(i)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page number
Summary
CHATER 1:
(iv)
INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Definition of concepts
2
1.3
Intention of the study
3
1.4
Outline of the mini-dissertation
4
CHAPTER 2:
THE PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
2.1
Introduction
5
2.2
Existentialism
6
2.2.1
Antecedent expressions of existentialism:
8
Kierkegaard’s concept of subjectivity
2.2.2
Modern expressions of existentialism:
10
Sartre’s atheism
2.2.3
Implications of existentialism for humanistic psychology
11
2.3
Phenomenology
13
2.3.1
Phenomenological reduction
16
2.3.2
Consciousness as intentionality
17
2.3.3
Heidegger’s “being- in-the-world”
18
2.3.4
Application of the phenomenological principles
20
to psychotherapy
2.4
Humanism
22
2.4.1
Philosophical foundations of humanism
23
2.4.1.1 Transcendental humanism
24
2.4.1.2 Secular humanism
24
(ii)
2.4.1.3 Existential humanism
25
2.4.2
26
Psychological humanism and the “Third Force” Movement
CHAPTER 3:
EXISTENTIAL-PHENOMENOLOGY AND
PSYCHOTHERAPY
3.1
Introduction
29
3.2
Philosophical foundations of the existential-phenomenological
29
psychology
3.3
Existential-phenomenological psychotherapy
31
3.3.1
Binswanger’s “Existential Analysis”
34
3.3.2
Contributions of the existential-phenomenolo gical
43
approach to “Third Force” psychology
CHAPTER 4:
THE EMERGENCE OF THE “THIRD FORCE” MOVEMENT:
IMPACT ON PSYCHOLOGY AND BEYOND.
4.1
Introduction
46
4.2
Historical background of the “Third Force” Movement
47
4.3
Contributions of the “Third Force” to therapeutic principles
51
current psychology
4.3.1
View of human nature and links with positive psychology
52
4.3.2
Humanistic and transcendental contributions of the “Third Force”
55
to current psychology
(iii)
4.3.2.1 Maslow’s “peak experiences” and the phenomenology of
55
mystical experience
4.3.2.2 Rogerian empathy and Zen meditation
59
4.3.3
62
Applicability of the “Third Force” principles in contemporary
psychology and beyond
4.3.4
Prevalence of the “Third Force” Movement in current psychology
67
and implications for the New Millennium
4.4
Discussion and conclusion
72
REFERENCE LIST
74
Figure 3.1:
36
The territory of human experience.
From van Deurzen, 1998.
(iv)
Summary
Existentialism and phenomenology as philosophical systems combined to form a
branch of psychology called the existential-phenomenological psychology. The
philosophical section of this study demonstrates that contribution. Ludwig
Binswanger, a Swiss psychiatrist, was one of the major proponents of this paradigm.
He applied the concept of “existential analysis” to psychotherapy, in reaction to
psychoanalysis. His objective was to integrate philosophy, psychoanalysis, and
psychiatry. The existential-phenomenological approach to therapy was introduced to
the American audience by Rollo May, one of the intellectual leaders of the “Third
Force” Movement. Rollo May’s existential approach contributed to the existentialhumanistic thought of the “Third Force.”
The “Third Force” Movement was launched in 1964 at the Old Saybrook Conference
in Connecticut, United States of America. It started as a social movement in protest
against the dominance of behaviourism and orthodox psychoanalysis. An eclectic
group of thinkers attended the conference. Some of whom were Abraham Maslow,
Rollo May, Carl Rogers, George Kelly, Clark Moustakas, Gordon Allport, Charlotte
Buhler, James Bugental, and others (Elkins, 2000). The “Third Force” Movement
emerged at this conference. Because humanistic principles (whose philosophical
origins are discussed in 2.4 below) were adopted as guiding philosophy of the
movement, the name “Humanistic Movement” is often used. The two names are used
alternatively in this study.
If depth psychology is the “First Force”, and behaviourism the “Second Force”, then
humanistic psychology is the “Third Force” (Brennan, 1998a, 1998b). The term
“movement” is used throughout the study to denote the diversity of epistemologies
within the “Third Force”, namely, existential, phenomenological, transpersonal, and
the Gestalt thought. However, this study focuses on the theoretical contributions by
the intellectual leadership of the movement (Rollo May, Abraham Maslow & Carl
(v)
Rogers) with the exclusion of Gestalt therapies. Thus, Rollo May represents the
existential-phenomenological approach, Maslow the humanistic-transpersonal, and
Rogers the humanistic-phenomenological (though transpersonal to some degree:
Section 4.3.2.2 illustrates this notion).
Textbooks and journal articles indicate that the history of the “Third Force”
Movement is rather complex and inconsistent in terms of reporting. This study
reflects on the main events that led to the emergence of the movement and
subsequently the current status within mainstream psychology. The “Third Force”
moved psychology beyond the confines of the laboratory and the clinic into politics
(egalitarian governance), education, and environmental issues.
This study discusses existentialism, phenomenology, and humanism as contributing
philosophies, the emergence of existential-phenomenology as a paradigm in
psychology, and the history and contributions of the “Third Force” Movement. The
existential and the phenomenological epistemologies are inherent within the “Third
Force”, hence the link (in this study) between existential-phenomenology and “Third
Force” humanism.
There are therapies that benefited from the existential-humanistic thought. These
include the following: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the ecosystemic
approach, career counselling, and psychoanalysis (self-psychology). The emergence
of postmodernism and cyber technology placed new challenges on the “Third Force.”
Consequently, this study reviews the status and vision of the movement in the New
Millennium.