Background study report for the project
Mapya? –Social Media and Children in Low Income Communities
Maarit Mäkinen
Journalism Research and Development Centre
University of Tampere
31. May 2007
Media and Communicational Environment in Kenya
This background study is aiming at describing the media scene in Kenya, and giving a brief
orientation to the communicational environment in the areas of Mapya? project1. The report is
based on literature reviews, online discussions, news and editorial articles, and the discussions with
variety of actors in Kenya (in 14.-18. May 2007). The aim to observe Kenyan media briefly is not
easy, and this study is only a weak effort for better understanding, which will hopefully deepen
during the project.
The communicational and media environment in Kenya is somewhat in unsettled situation. On one
hand the media is relatively free compared to plenty of its African neighbours, but on the other hand
the government has showed tendency to control it occasionally. There are signs of improvement,
but also bothering uncertainties due to lack of proper legislation and regulation.
The government has once again (week 20) introduced in parliament a Bill as an act to create
regulative practices for the media. According to minister for Information and Communication the
draft for Kenya Freedom for Information Bill 20072 seeks to create an official framework that will
allow journalists to do their work freely, responsibly and professionally (Daily Nation 18. May
2007). The International Commission of Jurists is also pleased about the Bill, because it would e.g.
widen the scope of access to government information, which has been very restricted (Daily Nation
19. May 2007). However, for many it seems a new attempt to enforce government control over
media industry. The media owners protest the Bill and see it as a danger to democracy (The
Standard 18. May 2007). One of the critical issues in the Bill is the disciplinary mechanism, with
the authority given to the remodelled Media Council to accredit or withdraw the license of
journalists (The Standard 18. May 2007).
There seems to be contradiction between supporters for statutory regulation and for self-regulation
of the media, and both justify their views by seeking for free and independent media. The situation
continues the tension between the government and the media, which has flared up occasionally.
Since the reinstatement of multi-party democracy in 1992 and improved democratic space after the
2002 elections, the media environment has improved (Maina 2006; Nairobi 16. May 2007).
However during the last years there have been numerous arrests and prosecutions of journalists, and
a media house shutdown by police (The Standard 15. March 2006). Many of the cases involved
prosecutions for the media’s publication of so-called “alarmist information”(World Press Freedom
Review 2006).
1
The geographical areas of the project are two local communities, one in Kawangare and the other in Machakos, which
are briefly described in the end of this document
2
www.information.go.ke/docs/FOI%20Bill.pdf
1
Picture 1: The Standard newspaper is back after being stormed by police.
The picture is published in BBC-Online News: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/4765728.stm
1. Free or Regulated?
The history of government efforts to place the media under control goes back to the days of oneparty dictatorship (Daily Nation 18. May 2007). In 1963 when Kenya became independent the
majority of broadcasts on government-owned radio and television stations were imported British
and American programmes. And the public media contents were first aimed to meet the information
needs of the governing sector, not ordinary citizens. After independence more Kenyan culture was
promoted via the mass media, but the media environment was still not very functional. (e.g.
Collender 2005).
The local newspapers emerged in 1970´s in Africa. They were often used for literacy campaigns,
and later on for announcements by the government. The local radios emerged to have educating
aims. Later on they also began to cover the activities of NGOs and sport issues. (Machakos 17. May
2007; Kivikuru 2001).
The press did not have it any easier during president Kenyatta´s successor Daniel Arap Moi (1978)
and his one-party state (KANU). Disciplinary actions towards journalists led to arrests and
imprisonment as state officials were worried about the media challenging the government.
(Collender 2005).
The media scene changed and the press expanded markedly with the beginning of multi-party
politics in 1992, which was a response to pressure from Kenyan activists and the international
community. The daily newspaper market increased to four and the alternative press, commonly
called the gutter press also emerged. (Collender 2005.)
Criticism of the state by the press went hand-in-hand with the emergence of opposition politics.
Journalists were still threatened and imprisoned by the government and in May 2002 a new media
bill was passed. The Statutes Law Bill forced publishers to submit copies of their publication to
their registrar before distribution and pay publishing fees from 10 000 shillings to one million (118
EUR to 11 800 EUR). The move scared off a number of small publishers. (Collender 2005; Privacy
International 2003).
2
There was growing optimism that press freedom would increase following the 2002 election.
Mwai Kibaki´s government came to power in 2002 promising fight against widespread corruption
and improve media liberalisation. However some incidents since have showed otherwise. Media
harassment cases have created a growing sense of unease among journalists.
In 2003 there was a crackdown on unregistered newspapers and in 2006 armed police stormed the
offices and presses of the Standard media group. The government said it was aimed to protect state
security. After the episode, the internal security minister John Michuki stated his famous words at
the news conference: “If you want to rattle a snake, you must be prepared to be bitten by it.”(The
Standard, 8. March 2006). In 2007 the government ordered state sector to withdraw advertising
from Standard Group media (Reuters Africa, 19. Apr 2007), which was also followed by a lot of
discourse and debate.
So far there is no press law, but a general section 79 of the constitution: “freedom to communicate
ideas without interference”. However, freedom could be withdrawn “in the interests of de-fence,
public safety, public order, public morality, public health”(section 79, subsection paragraph of the
constitution).
Access to information is generally complicated, since the police nor the officials would not speak.
The channels for information are few, and media is quite dependent on the official ways of
institutional announcements. The international news, like BBC´s add on the media supply
significantly.
It is difficult for an outsider to observe the ambiguous media environment in Kenya, since there are
many perspectives and viewpoints included. Kenya enjoys more diverse and developed media than
many other African countries, and many Kenyans see significant progress in media scene happened
in recent years. However there is a lot of criticism towards the controlling acts of the government.
In discussions with journalists it is quite impossible to know whether they are truly satisfied with
the role of the media, as they may seem, or if they prefer censoring their views to avoid problems.
(e.g. Nairobi 16. May 2007; Pressreference.com 2007).
In any case, there are critical issues, which are better not to discuss in public. They include matters
concerning inappropriate relations of politicians or proprietary possessions e.g. “who owns Nairobi”
(Nairobi 16. May 2007). The Ministry of Information and Communication is the official instrument
for censorship, since it licences journalists, but the main censors are the editors themselves.
2. Media Producers and Consumption Today
The major improvements in recent years include the registration of new FM radio stations,
increased freedom to air different views through the media, and increased political content and
debates via the media. According to the report of professor Lucy W. Maina, Kenyans are reliant on
the media rather than on the government or other sources. There is also growth of public demand
for information and news. (Maina 2006.)
The main hindrances for information production are the bond of Kshs 1 million before becoming
licensed for publishing, slow economic growth and lack of clear media law, which leaves journalists
vulnerable.
3
The Press
The growth of newspapers since 2000 has not been remarkable, which is likely due to the
publisher’s bond payment.
Only few Kenyans can afford buying newspapers, and language is yet another hindrance. There is
no delivering infrastructure, which could distribute newspapers throughout the country and to
people’s homes. The newspapers are most commonly shared and often available long after the
publishing day.
There are two major publishing houses, the Nation and Standard, which also have broadcasting
operations. Daily Nation is the leading daily in terms of readership. It is published by the Nation
Media Group, which also owns the East African, a regional paper, and the Monitor in Uganda. It
was formerly criticizing the government during Daniel Arab Moi, but now it seems slightly in
favour of the government. Still it is widely regarded as being independent and balanced. (Maina
2006.)
The Standard is privately-owned daily and Kenya´s oldest newspaper (from 1902). It is owned by
the Standard Group, a group of businessmen associated with former president Moi. It is the main
critic of the current NARC government policies. This has given it competitive edge at the market.
The People and the Kenya Times are only small figures at the market, and unpopular with most
readers. The former is owned by veteran politician Kenneth Matiba and the later by KANU party.
East African is an English-language weekly published by the Nation Media Group.
There are no significant local papers. However there are some alternative press outlets, which are
publishing without licence and suffer occasional confiscation of their copies (Maina 2006). The
gutter press publishes scandal news with low quality but easy availability on street corners. The
sheets are sold on news-stands for less than half of the price of the daily newspaper. This”nowyousee-them-now-you-don´t”press has no known publisher or date of publication. Its focus is on
rumours and sometimes can be sponsored by politicians who use them against their opponents.
(Pressreference.com 2007.)
Television
The ownership of TV set is very low since many households are not able to afford to buy it.
However there are shared ways of watching, e.g. some have made business of allowing people to
watch TV in large halls in rural areas (Maina 2006). Generally television has no impact in
countryside. Without access to electricity people may run their televisions on batteries and solar
systems.
The state-owned TV KBC (Kenya Broadcasting Corporation) Channel 1 has over 90%
geographical coverage in the counry. KBC has channels in English and Swahili and also
entertainment channel Metro TV targeting younger viewers.
The other five Kenyan channels (KTN-TV, Nation TV, Family TV, Citizen TV and Sayare TV) are
privately-owned. In addition the international channels, like BBC and CNN are much used, and
even domestic TV is dominated by foreign material, like soap operas and movies.
4
The challenges of Kenyan TV are lack of local contents, financing, and low-quality production and
presentation3. There are concerns that too much of the content is entertainment-based, or not enough
social issues are discussed (e.g. Nairobi 16. May 2007).
Radio
Radio is no doubt the most influential form of media in Kenya. It is easily accessible also in low
infrastructure and low income regions, and it is an important information source also for illiterate
population. Radio listenership is high. In an InterMedia survey, it was found that 91% of the
population had listened to the radio in the past seven days (InterMedia 2005 in Maina 2006).
There are a number of radio stations serving different ethnic groups, religious groups and youth.
The growth of the stations is both a result of liberalisation of the airwaves and the amount of
listeners. There are 49 radio stations, 13 of them being national, three of them state-owned (Kenya
Broadcasting Corporation (KBC), and the rest private commercial stations (Maina 2006). Kiss FM,
a music-based station with special focus on the youth, has the highest audience popularity. It is
followed by Citizen FM and Easy FM. Most of the stations have started since 1998, and have a lot
of entertainment content and modernised styles of reporting (Maina 2006). Foreign content
dominate also in radio broadcast.
There seems to be need for local media production, like community radio. There are two
community stations, which are initiated and funded by NGOs (EcoNews Africa 4 and IDRC).
EcoNews is the project in Makueni area, and its main focus is giving information and advice in
development issues, like farming, education, health and human rights (Maina 2006; EcoNews).
However there are sustainability issues, if the NGO´s are not able to continue their financial
support.
NGOs are having several media development projects, e.g. improving women´s access to the media
or training journalists on gender sensitive reporting. The Kenya Community Media Network is a
network of different stakeholders and individuals committed to promotion of community media and
development of communication.
3
This could also be observed during the project group’s week in Nairobi, while most of the channels were broadcasting
foreign contents and the few local programmes faced numerous problems in technical broadcasting or journalists´
performance.
4
www.econewsafrica.org
5
3. Media and ICT
The government has made efforts to use new media by e.g. publishing a national policy for
information and communication technologies, but the actual appliance is yet to come to realization.
Kenya has taken a leap “to join the knowledge economy league”by formulating both national ICT
Policy and E-government Strategy (2006 Kenya ICT Strategy), which can however be criticized by
being too ambitious with unrealistic timeframes. The ICT Strategy points out the problems of
lacking access to information, and emphasizes the importance of ICT in development:
“The poor lack access to information about income-earning opportunities, market prices for the
goods they produce, about health, about their rights, and about public and welfare services. They
lack access to knowledge, education and skills to improve their livelihoods. They lack voice in the
political and development processes that shape their lives”(2006 Kenya ICT Strategy).
Only about 1, 5 million people out of the population of 33 million have access to internet (4%). The
low rate is due to lack of telephone fixed-lines, slow connection speed 5, too high expenses and lack
of electricity in rural areas. People may use computers and internet in cyber cafes, multimedia
centres of NGOs or CBOs, and at some educational institutions. ICT integration in education is still
small-scale and experimental. The ratio of computers at school is one per 250 children at the
primary school level, and one per 120 children at secondary school level (one per 15 children in
most developed countries) (Ministry of Education 2006). The networked readiness index of Kenya
was sized up as the 95th score in 2006 in international ranking of The World Economic Forum6 (cf.
Finland scored the 4th position).
The use of mobile phones has however increased dramatically. About 80% of Kenyans are covered
by mobile networks. Kenya is one of the fastest growing Mobile markets in Africa (ICT Strategy
2006). The fast diffusion is explained e.g. by economic and communicational needs in the context
of poor transportation structure and limited information channels.
Significant applications of mobile phone include text messaging to provide market prices to
farmers, employment vacancy alerts and local information distribution. OneWorld International
runs a SMS-based CommunityNews service, which sends text messages on health, sanitation,
business advice, and scholarship opportunities in Nairobi’s slum areas. Mobile for Good7 (M4G) is
a social franchise project designed to use mobile phone technology to help alleviate poverty and
improve the lives of people in the developing world. In Kenya, M4G has been useful in helping
people to find jobs.
M-PESA is mobile money, which could revolutionise the Kenyan banking. While more than 80%
Kenyans are excluded from the formal financial sector, more people become familiar with sending
money via text message. Cash is paid and withdrawn at M-PESA agent outlets, like local Safaricom
dealers or other kinds of retailer such as petrol stations, supermarkets and local shops. M-PESA has
been developed by Vodafone. Safaricom, the local mobile communications provider, launched the
5
Kenya has recently rolled out its first national internet backbone connecting six cities with digital switches, fiber-optic
cable and satellite services (ICT Strategy). There is also an ambitious project to construct an under-sea fiber-optic cable
connecting Mombasa and Fujairah in the Gulf of Oman. It should be operational in 2008, but it has had some financial
delays on the way (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5328578.stm).
6
The NRI is a composite of three components: the environment for ICT offered by a country, the readiness of the key
stakeholders (individuals, businesses, and governments) to use ICT, and the usage of ICT amongst these stakeholders:
http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gitr/rankings2007.pdf
7
http://uk.oneworld.net/section/mobile
6
service in February 20078. Apart from transferring cash, customers can also keep up some virtual
account on their handsets.
Mobile phones in Kenya are not (yet) individualised media tools like in developed countries. Due to
expenses and communal practices, it is more common for Kenyans to share their phone use. In these
shared practices, some new social innovations may come up, like calling and hanging up before the
recipient answers, or buying collective air time (Chipchase 2006). In extended family structures, the
most welfare usually shares his/her phone with others without compensations.
Media is not yet very progressive with ICT, since internet is not widely used. The major media
houses have www-sites with updated news and archives, but there are still no efforts to participatory
content production with their audiences. The only practices of interactivity are conventional letters
to the editor, forms for feedback, and discussion forums for the readers (e.g. the Standard, Daily
Nation). The online news services are mainly foreign based, e.g. Inside Africa and Kenya Daily.
Citizen journalism and social media is still to come in Kenya, even though there are some examples
of them. The community radio, as above-mentioned, is still the most common type of citizen
journalism. On the other hand, the ways of using text messaging for delivering and sharing
information is quite close to the ideas of social media 9 as we now understand it; especially if the
practices of using mobile phones get forms of contributing and participating in information
production.
Global Voices Online10offers publishing space for bloggers globally, and is used also by Kenyans.
Mzalendo11 is an effort (weblog) of two young Kenyans frustrated about the closed society of
Kenya. Politics, the government, and the forthcoming presidential elections seem to be the most
popular topics discussed online. Most blogs are published outside Kenya (as well as their critical
writers)12. One of the most popular blog is Thinkersroom13, which seems most diverse with its
contents, e.g. recently commenting radio stations.
African Path14 is one of the African citizen media projects. It is an online platform whose content
comes from bloggers, readers, artists, and specialists. It also aggregates news on Africa from
different sources. At the moment, African Path has 24 bloggers writing articles on various topics.
4. The Context of Kawangare
Kawangare is one of the sub-locations of Nairobi locating about 10 kilometres southeast from the
city of Nairobi. Kawangare can be described as a poor urban slum, 53 percent of its population
living below poverty line. Since Kawangare is located next to wealthy neighbourhoods, many of the
settlements use the opportunities to work there in low paying jobs (house servants, security guards).
Some people operate small businesses e.g. vegetable kiosk, maize roasting, food kiosk etc.
8
http://www.vodafone.com/start/media_relations/news/group_press_releases/2007/safaricom_and_vodafone.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media: Social media describes the online technologies and practices that people
use to share opinions, insights, experiences, and perspectives.
10
http://www.globalvoicesonline.org/-/world/sub-saharan-africa/kenya/
11
http://www.mzalendo.com/
12
e.g. http://geraldbaraza.blogspot.com/2007/04/issues-that-will-bring-president.html
13
http://www.thinkersroom.com/blog/
14
http://www.africanpath.com/
9
7
Picture 2: Furniture making and shoe repair are some of the most common types of small enterprise in
Kawangare (Plan Kenya 2007).
Some of the problems and challenges the residents face in their daily lives include: low-quality of
housing, poor roads, poor state of sanitation, health problems, lack of electricity, security problems,
unemployment, crowded schools etc. (Plan Kenya 2007; World Bank 2006).
Picture 3: The school children in Kawangare. After obtaining free primary education for all in 2003 the
schools became overcrowded. There may be 50-60 children per school class.
The institutions working locally include NGOs, CBOs and City Council Departments. The NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs) like Plan, World Hope Kenya and Compassion International,
work e.g. for residents´ capacity building, school support and child rights. Community Based
Organizations (CBOs) are residents’hubs for variety of activities and development efforts. CBOs
include an executive committee of 9 to 13 members, which represent the village committees. The
members of village committees represent the interest groups of the villages (appendix 1). CBOs,
8
have importance also in local information distribution, and they may provide some educative
materials, leaflets, books, tapes and computers for the residents. (Kamai 16. May 2007)15
Access to media in Kawangare is quite limited, like in the rest of the country. According to Plan
Kenya´s review, about 65% of the residents in Kawangare have access to radio, 28% have access to
television, and only10% have access to newspapers. Many respondents of the study did not have
any access to media. (Plan Kenya 2007.) However the youth group interviewed in Kawangare
showed awareness and high interest in media use. Shared newspaper was a useful medium for them
as well as satellite TV, which could be watched for a small fee. Mobile phone was also actively
used, but not owned. Internet was known and discussed positively, but not actually experienced by
the youth interviewed. (Wevelsiep 2007.)
Picture 4: The local multimedia centre in Kamai (in Kawangare) is equipped with a TV-set and a computer
(without internet connection) for the residents.
5. The context of Machakos
Machakos district is one of the 13 districts in Eastern Province. The district has a population of 1,1
million people. Machacos district is divided into 12 divisions, e.g. Masinga and Matungulu. The
district has a 66% average poverty. The residents are dependent on farming, and there is seasonal
shortage of food and water. The main challenges are water and sanitation, poverty, inadequate
infrastructure like poor roads and health services, high infant mortality and environmental
degradation. (Plan International 2007.)
15
There is also a plan to open a community-based library in Kawangare: http://cbl-kenya.tripod.com/kawangware.html
9
Picture 5: The school provides one meal per day for the children in Kithyoko primary school (in Masinga,
Machakos).
The local CBOs, village committees and many active children, youth and women groups are
engaged in development activities. There are also many NGOs and programs to assist people with
e.g. water and food supplies.
Picture 6: The CBO in Masinga (in Machakos) has made a list of the most important issues in their
community. Water seems to be the number one issue followed by better nutrition and health.
10
People get information from their neighbours, from community meetings, from the community
chief, and from the radio. Radio is the main media source, it is reasonable to purchase and easy to
transport. People may also participate themselves in radio talk shows by calling and representing
their views. (Machakos 17. May 2007.)
Making a real change in the community may be difficult for an individual, since the whole bunch of
people must be persuaded behind the idea before it moving any further. Only after then the idea
could be represented in the community meeting or in the CBOs meeting. (Machakos 17. May 2007.)
References
Arunga, June & Kahora, Bill (2007) The cell phone revolution in Kenya. International Policy
Networks. London. (http://brunoleoni.servingfreedom.net/Varie/IBL_Arunga_Kenya.pdf)
BBC Country profile. Kenya: news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1024563.stm
Chipchase, Jan & Tulusan, Indri (2006) Shared Phone Practices. Exploratory Field Research from
Uganda and Beyond: www.janchipchase.com/sharedphoneuse
Collender, Guy (2005) The media in Kenya: www.stanhopecentre.org/training/EA/Kenya.doc.
Stanhope Centre for Communications Policy research.
International Press Insititute: www.freemedia.at
2006 Kenya ICT Strategy. Collaboration & Outsourcing for Economic Growth:
www.information.go.ke/docs/Kenya%20ICT%20Strategy.pdf. Ministry of Information and
Communications
Kenya Freedom for Information Bill (2007). Draft. The Kenya Freedom of Information Bill 2007.
The Ministry of Information and Communication.
(www.information.go.ke/docs/FOI%20Bill.pdf)
Kivikuru, Ullamaija (2001) Demokratia ja paikallinen politiikka
(www.kepa.fi/palvelut/julkaisut/raportit/pdf/051_kulttuuri.pdf) In seminar report of KEPA
Maina, Lucy W. (2006) African Media Development Initiative. Kenya. Research findings and
conclusions. Published by the BBC World Service Trust
(downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/AMDI/kenya/amdi_kenya_full_report.pdf)
Ministry of Education (2006) National Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Strategy
for Education and Training. June 2006
Mobile for Good: http://uk.oneworld.net/section/mobile
M-PESA:
www.vodafone.com/start/media_relations/news/group_press_releases/2007/safaricom_and_vod
afone.html
Mitullah Winnie V. & Waema, Timothy (2005) State of ICTs and Local Governance in Kenya:
Needs Analysis and Research Priorities. Research Concept Paper. University of Nairobi
Mungai, Wainaina (2005) Using ICTs for Poverty Reduction and Environmental Protection in
Kenya. The “M-vironment”Approach. One World International. Kenya. International Institute
for Sustainable Development
National Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Strategy for Education and Training.
June 2006. Ministry of Education.
Plan International (2007) Machakos Development Area Profile. Plan Kenya –Machakos
Development Area.
Plan Kenya (2007) Report on development areas in Kenya
11
Pressreference.com (2007) Kenya Press Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers Forum:
www.pressreference.com/Gu-Ku/Kenya.html
Privacy International (2003) Silenced –Kenya:
www.privacyinternational.org/article.shtml?cmd[347]=x-347-103568
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: http://education.nairobi-unesco.org/PDFs/kenya.pdf
World Bank: Document of the World Bank, Water and Urban Unit 1: Kenya, Inside Informality:
Poverty, Jobs, Housing and Services in Nairobi´s Slums 2006
World Economic Forum. www.weforum.org/
World Press Freedom Review 2006
Newspapers
Daily Nation, 18. May 2007
Daily Nation, 19. May 2007
The Standard, 18. May 2007
The Standard, 8. March 2006
Reuters Africa 19. Apr 2007 (africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL19440773.html)
Interviews in Nairobi and in Machakos (14. -18. May 2007)
Kamai 16. May 2007 discussions with program facilitators and CBO representatives
Nairobi 16. May 2007 discussion with an associate editor of media service company
Machakos 17. May 2007 discussions with Plan representatives of Machakos Development Area
Wevelsiep, Matthias 2007 unstructured interview with a youth group in Kawangare, Kawagiki on
the 16th of May 2007
Weblogs by Kenyans
Global Voices Online: www.globalvoicesonline.org/-/world/sub-saharan-africa/kenya/
Mzalendo: www.mzalendo.com/
Gerald Baraza: geraldbaraza.blogspot.com/2007/04/issues-that-will-bring-president.html
Thinkersroom: www.thinkersroom.com/blog/
African Path: www.africanpath.com/
12
Appendix 1: The diagram about CBOs (Community Based Organizations) operational functioning
in the communities based on discussions with program facilitators of Plan Nairobi team on the 16th
of May 2007.
CBO Executive commitee
village committee
village committee
village committee
interest group 1
interest group 2
interest group 3
(e.g. women or youth groups in community)
13