Connotation ........................................ 9
2.3
Case Study 3 – Film Comparison ................................................................ 10
2.4
Case Study 4 – Contemporary Advertising ................................................. 12
3
Essay Summary .................................................................................................... 13
4
Essay Conclusion ................................................................................................. 14
5
References ............................................................................................................ 15
5.1
Textual References....................................................................................... 15
5.2
Image References ......................................................................................... 16
ii
1 Essay Descriptive
1.1 Essay Statement
The statement chosen for this assignment is;
“Like painted portraits, ads are carefully constructed for rhetorical
effects.” (Schroeder, 2003, p.128)
Critically investigate the above statement in relation to advertising. You should use a
selection of advertisements as case studies to support your analysis.
1.2 Essay Brief
Essay Length: 2500-3000 words
Keywords: Critical thinking, analysis, theory, research
Key Text: Schroeder, J. E. (2002) Visual consumption. London: Routledge.
Chapter: 6.
1.3 Essay Abstract
The essay text in Section 2 critically investigates the statement described in 1.1 Essay
Statement. After an introductive paragraph, the essay portrays a personal
interpretation of keywords found in the statement as well as conveying an analogy
from a computing background. The main body of the essay investigates and reflects
on material researched from established authors in order to construct a critical
framework. This framework is used in the analysis of four case studies (sections 2.1,
2.2, 2.3 and 2.4), each of which compare two articles.
1
2 Essay Text
Today, advertising is depicted in numerous ways using various forms of media and
communication, such as; posters, billboards, leaflets, flyers, newspapers and
magazines. More recently advertising has escalated through television and the
internet. Although the meaning and effectiveness of an advertisement is dependent on
the individual, successful communication commonly relies on the interpretation and
interaction of the image(s). Unlike text, images respond differently to cultural
backgrounds, race, gender, age, intellect, etc. However by analysing and decoding
images, visual communication can be cleverly shaped and reproduced for maximum
consumption.
One of the most dominant and abundant communication methods used in advertising
today is the representation of sexuality; most frequently the use of the female to
attract the male gaze. Although it is a matter of personal opinion, and can be a subject
of disagreement, it is masculinity that has changed recently, and it is masculinity that
is the focus in each case study. Before constructing a critical framework from research
and methodologies published by specific authors, it will be beneficial to personally
interpret the essay statement (section 1.1 Essay Statement).
After segregating words mentioned in the essay statement, the first analysis relates to
the words ‘painted portraits’. A personal interpretation of these keywords suggests
that an artist’s methods of practice and personal qualities are noticable. It is not just
the closing artwork, but the way the artist perceives a subject, generates the artwork at
that time, plus their personal aspirations and background.
2
“This means that the image may manifest traces of the bodily labour
involved. In the case of a Dutch-period landscape by Van Gogh, thick
pigment and brushmarks are integral to the work and its meaning but, of
course, they were not part of the view he transcribed.”
(Walker and Chaplin, 1997, p.26)
The translation of the portrait therefore is dependant not only of the spectator but on
the personalisation and social status of the artist. The publication quoting the above
also describes that the paintings from Agnolo Bronzino depicts that “the pleasures and
pains of love” (Walker and Chaplin, 1997, p.132) were influenced by the artist’s
friendships. Similarly, images used in advertising (frequently photography) are
influenced by external sources, where its modification and perception are elaborated
in order to promote interest.
The second analysis of the statement relates to the words ‘carefully constructed’. A
personal interpretation of these keywords conveys an ideology that the images used in
advertising are created with much thought and intricacy in order to maximise their
effect. The analysis of images, especially those used in advertising, have presented
methods of decoding the linguistic properties of images into a textual format. This
discloses the structure and meaning behind advertisements, as indicated by Vickie
Rutledge Shields.
“By treating the advertising image as a “text,” semiotic analyses
concentrate on the relationships between the ads’ internal meaning
structures as they relate to the larger cultural codes shared by viewers.”
(Shields, 1990, p.26)
3
From a computing background, a good analogy for the textual interpretation of
images used in advertising is to compare it with a computer application’s user
interface, where the image is like the interface and the intellectual mechanics behind
the image, relate to the program code functionality. By establishing analysis and
methodologies concerned with this ‘interaction’, advertisers and designers can
compose techniques which may prove effective and profitable. Such exploration for
skills and methods of expertise practiced by designers is mentioned in Matthew Soar’s
abstract (Soar, 2002, p.570).
The third analysis of the statement relates to the words ‘rhetorical effects’. From an
online dictionary source (NationMaster, no date) the word rhetorical means “the art
or technique of persuasion through the use of oral, visual, or written language”.
Advertising acts as a contemporary rhetorical device - it amplifies the process of
literary stimulating the spectator in order to endorse consumption. Studying what
words constitute as rhetorical, philosophical terms can be used to create innovative
processes. By understanding methods, such as visual metaphors, exemplified in
“everyday language is rich in examples of the association of thinking with visual
metaphors” (Chandler, 2001, p.4); semiotic textual analysis can be used to decipher
the visual engagement with advertisements; therefore expanding ideology that can be
strategically deployed to exploit potential.
“At its best, it can enable the analyst to see the media text in a new light,
not only in terms of its problems and contradictions, but also as regards
the unexpected consequences of its arguments.” (Tolson, 1996, p.160)
By encoding intellectual stimulus into images whilst engaging simplicity, designers
can be effective in their advertising campaigns. Examples of such effective methods
4
include the use of visual simile, irony and surrealism. These methods skilfully defer
from inducing complexity to adverts, and therefore create a stimulating and
memorable result. Similarly, designers promote products using enviable and virtuous
models, sometimes postured with sexual or suggestive connotations. Interestingly,
denotation and connotation are reflected on in the critical framework of which will be
used later to analyse advertisements that reflect on masculinity (sections 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
and 2.4). In order to construct a critical framework, it is necessary to investigate the
commentary and methodologies discussed by authors experienced in visual
consumption, graphic design and advertising. One particularly interesting concept of
critical analysis involves the division of binaries, or scrutiny in the area between
opposites. In the case of masculinity it is the dominance of the male over the female
relationship, although (as discussed in section 2.2) the stability between binary
relationships can be distorted. Usually however, it is this comparison between binary
oppositions that constitute to a lot of critical analysis. An example of where two
binaries viciously interact is described by the tourism invading the Scottish serene
landscape (Tolson, 1996, pp.165-170). It could be suggested that the masculine
element is the invasion of tourism against the feminine tranquillity of the untouched
countryside. By deciphering binary differences (or analysing their equilibrium)
images can be separated into textual oppositions, as is portrayed in the chapter.
Of course comparison is not always blatantly obvious in such examples of masculinity
and femininity, beauty and ugly, strong and weak, hard and soft; but can be
represented in the way people evaluate themselves within society, perceive selfassurance or attain gratification. Without discarding the credibility of individualism,
people compare themselves with envied or famous people, such as film stars and
fashion models. Expressed as a dominant ideology, this comparison and conformity to
social welfare is deliberately exploited by advertising.
5
“So we speak of dominant ideology, which imposes itself upon us,
obliging ourselves, its potential victims, to find ways of living with, or
perhaps ‘resisting’ this imposition.” (Tolson, 1996, p.154)
A close association to this dominant ideology, involving comparative oppositions, is
fetishism; a subject particularly studied by Karl Marx, (Tolson, 1996, p.163). Another
comparative relationship incorporated into semiotics is structuralism. Other than
being ‘the study of signs’, semiotic analysis includes denotation and connotation of
which relate to the association between a signifier and it’s signified. In basic terms,
the denotation is clear to the majority (such as a visual image showing Britney Spears)
whereas connotation has more interpretation associated with the viewer (such that
Britney Spears generates glamour and beauty, fame and success, but she is also
recognised with failed marriage, single motherhood and depression). This is also
exemplified in Roland Bartes discussion regarding Brooke Shields in Calvin Klein
jeans (Shields, 1990, p.27). A third level of signification is also generated and reflects
cultural concepts such as liberty, independence, femininity and masculinity. In the
example of Britney Spears the glamorous and wealthy music industry can make
celebrities, such as she; but it can also demoralise and crush them in the expectation
of profit. Although semiotics assist theories and raise assumptions they may be
regarded as simply a form of literary constrained criticism and based purely on
subjective analysis. Without following theories of semiotics surely the simplist form
of critical analysis is deduced from the comparison and boundaries between
contrasting types. In the analysis of Calvin Klein’s advert for their Obsession cologne
(Shields, 1990, p.33) a comparison is made toward filtered colours used on male and
female models as a resemblance to Greek statues. Although the cologne is for men,
the text does not discuss the female models placed below, looking up towards the men
6
promoting a masculine product. In contrast, would a perfume be advertised with men
positioned below female models to assert femininity? It is sometimes this contrast in
structuralism that recognises advertising from the mainstream.
“I advance my argument that the CK One ad’s implicit intention is to
allow viewers to “consume difference” – that is, experience the feeling of
doing something different and defying conventions. (Schroeder, 2003,
p.119)
2.1 Case Study 1 – Fundamental Principles
The intention of my first case study is to demonstrate how advertising uses two
fundamental principles associated with masculinity. From an early age children are
subjected to representations that express the difference between sexes. One that
communicates sexual status is colour – pink clothing for girls and blue for boys.
Although colours depict certain meaning, such as green representing the environment,
colours do have different representations globally. Our perceptions of colour are
taught from early age, such as stop (red) and go (green) signs at pelican crossings.
This ideology, like how young boys are taught not to cry and be affirmative, is carried
throughout later life to signify dominance of the male. The sports car is undeniably
associated with the male due to its popularity. A vibrant red can depict danger, hotblooded, vigour and speed, and along with sleek bodywork, embroidered facts and
figures; the sports car appeals to masculine characteristics. Black signifies mystery
and yellow can be associated with the natural power of the sun. Another popular
method promoting cars to a male dominant audience is the use of female models,
most frequently provocatively dressed and/or postured. Although the model shown in
Fig (i) does not reveal her body, modern magazines certainly exploit this concept.
7
However, advertising does not always use models of the opposite sex to appeal to the
male audience, but can utilise famous and virtuous males which have powerful
embodiment over the general public. Shown in Fig (ii) is David Beckham who
photographed much like the figures in the Obsession advert, advertises effectively in
several ways. Much like Brooke Shields endorsing Calvin Klein jeans, he connotes
fame, glamour, talent and a masculine body, which can appeal to more than the
heterosexual male population. His renowned celebrity works on the vanity to be
envied by others, but unlike some film starts, he also displays his athletic and
masculine body. Like David Beckham many other males, whether actor, sportsman or
musician; have been used to promote fashion, sportswear, fragrance products, etc.
using their masculinity and recognition in society.
“A man’s presence is dependent upon the promise of power which he
embodies.” (Berger, 1972, p. 45)
Fig (i) Car magazine cover
Fig (ii) David Beckham models Armani underwear
8
2.2 Case Study 2 – Comparison between Connotation
The next case study reflects on two different connotations between masculinity and
femininity, where one proved controversial. Choosing the subject of cars, as used in
the previous case study, the two advertisements, Fig (iii) and Fig (iv), advertise the
same product, but their connotations differ somewhat. The Greek BMW used car
advert, shown in Fig (iii), establishes popularity with male audiences due to the
seductive, young female close-up, but it’s ironic comparison between cars and women
was ridiculed as offensive on an American women’s blog. Although contentious, does
the advert also portray that women retain beauty regardless of their lovers, and
secondly before the model got paid, did she know she would be publicised this way?
As discussed by Daniel Chandler (Chandler, 2008, p.5) “The choice of words often
involves connotations, as in references”. Altering the signifier or signified in adverts
creates clever tricks, such as irony and simile that generate alternate meanings and
connotation. It could be suggested that women use seduction as a masculine power to
encourage sales. In comparison to Fig (iii), the Nissan advert, Fig (iv), typifies that
Micras are significantly for women. The advert attracts the male gaze by showing the
shapely woman’s figure, but the connotation supports a woman’s individuality – her
ownership of a car that the male has driven without her consent. The irony that this
advert exemplifies is that for his ignorance, she is feeding him dog food. The advert
also has depth in communicating the importance of the car to both sexes. At first it
was thought that the advert was colour, but by noticing colour in the Nissan logo
(bottom-right) the advert, like the Obsession one, uses black and white photography
innovatively. Although neither advert displays its product, this style of advertising is
popular, as it intrigues the spectator by making them think.
9
Fig (iii) BMW used car advert
Fig (iv) Nissan Micra advert
2.3 Case Study 3 – Film Comparison
With some deviation from advertising, the following case study compares the
masculinity portrayed within two films. Today, English males usually regard men in
Edwardian, Victorian or of the Tudor era as pompous and of feminine dress, but
masculinity has changed considerably within the twentieth century. In films between
the 1930s and 1950s, such as ‘It’s a Wonderful Life’ shown in Fig (v), masculinity
was principally associated with a man’s relationship with society, his wealth and
status, his smart dress and appraisal of family value. A man distinctive with
community life, the man who controlled discipline and courtesy into family life was
regarded as the dominant member of the household. The Frank Capras film
emotionally illustrates that due to James Stewart’s belief in his community, when he
becomes cruelly backrupt, his friends in the community rescue him with local
donations. Apart from arduous characters portrayed in gangster roles, such as James
Cagney in White Heat, actors played men that danced, sang and made merry. The
10
portrayal of masculinity changed significantly in the late seventies and eighties. Man,
as shown in films like Rambo – Fig (vi), are depicted as masculine by detaching
themselves from society, rejecting law and order and surviving alone by using brute
force. This embodiment of guns and muscle, such as in films like Terminator,
Gladiator, and Fight Club, constitute a lot to the perception of masculinity today and
the films that endorse this violent affiliation are responsible for effecting the next
generation. During this transistion, smart dress has been replaced with naked body
and muscles, egoism has replaced social interactionatus and the power of the mind has
been replaced by the power of the bullet. Obviously, not all modern films portray
masculinity this way, but to prove this point, in advertising masculinity to young
females, their film star would undoubtedly be depicted having bulging muscles, firm
pecks and a six-pack.
“Masculinity is historically variable and is socially, rather than
biologically or naturally, produced.” (Edley and Wetherell, 1995, p. 97)
Fig (v) It’s A Wonderful Life
Fig (vi) Rambo – First Blood
11
2.4 Case Study 4 – Contemporary Advertising
The final case study reflects on contemporary advertising, especially the use of
multimedia technology and the internet. Products, such as cars, are often advertised
with models, metaphors and irony, but advertising through e-commerce websites, has
deterred from this style of advertising and left that for the magazines. E-commerce
websites are more inclined to advertise cars using multiple and diverse photograph
angles, display facts, figures and functionality, or by providing glossy animations.
However, advertising specifically oriented for male consumption is commonly used in
console and computer games, such as Need for Speed shown in Fig (vii). Like Fig (i)
in the first case study, this multimedia game cover appeals to the male audience, due
to its decoration of the female model and the sleek racing car positioned behind.
Advertising over the internet therefore raises different concepts with the presentation
of consumer products. In the case of Lynx products for men, shown in Fig (viii), the
advert connotation is probably most suited for magazines, posters and billboards;
whereas e-commerce websites prefer images showing only the product itself. After
browsing typical e-commerce websites relating to Lynx products, such as
http://www.chemistdirect.co.uk/lynx_7_164.html, their products were only advertised
using a single photograph however, the Lynx home page http://www.lynxeffect.com/,
exposed several female images of which would prove exciting to most males. Whilst
the internet has increased diversity into advertising, it has also divided its context.
“The debate of the last decade over whether advertising should be
allowed on the Internet seems quaint, as the Internet has emerged as the
marketing tool of the twenty-first century, seemingly.” (Schroeder, 2002,
p.141)
12
Fig (vii) Need for Speed computer game
Fig (viii) Lynx shower gel advert
3 Essay Summary
The research and discussion detailed throughout this essay has provided critical
analysis that, with reflection on adverts from inquiry as well as the case studies
provided, has assisted in revealing contemporary methods and ideas used by
advertisers. It has investigated basic principles of using colour, size and perspective,
characteristics, objects and celebraties that relate to masculinity. It has also touched
upon metaphors, comparitive difference and semiotics – the relationship between the
signifier and it’s signified including insight to the levels of signification; denotation,
connotation and cultural myth.
.
13
4 Essay Conclusion
In constructing a framework that analyses the depth and meaning of images used in
advertising, not only do some advertising techniques become exposed, but we see
how images can be changed for diverse effects. Using criticism and methods of
interrogation, information buried beneath the surface of an advert can be made
known. For example, recent adverts may depict cars as being environmentally
friendly, and even though society knows that measures are being taken to control
emission levels, cars contribute a great deal to world pollution. Misinterpretation such
as this can be integrated into adverts concerning masculinity and with a lot of the
male generation concerned with their ‘macho’ image, advertising can undoubtedly
capitalise on this. Because adverts are now part of our everyday visual consumption,
they may become transparent unless articulated by designers to consume desires such
as fetishism. Reverse psychology, contrast between opposites; plus simile, irony and
surrealism, are many of the techniques of how advertisers make their money.
Although each spectator wishes to preserve their individuality and personal stability,
advertisements visually stimulate people into changing their identity, appearance,
fashion, principles, opinions and lifestyle. It is these elements on which advertisers
spread their magic.
“Rather, images constitute a system of representations – a visual
language that is both engaging and deceptive.” (Schroeder, 2002, p.115)
14
5 References
5.1 Textual References
Berger, J. (1972) Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin.
Chandler, D. (2001) Semiotics for Beginners: Rhetorical Tropes [online].
Aberystwyth University [cited 6th January 2009] Available at:
<http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem07.html>
Chandler, D. (2008) Semiotics for Beginners: Denotation, Connotation and Myth
[online]. Aberystwyth University [cited 7th January 2009] Available at:
<http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem06.html>
Edley, N. and Wetherell, M. (1995) Men in perspective: practice, power, and identity.
Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf.
NationMaster.com (no date) NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Rhetoric [online].
NationMaster [cited 23rd December 2008] Available at:
<http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Rhetoric>
Schroeder, J. E. (2002) Visual consumption. London: Routledge.
Shields, V. R. (1990) Advertising Visual Images: Gendered Ways of Seeing and
Looking. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 14(2), pp.25-39.
15
Soar, M. (2002) THE FIRST THINGS FIRST MANIFESTO AND THE POLITICS
OF CULTURE JAMMING: TOWARDS A CULTURAL ECONOMY OF GRAPHIC
DESIGN AND ADVERTISING. Cultural Studies, 16(4), pp.570 - 592.
Tolson, A. (1996) Mediations: text and discourse in media studies. New York:
Oxford University Press Inc.
Walker, J.A. and Chaplin, S. (1997) Visual culture: an introduction. Manchester:
Manchester University Press.
5.2 Image References
Images downloaded courtesy of;
Fig (i) – http://a7.vox.com/6a00c2252293c4604a00fa968838f70003-500pi
Fig (ii) – http://www.brandish.tv/images/2007/12/11/davidbeckhampants.jpg
Fig (iii) - http://theworldsbestever.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/08/bmw-adcopyranter-425x576.jpg
Fig (iv) – http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem07.html
Fig (v) – http://www.moviegoods.com/movie_poster/its_a_wonderful_life_1946.htm
Fig (vi) – http://www.moviegoods.com/movie_poster/rambo_first_blood_1982.htm
Fig (vii) – http://www.autounleashed.com/images/need_for_speed_prostreet.jpg
Fig (viii) – http://www.mimifroufrou.com/scentedsalamander/images/lynx-ad-washme.jpg
16