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Sport Celebrities
Stewart, Bob, Aaron C. T. Smith, and Matthew
Nicholson. “Sport Consumer Typologies: A
Critical Review.” Sport Marketing Quarterly,
v.12/4 (2003).
Trail, Galen T., M. J. Robinson, and Y. K.
Kim. “Sport Consumer Behavior: A Test
for Group Differences on Structural
Constraints.” Sport Marketing Quarterly,
v.17 (2008).
Sport Celebrities
Celebrity is a cultural fabrication that is defined
by characteristics such as fame, public perception,
and awareness. In The Image, historian Daniel
Boorstin defines celebrity as an individual known
for well-knownness. Essentially, celebrity is being
recognized as having fame in a society. This occurs
locally, regionally, nationally, internationally, and
globally. Since sport pervades society, athletes as celebrities provide a visible and significant component
of sport’s place in society.
Establishing Celebrity
The notion of “celebrity” emanates from someone
or something being widely known. Celebrity attracts media awareness and draws public attention.
Celebrities are sometimes meticulously crafted;
sometimes, celebrity occurs instantaneously. It can
be sustaining or fleeting.
The growth and development of mass media
coverage of athletes has been instrumental in proclaiming celebrity. In today’s digital media world,
celebrity is more prevalent and more attainable
than ever before. With ESPN and hundreds of sport
media outlets; athletes, coaches, and events receive
constant attention and scrutiny as journalists try to
break stories that gain ratings and exposure. The
media gives celebrities attention as long as their
narratives are interesting and compelling. In a fragmented media environment, more and more outlets
focus on exposing different angles, including economic, social, legal, political, and personal issues.
Contemporary Western society makes it easier for
people to become “famous for being famous.”
The line between athlete and celebrity is blurred
today; however, this trend began in the 1920s
golden age of sport. Athletes like Babe Ruth, Jack
Dempsey, Bill Tilden, Red Grange, and Bobby
Jones reached superstar status because of sports
journalists’ chronicles of their heroic feats. Grantland Rice, Damon Runyon, Ring Lardner, Paul
Gallico, and others elevated athletes and coaches
to heroes through their sentimental portrayals and
intimate narratives. In many ways, this era was a
precursor to today’s sport celebrity culture. Boxer
Jack Dempsey had a promoter, Tex Rickard, who
is considered one of the best in boxing history. He
adeptly crafted Dempsey’s frontier image and used
the press to publicize Dempsey and to persuade the
public about his fighter. This era also saw athletes
endorsing products. Babe Ruth endorsed many
things, including Red Rock Cola, Wheaties, and
Old Gold Cigarettes.
While Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan, LeBron
James, David Beckham, Maria Sharapova, and other top athletes today earn millions on endorsements,
there are other ties to celebrity, and specifically Hollywood. Shows like ESPN’s ESPY Awards feature
actors and athletes and unite the worlds of sport
and Hollywood. Additionally, athletes are increasingly starring on reality shows like Dancing with the
Stars. Kristi Yamaguchi, Apolo Anton Ohno, Helio
Castroneves, Emmitt Smith, and Shawn Johnson all
have won the Mirror Ball Trophy. In personal matters, more and more athletes have long-term relationships with models and actors (Derek Jeter and
Minka Kelly, Anna Kournikova and Julio Iglesias,
Carrie Underwood and Mike Fisher, and Tom Brady
and Gisele Bündchen). While female athletes have a
difficult time getting media attention for their athletic feats, Sports Illustrated’s swimsuit issue has
featured Anna Kournikova, Amanda Beard, Jenny
Finch, Maria Sharapova, and Danica Patrick, along
with top international supermodels.
Athletes and celebrities are also grouped together in Forbes’ annual Celebrity 100. In 2009, Tiger
Woods was the top celebrity athlete at No. 5, followed by Kobe Bryant at No. 10, Michael Jordan
and No. 18, and LeBron James at No. 19. Forbes
also lists the most influential athletes—those who are
(c) 2011 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sport Celebrities
1429
just as powerful and persuasive on
and off the field. Woods and cyclist
Lance Armstrong topped this poll in
2009. Influential athletes not only
endorse products and have international fame, but they also promote
social causes and can easily transition into entertainment because of
their celebrity images.
Reluctant, Enduring, and
Niche Celebrity
Celebrity can occur locally, regionally, nationally, internationally,
and even globally. In sport, a high
school football coach or star player
can have local or regional fame.
The Women’s Tennis Association ranked Maria Sharapova World No. 1 in
Nationally, an athlete may be fasingles four times. Sharapova has also been featured as a model.
mous, but outside his or her country could live in anonymity. Some
athletes can have appeal and celebrity that extend beyond national borders—if not
als as celebrities. Those who are not a part of that
potentially spanning the globe.
scene, however, may have no awareness of that
Some athletes’ celebrity can come and go quickly,
person (or that person’s fame). In sport, consider
and others may endure long past their performing
the following examples. There could be a Womdays. Michael Jordan is still at the top of the 2009
en’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) star
Q scores, and John Madden, Nolan Ryan, Joe Mon(Lauren Jackson), a Professional Bull Riders (PBR)
tana, Cal Ripken Jr., Jerry Rice, Julius Erving, and
star (Justin McBride), or a preeminent snowboardWayne Gretzky are all in the top 10. Jordan is still
er (Hannah Teter) whose fame might only exist
the most famous athlete in the United States, and the
in the circle of die-hard WNBA, rodeo, or snowJordan brand has reached nearly $1 billion in sales.
boarding fans.
Furthermore, celebrity can continue for athletes postCelebrity athletes can also be viewed as role modhumously. A contemporary example of this is Dale
els. While the debate over whether athletes should
Earnhardt Sr., whose brand has been continually visbe role models can be presented, these individuals
ible and profitable following his untimely death.
have a visible platform for being adored and emuSome celebrities play the role of “reluctant celeblated by impressionable followers and fans. Charles
rity,” while others do anything possible to further
Barkley garnered attention (and subsequently furtheir fame. Athletes in the latter group include Denthered his celebrity) in an advertisement campaign
nis Rodman, Brian Bosworth, Terrell Owens, and
where he notoriously said, “I am not a role model.”
Chad [Johnson] Ochocinco. Others, like Michael
This viewpoint was later highlighted in a Nike Air
Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Derek Jeter, are more
commercial spot. Other popular sport commercials
private and understated about their public persona.
have featured children saying, “I want to be like
A point of interest associated with understandMike,” (Gatorade) or others saying, “I’m Tiger
ing the concept of celebrity is the notion of niche
Woods” (Nike). As evident in these examples, the
celebrities. Some “celebrities” are famous in certheme of celebrity and role models is prevalent in
tain niche circles. Consider a popular gospel singer,
American society.
modern artist, or political pundit. In some circles,
Celebrity can become tarnished, and with cethose in the know would identify certain individulebrity, many associations are based on negative
(c) 2011 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
1430
Sport Celebrities
connotations. Negative celebrity can be associated
with criminal and ethical shortcomings. This has
been the case for such figures as Bernard Madoff.
In sport, certain individuals’ celebrity has been
influenced by off-the-field troubles and exploits.
Mike Tyson, O. J. Simpson, Mike Danton, and
Michael Vick have all had their public perceptions
turn from being notable athletes to villains and
lawbreakers. Michael Vick went from being the
highest-paid player in the NFL to being charged
with and vilified for his involvement in dog fighting
and other animal cruelty issues. It is interesting to
note that Vick appears to be forgiven because he
may be voted into the Pro Bowl by fans.
Celebrity and Endorsements
Celebrity athletes as endorsers are widespread.
Sport celebrities are often premiere product endorsers. Many products have been associated with athletes such as Brett Favre, Dale Earnhardt Jr., LeBron James, or Peyton Manning. The visibility and
appeal of celebrity athletes have provided a fertile
ground for building relationships with corporate
partners who have sought benefits from their association with celebrities and their star power and
appeal. Beyond mere endorsement value, some
athletes have been able to take their marketing appeal and emerge as personal brands. A person’s
brand in essence is an individual who has become a
“brand.” A brand is the emotional attachment that
consumers have to products, services, places, and
even people.
Brands are identifiable and differentiated by offerings of others through reputation, appearance,
affinity, and other characteristics. The opportunity
for mass emotional appeal provides tremendous
opportunities for brand affinity and appeal; thus,
celebrity athletes are in prime positions to be personal brands.
Tiger Woods
Tiger Woods is arguably the top golfer in the world,
and was one of the most marketable athletes in the
world prior to his infidelity scandal. It has been estimated that Woods was the first athlete to amass
$1 billion. This was primarily attributed to his mass
appeal, which resulted in more than $750 million
in endorsement deals. Through his association with
sport power players, such as Nike and International
Management Group, the image and brand of Tiger
Woods was meticulously crafted for success.
For the vast majority of his professional career, he
was recognized as the epitome of a sports celebrity
and marketing icon whose appeal and popularity
transcends the world of sport. Since being unveiled
to golf with Nike’s “Hello World” in 1996, Woods
turned heads and generated revenue worldwide ever
since. Woods also brought unprecedented attention
to his sport by bringing in a wider audience. He not
only benefited the PGA Tour and helped to make
Nike a major player in the golf game, a place it did
not hold pre-Tiger.
A testament to this was the Tiger Effect, which
was a term used to denote the impact of his absence
while he was sidelined with injury and recovery in
2008. Tiger’s impact had an effect on tournament
broadcast ratings, advertisement sales, media coverage, merchandising, or other characteristics such
as public opinion and Q-scores. With his personal
scandal and indefinite leave from golf, there were
concerns about implications on television ratings,
the PGA Tour, and the sport overall. As of 2010,
Nike was standing behind him, while Accenture,
Gatorade, and Gillette did not. Others were taking
a wait-and-see attitude.
David Beckham
David Beckham is one of the top global sport celebrities of all time. Since debuting with Manchester United, Beckham’s soccer career and commercial appeal have soared. As a player, Beckham has
amassed global acclaim through his play with Manchester United, Real Madrid, the England national
team, and more recently, the Los Angeles Galaxy.
His distinguished playing career and his positioning as one of the most commercialized and recognizable sports figures has given him iconic status
worldwide. His celebrity appeal ventured into a
new domain in 2007 when “Brand Beckham” embarked on the United States with an unprecedented
contract (reputedly worth $250 million over five
years). This jump to Major League Soccer (MLS)
was motivated by the promise of generating interest
in soccer in the United States through Beckham’s celebrity. The Beckham persona is encapsulated by his
charisma, attractiveness, his celebrity wife (former
(c) 2011 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sport Marketing Differences
Spice Girl Victoria “Posh” Beckham), and a body of
work that is tailor-made for garnering attention for
him, his team, the leagues he has represented, and
the wide assortment of corporate partners associated with the Beckham brand.
Brett Favre
Brett Favre is one of the biggest and most longstanding sport celebrities in America today. His
fame is a result of a variety of factors. He is one
of the most decorated athletes, as well as one of
the most divisive figures, in American sport. He
is noted for being many things: the record-setting
quarterback who steered the ship for the hallowed
Green Bay Packers for 15 years, an athlete who has
built a reputation for waffling about retirement in
the latter years of his career, and a premiere sport
personality and spokesperson.
Favre has also maintained an easily identifiable and highly visible persona. Favre’s persona
is drenched in southern “good old boy” appeal
that has followed him throughout his playing career. This small-town boy from Kiln, Mississippi,
has been a prominent pitchman in promoting such
brands as Wrangler and Snapper mowers. Favre has
also turned his celebrity into commercial success by
endorsing Sears in a commercial that played off his
retirement indecisiveness as he contemplated buying a television.
Conclusion
Athletes have gained celebrity status in American culture because of skyrocketing salaries and
endorsement opportunities, media attention, and
fans’ obsession with their lives on and off the field.
Image, branding, and exposure are components of
celebrity, and the symbiosis between media, athletes, and sport is stronger today than ever. Sports
sites and constant Internet coverage will continue
to highlight extraordinary plays and action along
with personal information that intimately brings
athletes, coaches, and events to fans in a sportpassionate society.
Jason Lee
University of North Florida
Pamela Laucella
Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis
1431
See Also: Athletes as Sponsors; Endorsement; Endorser
Effectiveness; Player as Brand.
Further Readings
Andrews, David L. and Steven J. Jackson, eds.
Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting
Celebrity. London: Routledge, 2001.
Boorstin, D. J. The Image, or What Happened to
the American Dream. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1961.
“The Celebrity 100.”Forbes. http://www.forbes
.com/lists/2009/53/celebrity-09_The-Celebrity
-100_Rank.html (Accessed October 2009).
Farrell, Andrew. “The Most Influential Athletes.”
Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2008/12/12/
sports-marketing-woods-biz-sports_cxaf
_1212influentialathletes.html (Accessed
November 2010).
Gabler, N. “Celebrity: The Greatest Show on Earth.
Newsweek (December 21, 2009).
Lee, J. W., ed. Branded: Branding in Sport Business.
Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2009.
Lefton, Terry. “Some of the Interest in New Sports
Q Scores Isn’t at the Top.” Sports Business
Journal (June 29, 2009).
Smart, Barry. The Sport Star: Modern Sport and
the Cultural Economy of Sporting Celebrity.
London: Sage, 2005.
University of Virginia American Studies Program.
“Babe Ruth: Constructing a Legend.” http://
xroads.virginia.edu/~UG02/yeung/Baberuth/ads
.html (Accessed December 2010).
Vincent, John, John S. Hill, and Jason W. Lee. “The
Multiple Brand Personalities of David Beckham:
A Case Study of the Beckham Brand.” Sport
Marketing Quarterly, v.18/3 (2009).
Sport Marketing
Differences
To understand the effectiveness of sport marketing
principles, it is first necessary to understand the differences between sport marketing and traditional
(c) 2011 Sage Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.