Brands as Means of Self-Expression: A Cross-Cultural Study
Sabine Kuester, Silke C. Hess, Julia Hinkel, Jennifer Young,
University of Mannheim, Germany
Abstract
This study investigates the self-expressive function of brands in four countries that represent
different cultural dimensions. Survey data collected in France, Germany, South Korea, and the
US provide empirical evidence for the importance of brands as means of self-expression.
Additionally, in countries where individualism is high brand identification is stronger when
customers can express their actual or ideal self-concept with the brand. Whereas the motive to
express one's ideal self-concept is more important in masculine countries. Furthermore, in
countries where power distance is high customers choose brands to show their social status.
From the empirical results we derive implications for global brand management.
Introduction
In marketing research customers' brand choice is explained by two basic functions that brands
fulfil from a customer’s perspective (Wallin and Coote, 2007). Information economics accounts
for how customers use brands as signals to assess the quality of goods and services, decrease the
perceived risk, and reduce search costs (Erdem and Swait, 1998; Wernerfelt, 1988). Whereas
the self-expression model in brand equity literature describes how a brand's personality offers a
self-expressive benefit for the customer (Aaker, 2002). Thus, brands allow satisfying underlying
needs for personal expression and social approval (Keller, 1993).
For the empirical investigation of brand signalling Erdem and Swait (1998) developed a
structural equation model to assess the impact of brands as signals on expected utility. The
brand signalling model has already been cross-validated in seven countries and the authors
observed moderating effects of the cultural constructs uncertainty avoidance and collectivism
(Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela, 2006). Therefore, there seems to be scope to investigate the
self-expression function of brands across countries that show cultural differences as well. The
first motivation is the ongoing trend in the globalisation of marketing activities and therewith,
the importance of global brands to cope with these activities (Bauer, Exler, and Bronk, 2007;
Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela, 2006). Furthermore, Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela (2006) did
not find a significant moderating effect of the power distance dimension but point out the need
for further research on the influence of this dimension by including perceived brand prestige as
a new construct.
Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate how well the self-expressive function of brands
explains brand preference formation in different countries. We explore differences in the way
customers use brands as means of self-expression and link any such differences to customers'
cultural orientation. We propose that three of Hofstede's (1980) dimensions (individualism,
masculinity, and power distance) may particularly affect the way individuals use brands as
means of self-expression and social approval.
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Theoretical Basis and Model Development
Self-congruity theory indicates that customers will prefer and choose brands that are congruent
with their self-concept (Sirgy, 1982, 1986). Self-concept has been defined as the sum of
individuals’ thoughts and feelings that have reference to themselves as an object (Rosenberg,
1979). Rosenberg (1979) distinguishes the actual self-concept, which refers to how a person
actually perceives itself, and the ideal self-concept, which refers to the image of oneself as one
would like to be. Furthermore, Sirgy (1980) refers to a social self-concept, which relates to the
image that individuals believe others hold of them, and an ideal social self-concept, seen as the
image that one would like others to hold. There are at least two motives to strive for selfcongruity: self-consistency and self-esteem (Sirgy, 1982). The self-consistency motive relates to
the need to act and behave according to one’s self-concept (Sirgy, 1982), whereas self-esteem is
defined as the proximity of the actual and the ideal self concept (Rosenberg, 1979). The selfesteem motive is closely linked to the need for social approval, which in contrast evokes a
motivational tendency to approach one’s ideal social self- image (Sirgy, 1986). According to the
theory of self-enhancement, individuals seek for preserving and enhancing their self-concept by
purchasing certain products (Braun and Wicklund, 1989; Rogers, 1951; Wicklund and
Gollwitzer, 1981). Since brands serve as social symbols that comprise a shared meaning,
individual consumption behaviours through the use of brands contribute substantially to the
preservation and enhancement of customers’ self-concepts (Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967). Thus,
symbolic benefits represent the desire for brands that fulfil needs such as self-enhancement
(Park, Jaworski, and MacInnis, 1986). Thereby, in this symbolic communication process brands
can represent intrinsic values (e.g., self-expression) or extrinsic values (e.g., prestige),
depending on whether the individual is communicating with itself or with its social surrounding
(Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967). Thus, we propose the following hypotheses:
H1 : The greater the congruity between brand personality and actual self-concept (actual
congruity), the greater is the self-expression value of the brand.
H2 : The greater the congruity between brand personality and ideal self-concept (ideal
congruity), the greater is the self-expression value of the brand.
H3 : The greater the congruity between brand personality and ideal social self-concept (ideal
social congruity), the greater is the prestige value of the brand.
The concept of identification is closely related to the self-expression value, but goes a step
further in providing a close emotional relationship to the particular object (Foote, 1951).
Identification manifests as an individual's feelings of psychological attachment to a social entity
that includes companies and brands (Bhattacharya and Sen, 2003). A brand that is congruent
with one’s self-concept and that allows customers to express themselves, will also lead them to
be more committed to the brand (Kim and Sherman, 2007). Similarly, the prestige value of a
brand allows individuals to position themselves in their social context, and to express their
prestige, wealth, and status (Deeter-Schmelz, Moore, and Goeble, 2000). Hence, also extrinsic
values can cause a relationship between individuals and brands (Tan Tsu Wee and Chua Han
Ming, 2003). Finally, a considerable amount of studies in consumer research has stated that
identification directly results into consumption (e.g., Belk, 1988). Thus, we propose the
following hypotheses:
H4 : The higher the self-expression value, the higher is the identification with the brand.
H5 : The higher the prestige value, the higher is the identification with the brand.
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H6 : The higher the identification with the brand, the higher is the behavioural intention.
Our conceptual development is depicted in the structural equation model in figure 1:
Actual Self
Congruity (AS)
+
Self-expression
Value (Self-Exp)
+
+
Brand
Identification
(Ident)
Ideal Self
Congruity (IS)
+
Behavioural
Intention (BI)
+
+
Prestige
Value (Prest)
Ideal Social Self
Congruity (ISS)
Figure 1: Hypothesised Structural Equation Model
Similar to Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela (2006) we expect a moderating effect of culture. To
formulate hypotheses for cross-cultural studies, Hofstede’s (1980) framework turned out to be
appropriate (Soares, Farhangmehr, and Shoham, 2007). Hence, in this particular study we
consider individualism (IND), masculinity (MAS), and power distance (PD) as relevant
constructs. In individualistic countries individuals tend to care only for themselves (Hofstede
and Hofstede, 2005). Thus, in such countries people are considered to be independent, selfcontained, and autonomous individuals that need to express their internal attributes (Markus and
Kitayama, 1991). In masculine societies people are oriented towards earnings and achievement
(Hofstede, 2003). Consequently, they feel a strong need to enhance their self-concept (De
Mooij, 2004). In countries where PD is high people are vastly motivated by status (Roth, 1995),
as interpersonal relationships are organised hierarchically (Erdem, Swait, and Valenzuela,
2006). Thus, we propose the following hypotheses:
H7 : The effect of actual congruity on self-expression value is stronger when IND is high.
H8 : The effect of ideal congruity on self-expression value is stronger when MAS is high.
H9 : The effect of ideal social congruity on prestige value is stronger when PD is high.
H10 : The effect of self-expression value on brand identification is stronger when IND is high.
H11 : The effect of prestige value on brand identification is stronger when PD is high.
Data Analysis
To test and validate our model across countries, we collected comparable samples of
respondents in France (n = 126), Germany (n = 104), South Korea (n = 115), and the United
States (n = 110) as these countries differ with regard to IND, MAS, and PD (see Table 1). We
recruited matched samples of undergraduate students in the four countries with demographics
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representative for the respective countries. The selection of matched samples on the basis of
some set of characteristics of interest has been identified as one way to achieve sample
comparability (Sekaran, 1983). Furthermore, as the differences in sociodemographics were
small it seemed justifiable to attribute the observed differences among countries to their cultural
differences.
Table 1: Country Rating by Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede, 2003)
Country
France
Germany
South Korea
United States
Individualism
71
67
18
91
Masculinity
43
66
39
62
Power Distance
68
35
60
40
The questionnaire was distributed in the respective language of the country and presented the
following scenario: The students were invited to imagine that their parents ask them to choose a
wristwatch brand in the value of up to US$ 200 as a present for their university graduation. The
students could indicate any brand they desired as a present from their parents. We then
presented closed questions referring to this particular brand. The latent constructs were
measured using adapted existing multi- item measures and five point Likert-scales. The
perceived congruence between the brand personality and the self-concepts were measured
directly as Sirgy et al.’s (1997) findings demonstrate a higher predictive validity of this
measurement method. The statistical procedures applied to validate the measures included
assessments of item and scale reliability as well as convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing,
1988). All paths from the individual items to the latent constructs were statistically significant
(p <.05). Measurement validity for the pooled data (n = 455) was assessed by confirmatory
factor analyses using LISREL 8.7 (Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1993).
To test our hypotheses we used multiple-group analysis with LISREL 8.7 (Jöreskog and
Sörbom, 1993). We first estimated our proposed SEM on country-level by specifying the
various countries as different groups of the data set. Table 2 presents the standardized SEM
coefficients for each country. The overall fit measures (goodness of fit index [GFI] = .96,
normed fit index [NFI] = 1.0, and comparative fit index [CFI] = 1.0) display values that exceed
the threshold value of .9, which is usually recommended (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Baumgartner
and Homburg, 1996). In addition, the RMSEA (.091) and the ratio of chi-square and degrees of
freedom (1.94) suggest that the model provides a satisfying fit for the data.
Of the 24 hypothesized structural relationships 22 are supported. The g parameter estimates are
significant on the .05 or .01 level (see Table 2). Thus, we observed that brand preference is
explained by the brand’s self-expression function. Two relationships are not supported. The
effect of ideal-self congruity on self-expression value in France and the effect of prestige value
on brand identification in Germany are insignificant on a .05 level.
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Table 2: SEM Estimation Results by Country
Path
AS› S e l f -Exp
IS› S e l f -Exp
ISS› P r e s t
Self-Exp› I d e n t
Prest› Ident
Ident› B I
France
.96**
.26
.83**
.93**
.10*
.69**
Standardized Coefficients (g)
Germany
South Korea
.59**
.72**
**
.41
.16*
.66**
.76**
.99**
.93**
.04
.13**
.42**
.46**
United States
.48**
.47**
.78**
.90**
.31**
.64**
* g is significant at p < .05; ** g is significant at p < .01
We then analysed the differences between the four countries and considered culture as a
moderator. Therefore, we stepwise compared two countries at a time with respect to one of the
model’s path coefficients. We restricted this parameter to be equal across both countries and
compared the chi-square with the chi-square of the unrestricted model that allows this parameter
to vary across the two groups. As the unrestricted model has one degree of freedom (d.f.) less
then the restricted model, we assessed significance of the difference of the respective path
coefficient on the basis of the chi-square distribution with 1 d.f.
The results of the multiple group causal analysis partly support the hypothesized cross-cultural
effects. The effect of ideal congruity on self-expression value is significantly stronger in the US
than in France ( c² =21.81, p <.001) or South Korea ( c² =3.58, p <.05) as the US score high
on the MAS dimension. Similarly, this effect is also significantly stronger in Germany than in
South Korea ( c² =16.61, p <.001). Although the path coefficient for the German sub sample (γ
= .41) is clearly higher than for the French (γ = .26), this difference is not significant.
Furthermore, the effect of ideal social congruity on prestige value is significantly stronger for
France that scores high on PD than for the US ( c² =46.69, p <.001), but not than Germany
although the standardized path coefficient is clearly higher. However, the effect is significantly
stronger for South Korea than for Germany ( c² =30.9, p <.001). Additionally, the effect of
self-expression value on identification is significantly stronger for France and Germany than for
South Korea where IND is low ( c² =10.93, p <.001; c² =26.52, p <.001). On the other hand,
the effect of prestige value on identification is significantly stronger for France than for
Germany that scores low on PD ( c² =5.96, p <.05). Although this effect is also higher for the
Korean sub-sample (γ = .13) than for the German (γ =.04), this difference is not significant.
Conclusions, Implications, and Further Research
We found empirical support for the function of brands as means of self-expression in all four
countries. Brands are used to express one’s actual self, to enhance the self-concept by choosing
brands that are congruent to one’s ideal self-concept, and for social approval in the respective
social surrounding. However, the importance of these different motives varies between these
countries as they differ in IND, MAS, and PD. In three countries (France, Germany, and South
Korea) the differences of the path coefficients were observed as expected with one exception: In
the collectivistic country South Korea the effect of self congruity on a brand’s self-expression
value is as important as in countries where IND is high. Contrary to our hypotheses, we
observed a strong effect of ideal social congruity on prestige value and a moderate effect of
prestige value on brand identification for the US, although PD is low here. These findings
indicate that in the US brands are also intensively used for social approval, which has to be
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explained by other variables than IND and PD. Brands are consumption symbols and therefore,
also carriers of culture (Aaker, Benet-Martinez, and Garolera, 2001). The US brand personality
scale encompasses the dimensions sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and
ruggedness (Aaker, 1997), whereas the first three dimensions are also present in human
personality scales “sophistication and ruggedness capture more aspirational images associated
with wealth and status” (Aaker, Benet-Martinez, and Garolera, 2001, p. 494). These findings
have important implications for global brand management. Global brands are besides their
worldwide distribution characterised as highly standardised regarding positioning and
marketing mix (Aaker and Joachismthaler, 1999; Levitt, 1983; Quelch, 1999). Therefore, global
brand management has to take into account that brands as means of self-expression are used in
different ways. This has to be considered in formulating country-specific communication and
selling propositions. Whereas in masculine countries brands that show high ideal congruity are
used for self-enhancement and means for achievement, in countries where PD is high customers
choose brands to show their social status.
Certainly this study points out avenues for further research. As one limitation of our study is the
non-representativeness of the student samples, one could seek out samples comprising different
customer groups. This would help to enhance the generalizability of our results.
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