Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2012, 6, 67-84
© 2012 Human Kinetics, Inc.
An Integrated Biofeedback and
Psychological Skills Training Program
for Canada’s Olympic Short-Track
Speedskating Team
Marla K. Beauchamp
University of Toronto
Richard H. Harvey
San Francisco State University
Pierre H. Beauchamp
Mindroom Peak Sport Performance
The present article outlines the development and implementation of a multifaceted psychological skills training program for the Canadian National Short Track
Speedskating team over a 3-year period leading up to the Vancouver 2010 Olympic
Games. A program approach was used emphasizing a seven-phase model in an
effort to enhance sport performance (Thomas, 1990) in which psychological skills
training was integrated with biofeedback training to optimize self-regulation for
performance on demand and under pressure. The biofeedback training protocols
were adapted from general guidelines described by Wilson, Peper, and Moss
(2006) who built on the work of DeMichelis (2007) and the “Mind Room” program
approach for enhancing athletic performance. The goal of the program was to
prepare the athletes for their best performance under the pressure of the Olympic
Games. While causation cannot be implied due to the lack of a control group, the
team demonstrated success on both team and individual levels.
Keywords: biofeedback, sport, performance enhancement, speedskating, Olympic
The effectiveness of psychological skills training (PST) on performance has
been suggested in previous sport psychology reviews (e.g., Gould & Eklund,
2007; Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996; Landers, 1995; Vealey, 1988, 2007; Weinberg
& Comar, 1994). Sport psychologists must interpret the results of these studies
Marla K. Beauchamp is with the Graduate Department of Rehabilitation Science at the University of
Toronto. Richard H. Harvey is an assistant professor in the Department of Health Education at San
Francisco State University in San Francisco, CA. Pierre Beauchamp is with Mindroom Peak Sport
Performance in Westmount, Quebec, Canada.
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with caution, however. This is especially true for those working with elite athletes,
as very few PST research studies have involved interventions with elite athletes
(Greenspan & Feltz, 1989). In this regard, previous discussions of methodological issues have noted five possible reasons for weak effect sizes of mental skills
training interventions (Landers, 1995; Nitsch, 1997; Tenenbaum & Bar-Eli, 1995;
Vealey, 1994; Weinberg & Comar, 1994), including (a) the use of nonathletic participants in laboratory settings rather than elite athletes engaged in sport specific
contexts; (b) considerations of idiographic and nomothetic designs; (c) selection
of potentially beneficial treatment applications to specific populations, regardless
of ethical considerations; (d) rarity of specific measurement tools other than selfreport to measure psychological responses to pressure; and (e) the short length of
interventions, which may preclude important on-going appraisals while ignoring
nontargeted areas over time.
Within sport psychology practice, there is some interest in the implementation
of PST as a critical component within the yearly training plans of national team
programs (Weinberg & Gould, 2010). The intended purpose of these PST programs
is to provide athletes and teams with the skills and strategies to overcome cognitive
and emotional barriers, in the service of achieving their goals (Blumenstein, Lidor
& Tenenbaum, 2005). Vealey (2007), in her review of PST programs, has suggested
three areas for the development of PST interventions: (a) the need for sport specific
PST programs whereby psychological practice is incorporated with physical training, (b) emphasis on teaching athletes how to set individualized competition plans
for their sport, and (c) the need for a process approach within the PST program.
In addition, a number of sport psychologists have suggested that packaging or
grouping of psychological strategies into a program approach may be useful when
working with individual and or team sports (Boutcher & Rotella, 1987; Hardy,
Jones, & Gould, 1996; Vealey & Greenleaf, 2006). Thomas’s (1990) seven-phase
closed-loop process model reflects one general approach in the sport psychology
domain (Gould & Eklund, 2007). From an applied perspective, many variables can
affect the process of a PST program; however, this transactional model (Bar-Eli,
2002) appears to provide a useful overall framework for the implementation of an
integrated PST program approach.
The integration of a PST program approach typically includes a combination
of psychological skills training techniques with the specific needs of the athlete,
taking into consideration factors such as age, gender, years and level of experience,
the specific demands of the sport (technical, tactical, physical, and mental), and the
environmental demands of the sport (Balague, 2000). Previous research in the area
of periodization training leading to elite athletic performance through the utilization
of quadrennial and yearly training plans (YTP) has made a contribution to the art
and science of YTP’s (Bompa, 1983; Smith, 2003). Recently, several researchers
have proposed an integrated periodized PST program over consecutive training
cycles whereby education, skill acquisition, and implementation of skills allow for
long-term development while directly reflecting individual needs and differences
(Balague, 2000; Fournier, Calmels, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 2005; Holliday et
al., 2008; Lidor, Blumenstein, & Tenenbaum, 2007).
According to Schwartz (1979), self-regulation is an integral part of mental
assessment and/or intervention activities used to facilitate athletic performance
(Crews, 1993; Crews, Lochbaum, & Karoly, 2001; Hatfield & Hillman, 2001;
Kirschenbaum, 1984; Zaichkowsky, 1983; Zaichkowsky & Fuchs, 1988, 1989).
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Historically, sport psychology researchers (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, & Tenenbaum,
1995, 2002; Hatfield & Landers, 1983; Landers, 1985) have suggested that psychophysiological assessment of athletes would allow sport psychologists to objectify
assessments beyond that of self-report questionnaires. In the past, psychophysiology
in general, and biofeedback in particular, have been used primarily in laboratory
settings (Andreassi, 2000). More recently, however, with the advent of telemetry
and portable devices, biofeedback with athletes has gained more ecological validity
within a transactional framework in sport psychology interventions (Bar Eli, 2002).
The ultimate goal of all PST programs is to render the athletes autonomous
and effectively functioning without the direction of the coach or sport psychologist
(Weinberg & Gould, 2010). Preliminary research has shown that biofeedback may
possibly enhance the effectiveness of PST programs to improve self-regulation
in the face of competitive and noncompetitive demands (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli,
& Tenenbaum, 2002). For example, a study by Bar-Eli and Blumenstein (2004)
found that biofeedback in combination with mental skills training resulted in better
performance compared with relaxation training alone in preelite swimmers. Some
form of biofeedback or nonintervention based physiological measurement has been
used in other sports such as archery (Filho, Moraes, & Tenenbaum, 2008; Salazar
et al., 1990), basketball (Kavussanu, Crews, & Gill, 1998), baseball (Strack, 2003),
target shooting (Daniels & Landers, 1981; Deeny, Hillman, Janelle, & Hatfield,
2003; Hatfield, Landers, & Ray, 1987), golf (Boutcher & Zinsser, 1990; Crews,
1991; Crews & Landers, 1993; Kirschenbaum, Owens, & O’Connor, 1998), combat
sports (Blumenstein, 1999) and gymnastics (Peper & Schmid, 1983; Shaw, 2010;
Zaichkowsky, 1983). Among the specific empirical studies, however, methodological limitations, such as lack of control groups and use of subjective reports for
performance evaluations, ultimately preclude definitive conclusions regarding the
effectiveness of biofeedback in sport.
The Current Study: Integrated Three-Year PST
and Biofeedback Program
The purpose of the present article is to report on the integrated PST program that was
designed and implemented with the Canadian National Short Track Speedskating
Team over a 3-year period in preparation for the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games.
A program approach was used emphasizing a seven-phase model for performance
enhancement (Thomas, 1990) in which PST was integrated with biofeedback training in an effort to optimize self-regulation for performance on demand and under
the pressure (Blumenstein, 1999; Blumenstein & Bar-Eli, 2001; Blumenstein,
Bar-Eli & Tenenbaum, 2002) of the Olympic Games.
Method
Participants
Participants consisted of 10 male and 10 female athletes (N = 20) recruited from
Speedskating Canada at the National Training Center in Montreal, Canada who
were designated as part of the development or national team based on performance results at National Trials held three times each year. As a requirement for
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participation at the National Training Center, a consent form was signed by each
athlete volunteering for all sport science research. Once consent was obtained to
participate, the program proceeded at Canada’s National Speedskating Training
Center “Mind Room” (Wilson, Peper, & Moss, 2006) designed for performance
enhancement for the time period of 2007–2010.
Description of the Intervention
Phase 1: Orientation/Observation. The uncontrolled intervention program was
periodized over 3 years with the Speedkating Canada yearly training plan (YTP).
The integrated program approach adapted from Thomas’s (1990) process model was
proposed to the coaches and high performance director (HPD) as a methodology
that could potentially achieve the goals of the performance enhancement program.
In September of year 1, the HPD and coaches shared their YTP and asked what
type of mental training activities would be administered in year 1 of the program. It
was preferable to complete the first three phases of the program (i.e., observation,
qualitative assessment, and quantitative assessment), however, before making a
commitment to an intervention strategy without having accurate data upon which to
implement an intervention. A model for the 3-year program is illustrated in Figure
1. Subsequently, meetings with HPD, coaches, and one-on-one consultations with
athletes provided important qualitative information.
Phase 2: Sport Analysis. In this phase, observations made at National Trials
revealed the complexity of preparation for (a) off-ice prerace warm-ups, (b) daily
training programs, (c) waiting times in the heat box before competition, (d) the
number of races required to be in the finals, and (e) the selection of the World Cup
Team that would compete internationally for the next several months. Structured
monthly meetings and informal meetings with the integrated support team (IST; e.g.,
medical doctor, nutritionist, physiologist, biomechanics, strength, physiotherapist,
equipment technician) were effective in terms of understanding IST program
interventions, triangulating data, and developing monthly data sheets on each athlete
for coaches. This phase allowed the consultant to understand both the culture of
speedskating and also the terms of reference used in this sport.
Qualitative and quantitative
assessment highlighted the psychological strengths and areas for improvement
based on both an individual profile and an overall team profile. Specifically, mental
skills assessment included qualitative interviews and administration of the Ottawa
Mental Skills Assessment (Durand-Bush, Salmela, & Green-Demers, 2001). The
key question was this: Which areas need to be improved? Interviewing the coaches
in this phase was also critical to obtaining their support for the program approach.
The goal for the first year was to conduct a complete mental skills training program
for the development team and a prioritized program for the men’s and women’s
National Teams based on the assessments in phase 3.
Phase 3: Individual and Team Assessment.
Phase 4: Concept Utilization. The qualitative and quantitative data collection
revealed that athletes’ mental skills and responses to stress were the two major
areas to target. Thus, it was decided to focus on (a) mental skills education in
the first year of the program, (b) self-regulation skills in the second year of the
program, and (c) individualization of competition-specific interventions in the third
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Figure 1 — The seven phases of the 3-year integrated program (adapted from Thomas,
1990).
year of the program. To achieve the mental skills goal in year 1, we decided to
produce a mental skills workbook individualized for short track speedskating. The
initial communication tool was educational seminars, while follow-up individual
consultations were used to help athletes individualize the utilization of mental
skills. A companion mental skills training log book was used to aid athletes in
transferring their psychological skills into their daily training. Finally, having been
presented with the YTP by the coaches, the sport psychology consultant was able
to schedule the mental skills training within the training program. This process
helped ensure that the program was integrated as part of a comprehensive training
program; sessions were scheduled at specific times and days in a preselected room
on a weekly and monthly basis and not as an add-on after training.
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Phase 5: PST Intervention Strategies. In this phase, the sport psychologist in
concert with the coaches selected the content of the psychological skills program
(PST) that would be introduced to the athletes. The PST program was presented in
three phases (Meichenbaum, 1985): (a) educational phase, (b) acquisition stage, and
(c) practice stage. This process ensured that the PST program would help athletes
internalize the content from the cognitive-behavioral mental skills workbook and
then apply it daily through the use of their training log books.
In this phase, the sport psychology consultant
implemented the interventions designed to achieve the goals set in the first year
of the program. It should be noted that key to the success of the intervention is
the cooperation of the coaches. To this end, it is imperative to develop positive
relationships and an understanding with coaches to help ensure a team mindset.
Obstacles or barriers to implementing such interventions need to be identified and
dealt with before one begins the implementation process.
Phase 6: Implementation.
Phase 7: Evaluation. Evaluation was an on-going process to ensure compliance
with the program among the athletes. The leadership of the coaches was a major
factor relative to the success of monitoring log book utilization and attendance at
the seminars. In addition, quantitative assessments were built into the integrative
program approach to evaluate the level of success for each of the interventions that
were implemented. This process builds accountability into the program. Budgets for
the following year, purchase orders for capital equipment, and objectives for year 2
were articulated and planned for at this time. In addition, at the end of each season,
performance graphs were developed to illustrate the strengths and successes of each
athlete relative to his or her World Cup competitors. These graphic performance
statistics were also part of the individual athlete profiles that allowed the HPD and
coaches to visually observe the trends in performance and identify new areas of
concern. Consequently, gap analysis, goals, and action plans (e.g., tactical, technical,
physical, mental) could be individually set with each athlete for the following year
and compiled into their athlete performance profiles.
Assessment Tools
Qualitative Interviews. The semistructured interview protocol was based on
previous research (Goss & Beauchamp, 1994) that had been adapted from the
qualitative literature (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992, 1993). Themes of the
interview protocol included psychological skills for peak performance (e.g.,
motivation, confidence, arousal, imagery, focus, relaxation), best and worst
competitions, mental preparation strategies, deliberate and quality training, daily
routines, distraction control, precompetition plans, competition plans, refocus plans,
competition evaluation plans, mental readiness and individual zone of optimal
performance (IZOP), stress coping, and rest and recovery strategies.
Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Test (OMSAT-3). The third version of the
Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Test (OMSAT-3) was used at the beginning of
years 1, 2, and 3 to measure critical mental skills relevant to sport performance, as
reported by the athletes (Durand-Bush, Salmela, & Green-Demers, 2001). Each
item is answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
3-Year Speedskating Approach
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(strongly agree), with a neutral choice available. The OMSAT-3 classifies mental
skills into three main components: foundation skills (e.g., goal-setting, confidence,
commitment), psychosomatic skills (e.g., stress and fear reactions, relaxation,
activation), and cognitive skills (e.g., focus, refocusing, imagery, mental practice,
competition planning).
Recovery-Stress Questionnaire (RESTQ-Sport). The athletes completed the
RESTQ-S to monitor their rest and recovery profiles (Kellmann & Kallus, 2001).
The RESTQ-S was introduced at the end of year 1 and subsequently used every
month in years 2 and 3 to coincide with blood samples and performance times so
that the IST team could triangulate the data for coaches. The RESTQ-S is a 76-item
questionnaire designed to assess the physical and mental impact of training stress
and to facilitate the formulation of strategies for the enhancement of recovery. It
consists of 12 general stress and recovery scales along with seven sport-specific
stress and recovery scales. Subjects were instructed to respond to each item on a
self-rated 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always) according to
how well the item was deemed to be self-descriptive for the previous 3 days and
nights. Recent empirical evidence suggests that the tool can be used to provide a
valid reflection of changes in training stress and to predict an overall change in
sport performance testing (Villanueva, Bennett, Gilbert, & Schroeder, 2010). The
RESTQ-S was initially developed based on the hypothesis that an accumulation
of stress in different areas of life, with insufficient opportunity for recovery, can
potentially lead to a compromised psychophysical state (Kellmann & Kallus,
2001). Internal consistency of the questionnaire, test-retest reliability, and validity
for measuring general parameters of training stress have all been demonstrated
(Kellmann & Kallus, 2001; Davis, Orzeck, & Keelan, 2007).
To monitor and better understand the data from each athlete, qualitative data
were also gathered from each athlete on what rest, recovery, and regeneration activities the athletes were utilizing. These data were gathered via a structured interview
schedule and tabulated in a table for each athlete. In addition, during the summer
training camp preceding the Olympic Games, the athletes took part in educational
seminars during the 3-week summer training camp on the importance of rest,
recovery and regeneration, sleep quality, media training, family and friends planning, and maintaining focus in preparation for the 2010 Olympic Games journey.
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). The night before the first day
of selected key competitions in Year 3 (e.g., Olympic Games simulation, World Cup
held in Montreal), the Competitive State Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAI-2) was used
to monitor athletes’ self-regulation skills and also to examine how the athletes were
manifesting stress. The CSAI-2 (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990)
assesses the intensity of cognitive anxiety (characterized by negative expectancies
and self-doubt), somatic anxiety (characterized by physiological symptoms such
as increased heart rate and muscular tension), and self-confidence. The measure
consists of 27 items, divided into three nine-item subscales that assess each of the
three components. Subjects respond on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not
at all) to 4 (very much). Each subscale total ranges from 9 to 36. The CSAI-2 has
been shown to be a reliable (Burton, 1998) and valid (Martens, Vealey, & Burton,
1990) measure for assessing competitive state anxiety.
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Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS). The TAIS (Nideffer, 1976)
was used in year 2 to investigate each athlete’s dominant attentional style and to
provide coaches with additional information on how best to work with each athlete
on an individual basis. Specifically, attentional styles (e.g., Awareness, Analytical/
Conceptual, and Action-Focused) were contrasted with distractibility (e.g., external,
internal, and reduced flexibility). Confidence was contrasted with self-critical scores,
cognitive-behavioral bandwidth (e.g., information processing was contrasted with
decision making), behavioral and emotional control (e.g., orientation toward rules and
risk, negative and positive expression of criticism and anger), drive and confidence
over time (e.g., control, physical competitiveness, need for intellectual expression,
performance under pressure, focus over time and confidence/self-criticism) and
finally, interpersonal style (e.g., extroversion and introversion). The TAIS contains
a total of 144 behaviorally-oriented items describing an individual’s functioning in
environmental situations. Participants rated items for the frequency of their occurrence
on a 5-point continuum ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The TAIS consists of
17 scales; six measure attentional abilities, two measure behavioral and cognitive
controls, and nine describe interpersonal characteristics. The complete TAIS profile
provides a description of individual’s attentional and interpersonal strengths and
weaknesses. Normative data are available for various populations, and the TAIS has
shown good test-retest reliability as well as construct and predictive validity (Nideffer).
Attentional style has been shown to discriminate between expert and novice athletes
in some studies (Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1980; Richards & Landers, 1981), yet other
studies have demonstrated equivocal results (Landers, Furst, & Daniels, 1981).
Biofeedback Stress Report Profiles. Following completion of the questionnaires,
participants entered a sound-attenuated, climate-controlled room and were seated
upright in a comfortable chair. Physiological sensors attached to a Flex Comp
encoder (Thought Technology) were placed on the arms and chest according to
recommendations of Furedy, Shulhan, and Scher (1986) and Gramatikov (1995).
All athletes were given both a psychophysiological stress and electroencephalography (EEG) test (Wilson, 2006) to evaluate individualized responses to stress
(year 2, phase three). The stress profile follows a prescribed order (e.g., Stroop
task, math task, game task) of 14 tasks for each participant, followed by a 2-min
recovery period to examine biofeedback recovery between events.
The sensors were calibrated while athletes adapted to the temperature of the
laboratory environment. Next, a pretask baseline level of physiology was established
before stress tasks began. Psychophysiological testing and monitoring under varying stress conditions can possibly help the athlete and/or sport psychologist learn
what and how the individual manifests their response to stress that may interfere
or enhance performance leading to individualized affect-related zones of optimal
performance (Cohen, Tenenbaum, & English, 2006; Edmonds, Tenenbaum, Mann,
Johnson, & Kamata, 2008; Filho, Moraes, & Tenenbaum, 2008; Hanin, 2000; Johnson, Edmonds, Tenenbaum, & Kamata, 2007). The testing session lasted approximately 45 min. The following is a description of the physiological measures used:
• Heart rate: Heart rate (in beats per minute) was obtained using a photoplethysmographic sensor measuring blood volume pulse (BVP) with sensors placed
on the left thumb to detect moment-to-moment changes in peripheral blood
flow to determine the beat-by-beat heart rate.
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• Respiration rate: Respiration rate (RR) was obtained using pneumograph
(respiratory strain gauge) sensors placed horizontally in one location across
the chest above the belly (approximately 3 cm below the xyphoid process).
Excursions of the respiratory muscles corresponding to each breath were
recorded (in breaths per minute).
• Heart rate variability: The terms respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and
heart rate variability (HRV) are often used to describe the beat-by-beat value
of interbeat interval (IBI), which is derived from the BVP signal or heart rate
(number of beats per minute). A major factor influencing HRV is the respiratory cycle; namely, inhalation tends to increase HR and exhalation tends to
decrease it. The speeding and slowing of the breathing cycle is called RSA.
From a medical perspective, there are many health benefits associated with
RSA/HRV training such as reversing illness and enhancing health (Lehrer et
al., 2006; Lehrer et al., 2004).
• Muscle activity: Muscle activity was obtained using electromyography (EMG)
sensors to record surface electrical activity of muscles corresponding to each
contraction (in mV). Two sEMG sensors were placed on the upper left and
right medial midpoint of trapezius muscle.
• Skin temperature: Temperature of the skin (in degrees Celsius) was obtained
using temperature sensors to record electrical activity of a thermistor corresponding to each tenth of a degree of temperature change. The thermister was
attached to the athlete’s right (dominant) index finger.
• Skin conductance: Skin conductance was a measure of electrical conductivity
of the skin corresponding to sweat gland activity (in μS). The skin conductance
electrodes were attached to the palmar surface on the index and ring fingers
of the athlete’s nondominant hand.
Brain activity frequency,
measured in hertz (Hz), was obtained using electroencephalography (EEG)
sensors attached to a Flex Comp encoder (Thought Technology) for referential
monopolar recording of electrical activity (i.e., alpha) of the brain. According
to recommendations made by Peper, Tylova, Gibney, Harvey, and Combatalade
(2008), sensors were placed in the following locations: Cz and right and left ear
lobes according the International 10–20 system.
EEG bandwidths, ratios, and interpretation are based upon the work of Thompson and Thompson (2003). The EEG profile includes several frequency bands that
have been associated with optimal performance states (Babiloni et al., 2009; Crews
& Landers, 1993; Salazar et al., 1990; Wilson, Peper, & Moss, 2006)
EEG Stress Report: Neurological Assessment.
Reaction Time Tests. These baseline tests were introduced in an educational
seminar during the summer camp. The skill acquisition and practice phases were
also completed in training as part of the pre-Olympic summer training camp between
years 2 and 3 of the program. The reaction-time baseline and training protocol
was designed in collaboration with expert equipment engineers of a commercial
biofeedback equipment provider. Measurements of reaction time were made using a
synchronizing device (e.g., TT-AV Sync, audio/visual device) that allowed accurate
measurement to within less than 0.5 ms of synchronized responses during reaction
time training (Harvey, Beauchamp, & Beauchamp, 2011).
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Intervention Strategies
Mental Skills Workbook. A mental skills cognitive-behavioral training workbook
(Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner, 1996) individualized for the sport of
speedskating consisting of 22 modules (e.g., introduction, peak performance, mental
toughness, psychological skills and strategies, breaking through your performance
barriers, performance profiles, goal setting, concentration and focus, imagery, your
ideal performance state, goal setting, confidence, composure, attention control
training, imagery, trust, quality practice, precompetition and postcompetition plans,
biofeedback and neurofeedback self-regulation training) with exercises following
each section to help ensure individualization of the mental skills discussed within
each educational seminar (Beauchamp, 2007). The mental skills workbook was
used in year 1, phase 5 of the program.
Educational Seminars. The National and Development Teams were also subdivided
by gender and scheduled at varying times in the weekly training program to facilitate
small groups and feedback within the seminars. In phases 5 and 6 of year 1, a
schedule was set in conjunction with the YTP and 20 educational seminars were
conducted with the men’s and women’s Development Team, whereas the National
Team coaches selected the topics most relevant for their teams. Consequently, eight
educational sessions were given with the women’s National Team, and six seminars
were given with the men’s National Team. The content and schedule of the seminars
were decided in advance with the coaches of each team. Follow-up individual
consultations were conducted with each athlete to ensure they individualized the
material and were utilizing their log book to transfer the material on a daily basis in
training. Approximately 90% of the seminars were attended by the respective coaches.
Mental Training Log Book. The athletes were asked to consolidate their newly
acquired skills from the mental preparation workbook into their training by using a
daily log book for the purpose of improving deliberate practice (Janelle & Hillman,
2003). The personal log book was designed to increase both the mindfulness of
athletes (e.g., daily goal setting) and to incorporate their cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral skills to improve the quality of their daily training. The log book was
issued in year 1, phase 6 in conjunction with the mental skills workbook.
Psychological Warm-Up Precompetition Routine. Qualitative data in year
1 (i.e., data collected from individual semistructured interviews) suggested that
the athletes experienced anxiety and lost their focus during their precompetition
warm-up. Consequently, the athletes were taught to integrate their psychological
warm-up with the general, dynamic, and specific physical warm-ups in year 1, phase
5. To accomplish this goal, the athletes were taught to self-regulate through the
use of microbreaks utilizing cycles of concentration alternating with microbreaks
to keep themselves centered and focused on the process.
Heat Box Preparation. The heat box is the defined area where athletes are required
to present themselves 30 min in advance to a race official before putting on their
skates and entering the competition ice following a previous heat/race. Similar to
the precompetition warm-up routine, athletes were taught (i.e., year 1, phase 5) to
develop an individualized heat box routine utilizing their cycles of concentration
where they integrate their psychological skills (e.g., self-talk, imagery, psych-up
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strategies, positive emotion selection, process focus goals, mental rehearsal) and
alternate their concentration cycle with their quiet mind and/or breathing strategies
for self-regulation before their turn to step on the ice.
Prestart Routine: Year 1, Phase 5. Prestart routines were structured in the
following phases as part of the athlete’s mental skills workbook: (a) preparation
phase, entering the ice; (b) focus phase, called to the start line by referee signal
“go to the start”; and (c) execution phase, responding to the gun or tone to start the
race. Athletes were asked to individualize their routines utilizing their psychological
skills and strategies toward achieving their IZOF (i.e., individual zone of optimal
functioning). Automaticity of their individualized prestart routines integrated with
the biofeedback reaction time program was the final step in year 3.
Biofeedback Training. The physiological measures included above (e.g., HR,
HRV, RR, EMG, SC, ST) were used as real-time feedback to aid athletes in
developing self-regulation competencies. Training sessions were conducted on
a weekly basis until automaticity was established in each skill area. In year 2,
phases 5 and 6, a schedule of four to six sessions per physiological measure (e.g.,
HRV, six sessions of 45 min) for each athlete was implemented until the athlete
developed competency with each element. As HRV training was a core element of
the biofeedback training program, on average, six to ten sessions per athlete was
conducted in this phase. In addition, HRV was reviewed to cue up the athlete for
all subsequent sessions for both biofeedback and neurofeedback training sessions.
The EEG psychological training
program (year 2, phase 5) revolved around teaching athletes relaxation training (e.g.,
alpha training), such that they could relax mentally by reducing negative self-talk
(Beta 2–3) while rewarding alpha. Once in this state, athletes were prompted (a)
to consider how they got into this state, (b) to provide it with a term to which they
could return on demand, (c) to set a goal in training to integrate the skill of quiet
mind relaxation and use it with their mental rehearsal in simulated situations, and
(d) to employ it in competition.
Neurofeedback Training for Relaxation.
In discussions with coaches,
competition plan decision making was an area targeted for improvement;
consequently, 3-way debriefings after competitions were conducted, with the
coach, sport psychologist, and athlete watching a video tape to analyze decision
making in races (e.g., decisive, hesitant, efficacy of prestart routines, race plan
evaluations, percentage passing attempts successful versus failed). Three-way
debriefings began in year 2, phase 6. The postcompetition video feedback resulted
in follow-up consultations with athletes in terms of vision training and/or decision
training as described below.
Postcompetition 3-Way Race-Plan Debrief.
Vision Training. Vision training took place as part of the educational video-
debrief analysis and used three types of quiet eye movements: (a) gaze fixations,
(b) pursuit tracking, and (c) saccades (Vickers, 2007). Perceptual-motor exercises
involving visual eye movement exercises constituted the skill acquisition stage and
finally the athletes employed these skills in training as part of the practice stage.
These gaze control strategies were used to enhance tactical decision making. An
integrated model of decision making includes visual search strategies by either
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chunking information or utilizing a visual pivot (Tenenbaum, 2003). Consequently,
National Team athletes need to be prompted with respect to where and how they
perceive their visual field to interpret the information quickly and make a decisive
decision while skating at high speeds under time pressure (Klein, 1999). In addition,
the quality of the feedback (e.g., frequency, fading, delayed, reduction) and the
direction of the feedback (e.g., coach directed versus athlete initiated control) can
potentially have a strong impact on the quality of self-regulation (Janelle, Barba,
Frehlich, Tennant, & Cauraugh, 1997).
Decision Training: Years 2 and 3, Phase 7. Decision training resulted from the
postcompetition debrief. The athlete, his or her coach, and the sport psychologist
engaged in three-way video feedback to analyze decision-making skills relative
to each athlete’s competition plan set before each race in competition. Decision
making was evaluated by classifying specific events as hesitation, no decision,
aggressive decision, and/or decisive decisions. The decision training component
utilizes Vickers’ three-step decision training model from the seven decision tools
described in the program (Vickers, 2007): (a) bandwidth feedback, (b) questioning,
and (3) video feedback. These feedback sessions were conducted both as part of
the simulation training and postcompetition debrief.
Reaction Time Biofeedback Training: Year 3, Phase 6. Reaction time (RT)
biofeedback was used off-ice to more effectively prepare 500-m sprinters with
respect to their prestart routines. Reaction time baselines were done toward the
end of year 2 and the RT training program was embedded into the YTP for year 3
to correspond to the on-ice speed microcycles of the men’s and women’s YTP. The
equipment was engineered in an effort to improve neural synchrony between the
auditory reaction time and the perceptual motor system of hearing a gun or tone
at the start with the initiation of the first foot movement forward (Harvey et al.,
2011). Empirical research has provided some support for the relationship between
anticipatory reaction time speeds, decision time, automaticity, choice reaction time,
attentional states, and expertise (Abernathy, Maxwell, Masters, van der Kamp, &
Jackson, 2007; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977).
In addition, athletes were trained in a room with crowd noise and a picture of
the Olympic venue on the ice that was created on a second monitor to replicate the
on-ice multisensory environment as close as possible. The biofeedback measurements
included ST, EMG, HR, RR, HRV, SC, and EEG described above. Consequently,
athletes received instant feedback on their individual zone of optimal functioning
(Hanin, 2000). Moreover, from the education seminars, athletes were encouraged to
use (a) their individualized optimal emotion on a continuum from low positive to high
positive (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003) with their optimal arousal/activation levels on a
scale of 0–10 (Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 1993), (b) their start focus (e.g., eyes fixed
on first block; Vickers, 2007), (c) confident self-talk (Orlick, 1986), (d) ideal level
of muscle tension and arousal for best RT start (Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 1993),
(e) diaphragmatic breathing on a 5–6 count before getting into position and focused
slow exhalation once in the start position to encourage heart rate deceleration (Strack,
2003), and (f) a quiet mind (i.e., peak alpha frequency) 3 s before the variable tone
and/or the start gun (Deeny, Hillman, Janelle, & Hatfield, 2003).
Simulated Competition Events: Year 3, Phase 6. Simulated competition events
in training and pre-Olympic simulations were conducted to prepare athletes for
competition and to fine tune their precompetition functioning, competition plans,
3-Year Speedskating Approach
79
and prestart routines. For example, simulated race events also demanded that
athletes make decisive tactical decisions within race conditions against their fellow
competitors. Three simulated events appeared to serve this purpose. First, a World
Cup held in Canada four months before the Olympic Games served as our test
event. Second, a full pre-Olympic simulation event was held 6 weeks prior the
Games in which International skaters along with Canadian skaters who were not
selected for the Olympic Games were invited to participate. Finally, the team held
a pre-Olympic camp 1 hr away from the Olympic Games venue the week before
arriving at the Games. Final staging with all of the Olympic clothing and final team
preparation were completed at this time.
Monitoring Strategies
Individual Performance Profiles (IPP). Individual profiles were completed for
each athlete. These included a power point presentation of each athlete’s quantitative
tests and coaches’ qualitative comments as part of the yearly evaluation process. In
addition, each profile contained performance statistics graphed for each competition
by event category for the competition year. The IPP in year 1 included the coaches’
qualitative comments and the data from OMSAT, RESTQ-S, and performance
statistics. In year 2, the IPP included coaches’ qualitative comments, gap analysis,
action plan, OMSAT, RESTQ-S, TAIS, biofeedback physiology stress report,
neurofeedback EEG stress report, race plan decision analysis from video profile,
and World Cup performance statistics. In year 3, the IPP included the same reports
as in year 2, with the addition of (a) key performance indicators; (b) reaction time
starts data report; (c) CSAI-2 report; (d) daily and weekly log book data, monthly
RESTQ-S profiles, and regeneration qualitative report; and (e) individual highlight
videos. The performance profiles were part of year 1, phase seven evaluation
process, which was also used for the gap-analysis and action plans the following
year in phase one of years 2 and 3.
Key Performance Indicators (KPI). From the data collected and the experiential
knowledge gathered and shared with the coaches, three key performance indicators
could be identified for each athlete 6 weeks before the Olympic Games. For example,
utilizing a three-column page, three critical KPIs for each athlete were identified with
respective coaches (e.g., emotion management, rest and recovery, confidence, focus,
poor training, family, media issue). The second column highlighted the feedback
mechanism being used (e.g., emotional preparation: What if plan—poor early Olympic
Games performance resulting in frustration, negative affect, and negative cognitions).
The third column outlined the optimal intervention and person responsible for dealing
with the critical KPI. For example, possible emotional recovery strategies might
consist of discussion with the coach, a walk outside Olympic Village to enhance
perspective, and utilization of highlight tapes to get back on track.
Conclusion
The goal of the integrated PST program presented herein was to prepare each individual athlete for her or his best performance under the pressure of the Olympic
Games. The team achieved its goals both from a team perspective and an individual
perspective. First, the short-track speed skating team won two gold medals, two
silver medals, and one bronze medal. Second, from an individual perspective, 14
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athletes were finalists in their events. In addition, the International Skating Union’s
overall individual and team rankings also improved during the period of 2007–2010.
The integration of mental skills (e.g., relaxation, imagery, self-talk, focus,
breathing, reaction time readiness, music relaxation) and biofeedback self-regulation
with athletes’ preperformance routines (e.g., week before, night before, competition
day routines and competition plans, postcompetition debriefs), integrated activation
and relaxation cycles in warm-up before competitions (e.g., general, dynamic and
competition specific), and the individualized precompetition routines and rest and
recovery plans, may possibly have each contributed to the success of the skaters
in World Cup competitions and the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games. However,
further empirical study is needed to test causality and to identify the relative contribution of each of the components of the integrated PST program to performance.
Studies are also needed from multiple sports in various settings utilizing a variety
of methodologies.
The principal advantage of utilizing an integrated psychological and biofeedback 3-year training program such as the one described herein is that it is a
systematic approach to the design, scope, and sequencing of decisions regarding
interventions. Mental and self-regulation skills can then be monitored individually
for their effectiveness, allowing for constructive feedback for the athlete, coach,
and sport psychologist.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following for funding and support: Speedskating Canada,
Own the Podium, Multisport Centre of Montreal.
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