Test Bias and Construct Validity
Author(s): Arthur R. Jensen
Source: The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp. 340-346
Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International
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R.
Arthur
Jensen
AND
BIAS
TEST
VALIDITY
CONSTRUCT
Recent
bias
research
no
shows
a number
M
are familiar with
that our mental
.lWAost psychologists
the claims of critics
tests
are
biased
culturally
minorities,
especially
biased in favor of middle-class
culturally
a
As
whites.
the
literature.
the
dividual's background is similar to that
of the modal cultural configuration of
American
yardstick.
a narrow,
There
everyone
by
is a conspiracy
biased
collection
real measure
"Intelligence
because
named,
to
due
or
genes
inherent
probably
linguistic,
of the test."
thus
and
may
and
values
to speak
skills,
especially
standard English,
that
instrument
white
middle-class
scores
The
of
almost
two
and
because
children
minority
guarantees
biased
that
children will obtain
of
other
group
any
the
more
similar
experi
similar
the more
people,
than
R.
JENSEN
is professor of
research
and
psy
psychology
Uni
Institute
Learning,
chologist,
of Human
is
This article
versity of California,
Berkeley.
an address
at the
drawn
he delivered
from
1975,
meeting
of the American
September,
in Chicago.
Association
Psychological
educational
340
is
4. The
is a
performance
between
social
classes
and
between
certain
IQ
and
majority
success
in
with
a number
tests,
tests
this
of different
very
using
I
of
school
variance
sources.
The
an
shows
estimated
attributable
figures
of
children,
socioeconomic
we
percentages
to each
easiest
based
class
of
analysis
those in the last column,
average absolute difference
these
sample
of
ages 5 to 12.l
schoolchildren,
1
with
ance,
total
a random
representing
California
between
between
within
the
same
that
between
the
families
class
social
a
(on
scale of SES) is nine IQ points,
than
the
greater
between
social
classes.
is
50%
difference
In short,
discriminate
the
IQ tests
race or
that
notion
terms
in
largely
average
of
or
much
in
more
and
parents
as
background,
class groups.
difference
among
the
sharing
family,
and
cultural
linguistic
same
the
between
or
racial
social
intellectual
samples
large
question
children in California. Because of its
the Wechsler
Intelligence
familiarity,
Scale for Children-Revised
(WISC-R) is a
good example, with data on full scale
IQs of more than 600 whites and 600
blacks
IQ difference
same
differences
show
to examine
able
a difference
large
the
children
big are these differences?
been
some
social class is just a myth. The IQ shows
do
have
as
biased,
average
as
IQTests Show Differences?
where
the same family is
If the Wechsler IQ
difference
average
classes?
too,
Notice,
than
which
for
validity
and
attainment
and how
between
difference
culturally
as
produces
10-point
never
may
occupations.
Where Do
so
is
social
biased criteria, like
culturally
educational
in
middle
and
lower
racial groups.
minority
tests
biased
5. Culturally
show good
theless
predictive
predicting
test
12
is the important
here
average
is
status,
siblings as between blacks and whites?
Or a larger difference between siblings
in cultural
differences
biggest
are
The
point:
inde
difference,
critics claim, what kind of bias is it that
background.
Table
ARTHUR
of
background
which
of similarity
scores
But
full siblings within
also 12 IQ points.2
share
experience
test
in
function
Just
and
white
or
culture
not
do
are
but
of their backgrounds."
"The IQ test is a seriously
ences
be
psycho
biases
temporal
reward
tests
penalize
higher
children.
dif
not
environment,
in
the
cultural,
"Aptitude
middle-class
ability
scores
IQ
class
social
and
ethnic,
"Racial,
in mean
ferences
CB
called
aptly
tests."
background)
in
and
intelligence
more
been
have
mis
never
were
they
to measure
(cultural
other
is that blacks or
in the U.S.
Similarity
race
average
of socioeconomic
pendent
IQ points.
cognitive
by the tests.
direct
blacks.)
The
upon
heavily
cultural
knowledge
and
3.
poorly."
in these criticisms
implication
common
10
group) was only six IQ points. (The
largest SES difference was 26 IQ points
in the whites and 12 IQ points in the
dif
draw
minorities
sampled
do
have
are:
tests
2. The
other
who
may
themes
middle-class
specific
and linguistic
usage.
verbal
the test was
in which
the
The
average
IQ differences
of the
all possible
comparisons
each
racial
classes
social
(within
cupation.
between
in vocabulary
of their
frequency
Blacks,
tests
of mental
the
items
be penalized."
always
are
tests
sadly
will
developed
might
of
all persons."
from
backgrounds
than the culture
tended
an Anglo
to make
of
"Persons
vocabularies,
The main
a
society."
measures
"IQ
fering
1. The
they
an
in
Anglo-centric;
to which
extent
on
whites.
by
typical.
are
tests
"IQ
measure
are
They
included
usage
a
just
I have picked up
few direct quotations
from
are
here
reminder,
be."
should
words
are based
tests
are
and
of cultural
in any of
black/white
significant
of widely
used tests of intelligence.
"The
certain
against
blacks,
indices
bias
scores
their
several
using
to
vari
of
of
grasp
In
discussing
distinguish
loaded
ordered
be
generality
the
of
tent
are
less general
scale
oc
test's
of
test
test may
be
the more
contain
acquired
PHI DELTA KAPPAN
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must
first
con
two
bias.
same
test
and
a
items
of
continuum
is the specificity
con
informational
the
items.
The
the culture
information
quired,
only
Tests
along
loading, which
culture
or
biased.
culture
can
we
bias,
between
and culture
loading
the
not mean
does
culture
cepts:
Culture
as
clearly
the
giving the
in IQ. For
a 10-point
on parental
Criteria of Cultural Bias
content
culture
the
in which
could
be
ac
loaded it is. A
that
information
within
or
narrower
a
could
particular
can
This
culture.
be
usually
A
ing.
ent
to
in
is,
City
loaded
this
than
10-cent
the
more
sense,
candy
culture
"How
question,
can
bars
you
many
for
the
Whether
to
respect
is a
in the population
groups
is an
It
The
abstract.
a
volves
test
or
two
in
used
with
biased
culture
of
test
the
cultural
or predictions
groups
com
to
respect
scores
between
their
scores.
between
per
social
individuals,
racial
whether
se,
or
classes,
a
be
cannot
groups,
obviously
is no
criterion
of
bias.
There
proper
a priori
that any two
basis
for assuming
be equal
in whatever
should
populations
is
that
test
the
measure.
general
test
external
types:
or
are
bias
and
of
internal,
construct
and
validity
predictive
validity.
For
of
criteria
uses
of
tests,
predictive
validity is crucial. One criterion of test
bias is this: Do the intercepts and slopes
the
of
of
regression
measures
criterion
do
words,
scores
test
the
predict
equally
well for both groups? When the regres
sion lines of two groups have different
a
and
slopes,
intercepts
person's
on
the criterion
dicted
performance
?
etc.
will
be influenced
job,
school,
group
not
are
biased
blind.
Its
test
and
membership,
adequate
test, on the
predictors.
other
hand,
ture
prediction
or
scholastic
based
on
a
of
An
pre
?
by
scores
un
is color
fu
person's
job
lines
regression
standard
tests.
and
for whites
A
blacks
regression
single
equation predicts equally well for both
the few
racial groups.3
Interestingly,
exceptions
reported in the literature
would favor the black groups if the tests
were
used
for
selection,
i.e.,
the
any
ence in the regression lines is such that
for any given test score whites slightly
outperform
blacks
on
the
criterion.
In
to overpre
the criteri
on
a
the
selection
Extremes of Culture Loading
ad
evi
overwhelming
com
when
blacks
against
general
more
about
conclusions
them.)
validity criteria of test bias
Construct
no
but
complicated
less
im
portant. It is very likely that tests which
show little or no bias in terms of the
indices of construct validity are also
in.predictive
validity.
Construct
validity criteria of bias
refer to internal characteristics of the
test and the degree of similarity of their
text
test
of
measures
of
the
that
ability in both
as
as well
group
If there is a difference
other?
means
on
the
what
the
test
does
test,
measures
unsuspected
our
in
the
in group
of
theory
The
each
names
of
from
ranges
concrete
vocabulary
and
mon,
words
each
choice
subject
set
the
pattern.
and
must
of
to
Items
rare
Pro
of 60 plates,
of
geo
part which
a multiple
from
complete
correctly
in complexity
range
a
from
most
by
very
The
pattern
select
six
difficulty
the
of
a
designs with amissing
metric
the
to
consist
of
consisting
com
easy,
very
concepts.
gressive Matrices
the
and
to it. The
words
abstract
and
examiner
to point
is asked
subject
150 plates,
The
pictures.
the
pictures
four
one
of
consists
PPVT
with
level
is
that
a
to
up
3-year-olds
the capacity
beyond
adult.
average
Both of these tests were individually
to about 600 white and
administered
400 black children, ages 6 to 12, in
California
two
The
schools.4
groups
show a typical IQ difference of about
one standard deviation
(15 points) on
tests.
both
other
predict
differences
Matrices.
Progressive
level of difficulty
the
one
two tests I
let us contrast
First,
believe most psychologists will agree are
widely separated on the culture-loading
the Peabody Picture Vo
continuum:
(PPVT) and Raven's
cabulary Test
passable
a battery
differences
our
in question.
Does
test measures
yield
are borne
out empirical
populations
of what
predictions
ly in the
the
or
a test,
individual
in the same hypothetical
con
the
involves
also
bias,
to
group
in
validity,
of whether
question
of tests,
one
from
properties
Construct
another.
of Raw
Correlation
be
Scores
with
Age.
that the Peabody
first indication
The
tween the two groups?
I shall illustrate the application
of
and
some
or
similarly in both racial groups is the fact
the
criteria
bias
on
of
construct
known
a
of
variety
of mental
tests
standard
internal
of
abilities,
the United
sive
are
criteria
these
test
any
controversy
whites
and
States.
We
have
on
these
two
data
our
in
others
over
around
largely
black
differences
test
the
more
groups
in
exten
than
and
population,
revolved
bias has
well-known
in test
blacks
scores.
white/
the
age
in months,
a
were
quite different
that
unlikely
the
nearly
each group.
efficient
same
the
raw
in
scores
of
correlation
and
about
same
measuring
something
in both groups, it seems
the scores would have
correlation
Internal Consistency
internal
quite
tests in both racial groups.
.70, for both
tests
about
between
correlation
the
are
groups
the
If
behave
instruments
Raven
that
well
mainly intelligence or IQ tests. In all the
the populations
for which
examples,
evidence of test bias was sought by
on
differ
tend
pared with whites. (There are too few
studies of other ethnic groups to permit
previously
Research on this criterion of test bias
is unequivocal.
is a negligible
There
difference
in the slopes and intercepts
on
biased
theory
performance,
is as accurate
for blacks
scores,
as for whites.
of
not
statistical
on test scores differ appreciably for the
in question? In other
two populations
his
In brief,
unbiased
practical
= 622.
dence on the predictive
validity of
standard tests indicates that they are
are
Legitimate
blacks
performance
blacks
gives
which
on,
622;
tests
the
words,
blacks'
dict
=
size: whites
Sample
to
is supposed
100 17
Total sample
vantage.
differences
Score
5 4
error
Measurement
other
the
on
based
44^ 12
families (siblings)
ex
the
content that is generally peculiar to the
members of one group but not to the
members of another group, it is liable to
parisons
73
Within
in
bias
of
determination
specific
Between families (within race and
29^ 9
social class)
matter.
empirical
To
specific
populations.
test
contains
that
the
tent
two
any
is no such thing as test bias in the
There
more
of
performance
issue.
separate
two
22
14^ 12
con
cultural
particular
the test to be biased with
the
(or more)
it
Social class (within races) 8\ 6
buy
Race (within social classes)
tent causes
Average IQ
Difference
% Variance
Source
$1?"
be
Difference inWISC-R IQ Independently Associated with
Race (White/Black), Social Class, and Between and Within Families
load
to its cultural
corresponds
the respond
test
item
requiring
name
York
in New
three
parks
content
Absolute
and Average
of Variance
Percent
1. Estimated
Table
determined
simply by examination of the test items.
or generality of the
The specificity
consistency
in the Peabody
with
in
Reliability.
The
reliability
co
is .96, both for
DECEMBER 1976
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
age
341
whites
and
liabilities
and
.86.
the
blacks;
whites
and
Raven
(The
Raven
rected
consists
for
.90
re
lower
only because
fewer
of
length
are
a
has
of
re
Raven
blacks
than the Peabody
liability
the
for
for
items.
the
test,
Cor
Raven's
is higher than the Peabody's.)
reliability
are
example,
adults
only
schoolchildren.
shown
performances
and
quantitatively
tatively,
have
sort of thing; that
in test
differences
can be closely
simu
is, black/white
lated,
. . tests
of.
variety
the same
quali
of
groups
by comparing
and
older
white
younger
chil
the
more
much
The
London
found
(e.g.,
bannister),
than
some
while
difficult, so that the overall differences
average out and the English and the
American
white
same
the
children
mean
however,
on every
obtain
a
item
in
the
same
the
were
for the blacks is
background
and blacks,
we
a
reflect
cultural
between
should
the
were
group
in taking
other
more
or
we
formance,
ferent
internal
we
than
careless
or made
the
tests,
at the answers,
guesses
contaminated
their
per
haphazard
otherwise
But
more
should
consistency
that
the
see
dif
quite
reliabilities.
expect
are
reliabilities
whites
and
Rank Order of Item Difficulty.
The
highly
for
comparable
blacks.
passing
an
item is an index of item difficulty.
We
P
percentage
can
the
of
rank
the
compare
in the white
values
group
of
order
and
black
P
these
and
groups
express the degree of similarity between
the groups
by means
the P values.
between
are
tions
the
ing
with
corrected
for
correla
us
attenuation,
each
racial
group
of
the
the
i.e.,
reliability
of Ps
within
each
itself,
order
rank
correlation
the
(All
of
correlation
the
of
racial
the
difficulty
and
males
rank
the
is
of
correlation
item
other
difficul
and
as
blacks
white
between
between
females.
males
(The
and
is
females
The
difficulties
when
greater
correlations
corrected
of
item
are all .99 or
in the Raven
for
attenuation.
This was found not to be the case
when
test scores of white
Peabody
in
schoolchildren
London,
scores
with
compared
matched
number
342
England,
of
age
white children in California. A
of items differed markedly
in
order
of
as many
as 50
for Londoners
bronco,
and some were
difficulty,
items
in rank order
apart
and Californians.
Words
thermos,
and
caboose,
differ
blacks
Correlation
P Decrements.
of
item
for
white
matched
for
for
difficulties
In both
ad
score
within
item
passing
2, and
tion of P decrements
whatever
a
is
most
similarity.
The
sensitive
correlation
The
on
males
and
and
.880
that
the
the
and
in blacks.
races
sexes
two
same
indeed
again
than
in whites
.980.
that
tests were
it would be
rank
their
order
and the differences
in
difficulty
between
items
adjacent
difficulty
should be so alike in both the black and
white
seem
It would
groups.
even
and
loading
con
information
tween
values
and
P
Matching
Are
verbal
and
Peabody
tests more
verbal? The
Raven
biased
small differences
Items.
than
and Raven
that we
Peabody
seen in the preceding
show
analyses
the
little difference
between
two
bias
indices
Going
of
a
step
we
further,
non
between
have
we
well
each
racial
measures
item
as a whole
test
among
group.
tells
b,
correlations,
items
discriminate
is measur
within
each
items
that
tween
the
us
how
out
racial
the highest
score
for
both
a
of
the
the
two
that
the
items
individual differences
are
racial
group
discriminate
have
item
much
between
It turns
groups.
the
the
These
groups.
be
items
correlations with
blacks
same
most
total
and whites.
of Wrong Answers
Analysis
Culture bias leads to the expectation
that whites
and blacks should make
errors
different
But
wrong.
the
among
distractors
multiple
of the items they get
of
analysis
re
incorrect
sponses (errors) in the Peabody
that the errors are distributed
over
fashion
choice
distractors
the
than
children's
the
same
as
who
whites.
it was
various
dren
multiple
and
blacks.
were
several
to this finding:
exceptions
items blacks made different
significant
On some
errors
shows
in a
for each item in the
for whites
proportions
In Raven's
there
Matrices
very
matched
how
racial
instance
examined.
the
and
within
persons
The
second
set
given
b)
be
the individual
have
the tests on the
and
group,
coefficients)
ing and how well
same
P
of
cor
total
discriminates
the
order
racial
(phi
items
the
nonchance
decrements.
and the Raven
The first set of correlations,
us
tells
tent as the Peabody
and the Raven
should both show such high degrees of
similarity between blacks and whites in
rank
each
single
choice
more
that two tests as dissimilar
remarkable
evidence
point-biserial
items
and
single
that best measure
race.
If the items of these
culturally biased for blacks,
remarkable
see
decrements
correlate
a
in favor of
the
correlations
racial
in whites
no more
the
.830.
decrements
we
Thus
at
blacks'
is
.823
differ
of
P
Raven's
blacks
P
is
females
two
group
items
adjacent
between
correlation
of
of
for
the
a,
groups
(corrected
whites'
and
between
tenuation)
P decrements
correla
two
index
a
for
showed
is some
the Peabody
a)
compared
relations
between
dichotomy.
The
done
It
Item Discriminabilities
we
items in the test. This is
PyP^^
so on, where
is the
P2-^3> and
Pj
percent passing item 1,P2 is the percent
across
the black
difference
there
in
also
that a vocabulary test in English may be
a biased test of intelligence for Mexican
Let's
jacent
so on.
in
group.
Thus
and
thereby
was
analysis
significant
Raven.
Raven
difficulty
same
the
for difficulty
are
group
no
show
scores.
Peabody
the white
between
items matched
Racial Group
the level of item difficulty
altogether and look only at the differ
between
in
blacks
that
the
of the two
are matched
out
lower
on
than
difference
Peabody
the
to obtain
Peabody
Americans.
remove
ences
blacks
the
we
and
ties.
in culture
.988.)
cross-racial
no
find
then
the difficulties
items
and
the
the
of
is not as different
and black
black males
In
.983.
order
ties on the Peabody
whites
black
we
But
California
than
items,
the
the
were
blacks
It turns
see
in the rank order of item difficul
whites
The
item
is .987.
females
between
of
between
black
words,
like
between
corrected
order
for blacks and whites
correlation
The
the
test,
rank
Peabody
between
correlation
rank
Americans.
do
group.)
On
were
and
ence
of
highly
in rank order of
differences
that we see .between English
difficulty
If one
sets
group.
whites
to
expect
on
If
Raven
expect
scores
35
item
against
Mexican-American
of
kind
should
group.
The
Picture Vocabulary
to
really
difference
biased
culture-reduced
Raven
blacks,
as for whites.
If the Peabody
more
of
items
Peabody
significant
passing
the rank
but
test,
order of item difficulty
about
about
IQ. California
lower
percent
have
For
each
group.
we
a Peabody
items
found
same
the
percent
passing.
Raven when
more
items for difficulty
white
culture-loaded
those
were
the
with
children,
however,
words
much
easier
certain
in
Raven
in Cali
residing
and Raven
Peabody
of
linguistic
Califor
and
and blacks
also
to most
are
they
for American
Obviously
Londoners
very
of whites
Test
dren."
of
backgrounds
nians
differ
fornia.
"A
even
unfamiliar
in England,
though
moderate
difficulty
But
found
in
every
of
responses
proportions
error
were
distractors
the
proportions
were
PHI DELTA KAPPAN
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approximately
such
that the black
for white
two
to
the
chil
years
in
younger
Thus
age.
chronological
it
that
appears that the few differences
were found between white and black
are
children
more
in level of mental
differences
to cultural
than
related
clearly
to
on
the
An
overall
Matrices:
race,
sex,
the
age,
and
items,
the cultural
blacks
fornia
have
differences
and
for
to
a diversity
such
of
is a
variance,
turns out
sources
to other
relative
sensitive
index
of
bias.
that the interaction,
statistically
It
though
accounts
significant,
of
for
less
than 1% of the total variance in both
the Peabody and the Raven.
We found that we could closely
within
simulate,
whole
this
error,
with
all of
their
the margin
of
of
analysis
its main
interactions,
effects
using
only
as
as picture
matrices!
diverse
progressive
strikes me
as quite
be
tests
such
pseudo-race
and
copying
free-choice
comparison.
two
into
groups:
a younger
sample
group
(ages
6 to 9) and a slightly overlapping older
group (ages 8 to 11). The same analysis
of
variance
blacks
and
these
two
that
whites,
was
on
performed
when
different
of
groups
all the
features
of
reproduced
whites,
on
the
of
variance
the
two
analysis
There
is no
racial
difference
groups.
between
the
two
sets
of variances,
with
in the margin of sampling error. This is
true for both the Peabody
and the
Raven.
The
action was
pseudo-race
also about
X
items
as
geometric
preferences
designs,
for match
and
size,
number
with
preferences
which
age.5
inter
1% of the total
variance.
size
puzzles,
comparisons,
discrimination
tures,
sorting
The types of analysis described above
all with
tain
highly
points
cultural
when
mentioning.
The
rank
between
correlated
groups
the
test
as well,
similar results. But cer
are worth
Stanford-Binet.
difficulty
tests
to other
gains
items
greater
are more
order
hetero
simple
picture
of
animal
pic
colored
verbal
buttons,
In a doctoral thesis, Paul Nichols
analyzed 16 items of the Stanford-Binet
from year III-6 through IV-6 ? the most
of
sequence
heterogeneous
items
in
the
whole test ? given to 2,514 black and
2,526 white children, all between 4 and
5 years
of
Note
are
age.6
three important
with
dealing
a
only
points:
1) we
restricted
por
are within
of
racial or
cogency
hetero
geneous, since it is so unlikely that a
cultural difference between two groups
a one-year
are
all
been
of
preschoolers
to
exposed
public
rank-order
schooling.
correlation
age inter
?
they
the com
between
the blacks and whites in the percent
passing each of these 16 Stanford-Binet
items turns out to be .99 (without
blacks
applied
more
op
picture
vocabulary,
aesthetic
posite
analogies,
comparisons,
and so on.
following
directions,
correction
been
of
order
comprehension,
for
correlation
Internal Bias of Other Tests
have
rank
no
is probably
There
The
ing stimuli on the basis of color, form,
change
same
the
test
of intelligence
geneous collection
items to be found anywhere than the
items included
in the
Stanford-Binet
tests for ages 3x/2 to 5. The items involve
children
conservation
Piagetian
simple
in
and
val,
3)
haven't
yet
mon
culture
on
performed
age
groups
children.
comparing
by
older
white
and
younger
result
difficulty in the two groups over a set of
items that differ markedly
in their
on knowledge
and
specific demands
tion of the Stanford-Binet test (16 items
from year III-6 through IV-6), 2) all the
quantitatively
This has been shown for developmental
the white
the entire white
implausible.
qualitatively,
of
tests,
divided
? on tests
and
vocabulary
an argument
Such
simulated,
closely
sample. We called this comparison of
two different age groups of whites a
We
of
on
A variety of other tests have shown
the same sort of thing; that is, black/
white differences
in test performance
and
variance,
and all of
loadings
the first principal component
can
sampling
P decre
choice
correlations,
item
factor
and
as
indices
rank order of item difficulties,
inter-item
simu
the white
group,
distractors,
that
Cali
closely
within
The interaction of greatest interest in
terms of detecting culture bias is the
race X items interaction. The size of this
ments,
com
argue
between
whites
late age differences
to
culturally
respect to black/white
would
would
skills.
findings,
are
tests
these
one
parisons,
non
quite
subjects.
interaction,
time
for less than
these
light of
that
biased with
was
variance
performed on the following factors and
all their interactions, for both the Pea
and Raven's
body Picture Vocabulary
this
variance.
total
maintain
of
analysis
In
Differences
became
and accounted
significant
of White/Black
but
races,
interaction
.2% of
Simulation
two
the
using whites of ages 6 to 9 and blacks of
ages 8 to 11, we found that the race X
items
maturity
differences.
the same analysis
by doing
Finally,
again
Thus,
and whites
in
The
attenuation).
the P
between
this
Pearson
values
of
is .96.
age
at
range
least,
the
Stanford-Binet
IQ test does not look at
all culture biased. I would be quite
surprised if black/white
comparisons
turned out very differently from this on
section
any other
in any other
age
the
of
Stanford-Binet
range.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chil
dren. The WISC provides some striking
examples of how invalid are the critics'
armchair
subjective,
bias
in specific
test
of cultural
analyses
items.
For
example,
a favorite target of test critics is the
WISC
Verbal
item:
Comprehension
"What is the thing to do if a fellow (girl)
much
Good
"(A) Good morning
(B)
"
evening (C)None of these.
"It
or false."
is
a
good
morning.
True
smaller
than
yourself
starts
to
fight with you?" This item is often
claimed to be culturally biased against
blacks, and David Wechsler himself was
confronted by this claim in an interview
with Dan Rather on a recent CBS-TV
program, "The IQ Myth."
After
seeing the CBS program, a
Frank
psychology
graduate
student,
Miele, looked up the item statistics on
this and other WISC items. He obtained
WISC tests on large samples of age
matched
and black schoolchil
white
dren and looked at the rank order of
of this purportedly
biased
difficulty
item within each racial group. When the
easiest item in the whole WISC is ranked
1 and the hardest is ranked 161, the
DECEMBER 1976
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343
rank order in difficulty of the "pick a
fight" item is only 42 within the black
group, as compared to 47 within the
white
group.
item
is relatively
The
whites!
for
In
this
short,
easier
claims
are thus easily debunked
at
the
cross-racial
items
across
correlation
rank
for
over all 161 of the
is
sexes
the
me
The
.95.
within
same
the
given
bat
and
T.
R.
correlational
Osborne
on
data
white
itself
and 237 black children
in Georgia
schools. All the children were given 29
tests
of
verbal,
numerical,
spatial,
form
board,
vocabulary,
racial
two
that
older
years
the WISC
is
Stanford-Binet
are
items,
Yet
the
heterogeneous.
of WISC
different
difficulty
preciably
very
of
items is not ap
for whites
and
lie Personnel
Wonder
Test.
made
adults,
up
items
geneous
of
50
verbal,
spatial,
numerical,
have
that
found
test for
hetero
very
?
is a
This
used general intelligence
to
as
the
next.
cross
the
close
to
based
groups
representative
and whites
our
by
evidence
any
or
that the g factor
tests
standard
is in the
in blacks
g
than
in
whites.
"Not
is the key
complexity
al intelligence].
Items
some
active
se, but
per
difficulty
to g [gener
that require
mental
manipulation,
mental
trans
... are the
of the input,
formation
most g-loaded
items."
conscious
nonverbal,
and so on. We
logical,
the
correlation
with
grade
found
least a different
some
blacks.
widely
not
measured
the
order
school
substantial
Note
also
rank
g
of blacks
like
each
attenuation,
correlations
fluctuate
I have
on
group
.96.)
items, much
load
for
racial
reasoning,
arithmetic,
is .97. (The correlation of difficulty
rank in whites with that in blacks who
average
g
magnitude
racial group
same
the
unity.
correlation
each
of
correlations
one
from
Corrected
?
great
variety
nonverbal
in grades 5 through 8.
cross-racial
ings are of about
the correlation
of
have
541
blacks and whites
The
tests?
Miele
cognitive
order of difficulty
WISC
by just looking
whites
tery of cognitive
sent
bias
statistics.
item
The
of
similar is this general factor for
and
Frank
particular
blacks
than
for
armchair
How
blacks
If
these
various
biased
culturally
for
were
tests
cognitive
these
two
popula
it seems improbable
that the
tions,
of the bias would
be so
magnitude
uniform over all types of tests that they
all
would
have
same
the
of
pattern
g
loadings (within the margin of sampling
in
error)
These
black
and
various
on
loadings
g,
differential
blacks
white
populations.
substantial
all with
tests,
no
yield
evidence
cultural biases
of
in American
and whites.
in per
cent
passing the 50 items, between
samples of more than 700 blacks and
is .94. The P decrements
700 whites,
correlate
.81.
We also tried to find out if five black
and five white psychologists
could sort
out the eight most and the eight least
racially discriminating items when all 16
were
items
randomly
better
than
chance.
inspection
very
poor
discriminate
clue
blacks
On
the
factor
the
item's
(or
first
substantially
other
all
the
criminate
found
racial
a
either
does
highly
between
common
factor
general
within
the
racial
the
racial
to
group,
item
The
general
component
of
individual
geneous
?
as the
the
largest
differences
of
g
first principal
?
tests.
measure
of
g when
it
is its
processes
correct
344
on
a
among
analyzed
of
other
battery
tests,
that are heterogeneous
content
loading
preferably
in informational
tests
and in the types of cognitive
involved
in
arriving
at
the
for
load
one
and
blacks
to
be
set
have
in
the
formu
correlation
becomes
correlation
constitutes
that the g factor in this
diverse
tests
is the
as
to
not
psychological
the
inspecting
dozens
tests
of
g
to
?
the
conclu
regarding g is
sion that the key word
complexity
same
of
complexity
the mental
a test
item
required
by
to produce
the
person
answer.
Not
per
difficulty
correct
but
complexity
that
some
active
require
some
conscious
lation,
formation
is
of
the
sensorimotor
as for whites.
the
rather
input,
short-term
and
than
manipulation
item
involves,
the
This is true for blacks and whites
Bender-Gestalt
the
Test,
Draw-a
Man Test, the Illinois Test of Psycho
linguistic Abilities, and tests of reading,
arithmetic
and
13 tests in all.7 This test battery
of
years
for
races.
age,
and
13
14
diverse
in
correlate
the
on
and
samples
Boston,
g load
.98
across
correction
same
loadings
cognitive
large
The
.98 without
(That's
of g
from
Baltimore.
attenuation.)
done
I have
correlation
and 975 blacks, all
drawn
tests
a
in
separately
factor-analyzed
Philadelphia,
ings of the
the
achieve
of
it
perhaps
a cerebral
even
response,
more
The
items.
and
the
true
is
for
just
mental
an
transformation
more
for
it
all
all animals
is ^-loaded.
alike. I
and
humans,
that possess
cortex.
If we hypothesize
that the well
established
of
average IQ difference
about
15 points between blacks and
whites is mainly a difference in g, in the
sense
cognitive
rather
of
a
capacity
complexity
as just
than
for
dealing
in
a difference
any
with
form,
to
due
specific cultural content in the IQ test,
then we should predict that blacks and
cross-racial
a battery
achievement
daresay
habitual
se,
memory
are
the
of the subtests of the Wechsler Intelli
gence Scale for Children combined with
intercorrelated
in
the
to g.
Items
key
mental
manipu
trans
mental
or a
ability
most
^-loaded
Nichols
of
hundreds
many
I am led
items,
of
loadings
and
seven
Paul
in any
do
we
But
its
and
operations
order
for
the with
using
correlations
despite
processes
knows
yet
sense.
physiological
some
idea
individual
Cor
.68.
in common
nature.
the
factor
g
split-half
correction-for-attenuation
of
basic
By
out
unreliability,
large battery
g for blacks
tests
answers.
turned
strong evidence
7
of any test (or test item) as a
intelligence
is factor
on
group of 986 whites
validity
each
factor
g
have
mental
different
seemingly
call upon?
No one
they
really
what
makes
for g, certainly
over the 29 tests. This
the
corrected
la,
This
.97.
high
was
An
in
or
the
set based
ment -
construct
done
to determine
between
spelling,
source
single
in a hetero
cognitive
of
the
criterion
or
factor
intelligence
collection
important
final step was
one
ings,
dis
groups.
was
analysis
principal
component
each racial group.
in-race
Isg the Same g in Blacks and Whites?
can be defined
first
usual
is true within
this
group
tests
the great diversity of their content
the
was
of the split-half subgroups. In this way
we can determine the reliability of the
rected
the
and black
racial
is this g factor that all complex
cognitive
split in half and a principal
correlation
that
What
was
analysis
each
Also,
from
batteries.
in the white
based on whites,
factor
general
correlates
component)
the
item's
racial
dis
and
samples.
The
from
group
standard
separately
randomly
be
intercor
item
taken
principal-components
done
within
will
least
In other
the
groups.
words,
a test
item
is correlated
items,
the more
we
the
on
principal
with
highly
the most
with
the
different
correlation
hand,
of all
loading
racial
more
items
or
each
criminability,
both
to which
most
a
be
and whites.
analysis
within
relations
as
the
armchair
to
A
components
cards
separate
Again,
is shown
items
of
tween
on
presented
shuffled. The judges sorted no
Is the Nature of g?
What
were
tests
The
spelling.
several
of
California
whites
on
performance
cognitive
will
differ
less in
average
on
tasks
lesser
involving
on
than
in
tasks
complexity
the
PHI DELTA KAPPAN
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greater
volving
cognitive
complexity.
What do we find?
Reaction-Time
Studies.
pothesis
and
choice
reaction
auditory
time
reaction
of
to
all
per
as a
increases
(RT)
stimulus
i.e.,
complexity,
in the
the number of bits of information
the
to which
signal
hy
in
time
In
stimuli.
and
sons,
function
experi
test of this complexity
is based on differences
mental
simple
visual
One
person
It
responds.
has also been shown that there is no
correlation between simple RT and IQ,
but
a
is
there
correlation
negative
be
tween IQ and choice RT. That is,
persons with higher IQs show quicker
RT in a choice situation that calls for
some
information
Four
processing.
using
experiments
independent
quite diff?rent methods but comparing
simple and choice RTs in whites and
blacks all show no significant race dif
ference for simple RT. But they all
a
show
race
significant
race
(or
for choice
founded with SES) difference
or
complex
each
RT.8
In
acts
as his
person
these
con
more
on
on
than
backward
digit span.
Richard Figueroa
in
622
and 622 whites
blacks
from
drawn
age-matched
California
of
samples
randomly
schools.9
Both predictions are fully borne out
by the data. We found that backward
span correlates significantly higher with
total IQ than does forward span; and
is true
this
within
each
racial
We
group.
also found that the difference between
whites and blacks in backward memory
is more
span
than
is no
there
status,
race
significant
ence in forward memory
race
difference
the
their
values.
absolute
average,
show
tween
simple
whites.
a
Blacks,
difference
larger
RT
and choice
RT,
on
in
substantial
span.
or
four-choice,
the
of
The several methods I have described
test bias, in terms of
for detecting
than do
various
practically
complexity
simple RT; therefore, in accord with our
choice RT shows significant
hypothesis,
with
correlations
IQ and with race,
while simple RT does not.
and
Forward
If
Memory.
mental
Backward
reflects
g
manipulation
for
capacity
and
transforma
should
ence
on
mental
a
expect
those
racial
larger
differ
more
requiring
transforma
and
tests
manipulation
tion of the input in order to arrive at
the
output.
The
and
forward
digit-span
subtests
culture-loaded
Wechsler
shows
battery.
the
difference
smallest
backward
numbers
somewhat
digit
in
more
and
transformation
digit
span.
span
reverse
?
the
digit span
white/black
repeating
?
order
mental
than
socioeconomic
Duncan's
by
a series
calls
manipulation
does
forward
for
evidence
comparisons,
number
of
and
and
The
Figure
a
of
function
1 shows the total WISC IQs ?s
race
of
socioeconomic
2
Figure
ward
digit-span
and
index
Duncan's
and
forward
scores
versus
as
a
large representative
blacks.
are
results
backward
of
function
span
of
transformation
is signifi
input
has
pre
two
dicted
unknown
previously
phenomena:
1) the differential correla
tion of forward and backward digit span
with IQ, and 2) the significantly smaller
racial difference in forward than back
ward digit span. I do not know of any
hypothesis
invoking cultural bias in the
Wechsler
dicted
psychological
tests
either
that
of
phenomena.
bias
shows
bias
in any
of
back
cant beyond the .001 level.)
Thus the theory of g as a capacity for
and the con
dealing with complexity
scious
used,
in
samples
of
None
of
unequivocal:
indices of cultural
any
significant
of these
tests
of
indication
when
are
they
used with blacks arid whites. Correlation
status.
shows
a
on
based
widely
standardized
and group tests of intelligence
to
given
whites
is
well-known,
- diverse
quite
dividual
Index
regarding black/white
However,
the several objective
forward
of any of the subtests.
I think, would agree that
Everyone,
of
in
Moreover,
average
as measured
of
race and SES. (The interaction of race X
backward
tests of the Wechsler
lend themselves
nicely to a test of this hypothesis. For
one thing, most
clinical psychologists
judge the digit-span test to be one of the
least
The
of SES.
tion, and if it is the g factor on which
blacks and whites essentially differ, then
we
as a function
samples
the
conclusions.
strong
Figure 1. WISC-R Full Scale ?Q of
=
=
black
(N 622) and white
(N 622)
status
Digit-Span
and
validity can of course be applied to any
other groups in the population. But th?
evidence regarding groups other than
U.S. blacks.and whites is either lacking
or is still too sketchy to permit any
^L_L_J_I_I_L_L_I_I_I_L
0123456789
SocioeconomicStatus
of
of persons'
test
construct
test's
features
internal
performances
RT
eight-choice
zero
status.
socioeconomic
Conclusion
task is still a very low level of com
plexity as compared with most IQ test
items, but it is still more complex than
the
9
be
of total movement
time,
independently
which
is only slightly correlated with
It
RT and is unrelated to complexity.
that a two
should be remembered
choice,
8
Figure 2. WISC-R Forward and Back
ward Digit Span scaled scores (x~?O,
o = 3) of black and white samples as a
function
is measured
incidentally,
7
5 6
3 4
Socioeconomic Status
12
0
differ
span, but the
remains
memory
as
large
memory
span.
socioeconomic
forward
control
for
we
When
?s
twice
in
difference
it is the difference between simple and
choice RT that is of primary interest,
not
r-4
forward
and
control,
A
and I tested these
predictions
backward
experiments,
own
This being so, our theory of g should
predict the following:
1. Backward digit span should cor
relate more highly with total IQ than
should forward digit span.
2. Blacks and whites should differ
would
these
have
pre
interesting
raw
scores
with
internal
age,
con
sistency reliability, rank order of item
difficulty (i.e., percent passing), relative
difficulty of adjacent items, item cor
relation with total score, loadings of
items
or
relative
tests
on
the
-
distractors
general
are
all
and
factor,
in choice
frequencies
pf error
the
substantially
same in the white and black groups.
I conclude
that these standardized
tests of intelligence ? the Peabody Pic
ture
other
Progressive
In
Stanford-Binet, Wechsler
Scale for Children, Wonderli?
Test, and most likety many
tests
similar
evidence
blacks
Raven's
Vocabulary,
Matrices,
telligence
Personnel
?
show
of differential
and
whites.
They
practically
behave
DECEMBER 1976
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no
culture bias for
statis
345
tically much
and
groups
the
same
in both
racial
same
essentially
the
subjective,
about
armchair
perform
job in both groups.
Claims
on
based
and
surmise
speculation
test
specific
in
biases
cultural
?
items
the
sole
of those critics of tests who
method
to foster the myth
wish
of culture
?
bias
are
false
the objective
by
the fact that it may
proven
evidence.
Moreover,
3. T.
be possible to specially devise culturally
biased items in no way proves that all of
our
tests
standard
existing
biased.
loaded
Culturally
are
?
of
culturally
course.
But not culturally biased. The distinc
tion is crucial. The myth of culture bias
thrives on obscuring this distinction.
The
large
factor
general
measured
by
is
standard tests of intelligence
clearly the same factor in blacks as in
that this general
whites. The hypothesis
our
is a capacity
for
mental
conscious
factor
plexity,
and
transformation
has
led
empirically
manipulation,
stimulus
inputs
of
that
to predictions
a
at
com
cognitive
high
are borne
level
of
nor
science
Neither
cause
the
As
findings.
to question,
cate
results,
the
tests
causes
alternative
?
other
hypotheses
peatedly
of
test
and
populations,
score
variance,
theories
and
against
renounce
openly
that
objective
disproves.
one
evidence
sig
of
these
is
repli
as to
seek
pit
an
those
re
D
4. For full
Are
Biased
see A.
details,
Culture-Loaded
Psychology
pp. 185-244.
Monographs,
R. Jensen,
"How
Genetic
Tests?"
November,
7. Nichols,
op. cit.
J. J, Bosco,
"Social
Class and the Proces
Final
Information,"
sing of Visual
Report
No. OEG-5-9
Contract
Project No.
9-3-041,
325041-0034
D.C.: Office
(Washington,
(010)
of Education,
of Health,
U.S.
Department
and Welfare,
Education,
May,
1970); A. R.
and Mental
"Race
Jensen,
op. cit.;
Ability,"
and Experi
C. E. Noble,
"Race,
Reality,
in Biology
mental
Psychology,"
Perspectives
and Medicine,
Autumn,
1969, pp. 10-30; and
Y. Poortinga,
"A Comparison
and
of African
in Simple
and
Students
Auditory
European
in L. J. Cronbach
and P. J.
Visual
Tasks,"
Tests
and Cultural
Drenth,
eds., Mental
8.
Adaptation
349-54.
1974,
Mouton,
(The Hague:
pp.
1972),
9. Jensen
and Figueroa,
"Forward
ward
with
Interaction
Digit-Span
IQ," op. cit. D
"Race
and Mental Ability,"
in Man
Variation
ed., Racial
Graduate Students Find Studies
>
of variance were estimated
2. The percentages
as follows:
the following
correlations
First,
x SES = .4381; Race x
were
Race
obtained:
= .4355. Then
=
.4955; SES x IQ
IQ
partial
out SES
Were obtained,
correlations
partialing
x IQ, and Race
from SES x IQ,
from Race
=
x IQ)/SES
.3765;
yielding
(SES x
(Race
.2797.
IQ)/Race=
attributable
of IQ variance
The proportion
of one
to Race
and
SES
independently
is the square of the partial
correla
another
tions, i.e., .14 for Race and .08 for SES.
as
.95
the test-retest
The WISC-R
gives
of Full Scale
reliability
interval)
(one-month
sample.
IQ in the age range of the present
error.
is 5% measurement
there
This means
=
Thus
27%, leaving 73% for
14% + 8% + 5%
racial and
Between
Families
variance
(within
Families.
and Within
SES groups)
By variance
Families
is meant
the interfamily
Between
of the siblings.
between
the means
variability
variance
Within
is variability
Families
among
the same family. The Between
siblings within
Families
and Within
variances were determined
in large
from my study of sibling correlations
on a highly
of whites
and blacks
samples
IQ scale (Lorge-Thorndike
comparable
IQ),
was
.43 in both
This
racial groups.
which
means
racial
that 43% of the variance within
to differences
between
is attributable
groups
The
includes
SES differences.
families, which
is due to variance
remainder
of the variance
of higher education find
disappointing
intellectually
tutions
studies
their
and
a
to
according
damaging,
at Berke
by researchers
emotionally
and Back
Race
and
moods
their
their
their
serious
beset
energies
and
requirements
of
and
imaginative
searchers
say in
Education.
The
pushed
tion
intellectual
re
the
of
Katz
Joseph
the
based
Testing
Service,
x)n in-depth
interviews
conclusions
more
than 100 graduate
area,
than
Berkeley
by more
four
universities,
nationwide
the
Education,
graduate
criticizes
report
of education
for
departments
for their role as
failing to train students
the
undergraduates.
Instead,
students
that graduate
claim
of
teachers
researchers
are "taught
have
graduate
economic
cle
In
it."
have
not
addition,
their
job
Chroni
the
students,
to
adjusted
hard times and declining
for
the
is taking
tive in pressing
and
leadership
very
in gradu
initia
little
for a rethinking
purposes
of
most
of the
graduate
like
3) They find
com
peers.
maintain
that
have
civility,"
problems.
of
of
been
in
in
created
the
size
of
a number
offer
to
of
many
"a loss
in the number of
and
recommendations
remedy
Urge
They
of
graduate
"greater
of the flow of information
equalization
between
a
of
members
departments.
and Hartnett
students'
at
and
"demeaning"
like college
treated
students
graduate
Katz
students
graduate
prospective
and
also
graduate
recommend
departments."
that
faculty
They
members
come
sensitive
to
the
of
graduate
the
supply
as well
students,
and
of
graduate
more
problems
as
that
"avoid
the
placed
on
spend
in
be
students
professional
lectual
reports.
"Apparently
ate education
goals
for
contempt
schools
markets
teaching if not to
to neglect
and
at
opportunities
to
simply by the growth
graduate
the Lilly
Institute
lively inter
them
among
problems,
theoretical
community
breadth,
quiry,
at
narrow
limited"
intellectual
authors
a
"competitive
inadequate
not
are
isola
in
expect
subjected
are
They
of
to join a
instead
intellectual
professors
treatment.
traumatic
but
find
and
freshmen,
these
students
data gathered by the ETS.
Financed by grants from
and the National
Endowment
of
but
are
changes
education
hope
for working with others."
then
returned
questionnaires
700
graduate
on
and
1) They
2) They
to
for
at graduate
that are quick
concentrating
specialty."
with
the
arrive
scholars,
"relative
and
actions,
munity
The
in the
students
call
graduate
less
experience
expectations
into
times
researchers,
atti
old
of
of
"access
State University of New York at Stony
Brook
and Rodney
of the
Hartnett
Educational
with
mospheres
of Higher
that
the
adequate,"
Students
community
school at
drill than
capacities,"
the Chronicle
the
students.
not
busy work,
most
man's
to make
ly thwarted:
relent
evidence
and
researchers
lives
if
by
even
all of which make graduate
times more resemble military
exercise
two
structure
the
school
ley's Wright Institute.
students
"find
Many
crammed,
and
grim,
in
clear
claims.
report
The
for
survey
two-year
the
insti
of
spite
assumptions
no
are
longer
tudes
in U.S.
students
graduate
Many
in
programs,
the old
and Damaging
Disappointing
less
for the
to Jane R. Mercer
1. I am indebted
WISC-R
data and the SES ratings. They have
in A. R. Jensen and
in detail
been described
R. A.
and Backward
"Forward
Figueroa,
Race
Interaction
with
and IQ,"
Digit-Span
Decem
Journal
of Educational
Psychology,
ber, 1975, pp. 882-93.
346
L. G. Humphreys,
S. A.
Cleary,
A. Wesman,
"Educational
Use of
Kendrick,
Tests with
Ameri
Disadvantaged
Students,'*
can Psychologist,
1975, pp. 15-41;
January,
L. G. Humphreys,
of Group
"Implications
for Test
Assess
Differences
Interpretation,"
ment
in a Pluralistic
of
Society,
Proceedings
on Testing
the 1972 Invitational
Conference
Problems
N.J.:
Educational
Test
(Princeton,
pp. 56-71; and R. L. Linn,
ing Service,
1973),
"Fair
in Selection,"
Review
Test
Use
of
Educational
Research,
pp.
Spring,
1973,
139-161.
Press, 1975).
(New York: Academic
"For
6. A. R. Jensen
and R. A. Figueroa,
and Backward
Interaction
ward
Digit-Span
and IQ," op. cit.; Paul L. Nichols,
with
Race
on
of Heredity
and Environment
"The Effects
in 4- and 7
Test
Performance
Intelligence
White
and Negro
Year-Old
Pairs,"
Sibling
of Min
doctoral
dissertation,
University
1972.
nesota,
out
response
criticize,
their
limits
analytically
determine
mental
other
our
researchers,
A.
5. A. R. Jensen,
in J. F. Ebling,
nificance.
social justice is served by denying
within
and error variance.
families
This means
that if we exclude
due to race (14%)
variance
we are left with
sum
of the SES
86%, and the
variance
Between
variance
Families
plus
by 86% must be
(within SES groups)- divided
=
+
solve (8%
.43, i.e., we
.43, so x
x)/86%
is the percent
of variance between
20%, which
families
within
SES and racial groups.
The
of 44%
is the variance
remainder
within
families.
of
creation
proletariat,"
the number
teaching
graduate
be made
graduate
training."
PH? DELTA KAPPAN
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
be
emotional
of
years
education,
a "prestigious
to
limited
a high-class
limits
that
intel
be
students
and
part
that
of