Chapter 12
The Media
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain the symbiotic relationship between the
media and politicians.
• Describe the role of the media in the political
realm.
• Describe the evolution of journalism in U.S.
political history and the current structure of the
media.
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The Media and Politics
Print
• Newspapers
• News magazines.
Broadcast
• Radio
• Television.
Internet
• News
• Blogs
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The Media and Politics
WHAT THE MEDIA DOES
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Delivers information
Controls information
Reflects public opinion
Shapes public opinion
Summary: influence on politics is enormous.
“Uncle Walter”
Walter Cronkite, CBS News
The Media and Politics
• The relationship between the media
and politicians is symbiotic.
• Why does the media
“need” politicians?
• Why do politicians
“need” the media?
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The Media and Politics
MEDIA
Motivation
=
make profit.
Must
please
consumer.
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Consumers
want
“interesting”
product.
The Media and Politics
POLITICIANS
Motivation =
• Support from voters
• Support for positions
• Support for policies
Cultivate relationship
with media
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The Media and Politics
• Politicians want the media to
support their positions.
• The media, motivated by
controversy, seek to discover
problems with the positions of
politicians.
• The relationship is an adversarial
one characterized by mutual mistrust.
• Both parties attempt to manipulate
the process for their own ends.
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Chapter 12:
“The Press is
the Enemy”
The Media and Politics
FREEDOM
OF THE
PRESS
• The First Amendment protects media freedoms.
• There is little the government can do to control
the media.
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Journalism in American Political
History
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The Party Press
The Popular Press
Magazines of Opinion
Electronic Journalism
The Internet
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Bettmann/Corbis
Before television and the
Internet, news came by
radio, as here in 1939. p.
292
Journalism in American Political History
The party press: early – late 1800s
• Parties created, subsidized, and controlled
various newspapers.
• Possible because circulation small, subscriptions
expensive
• Newspapers circulated among political and
commercial elites.
• Government often subsidized the president’s
party press.
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Journalism in American Political History
The popular press
• Changes in society and technology made possible
self-supporting, mass readership daily newspapers.
• High-speed press made printing cheaper
• Telegraph gave local papers greater access to news.
• Associated Press established 1848; objective
reporting; systematic, uniform distribution of
information
• Urbanization concentrated population to support
papers, advertisers.
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Journalism in American Political History
The popular press
• Partisanship in mass-readership
newspapers reflected the views of
publishers and editors.
• Convictions blended political
beliefs with economic interest.
• Used sensationalism and exposés
to attract large readership
• Publishers’ influence in steering
public opinion became powerful
political force.
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Journalism in American Political History
Magazines of Opinion
• Middle class favored new, progressive periodicals.
• Readers were also becoming more educated and
sophisticated.
• Nation, Atlantic Monthly, Harper’s began in 1850s and
1860s.
• Individual writers gained national followings through
investigative reporting.
• Number of competing newspapers declined, reducing
the need for sensationalism to sell papers
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Journalism in American Political History
Electronic Journalism
• Radio arrives in 1920s, television in the late 1940s
• Politicians could address voters directly, but people
could easily ignore them.
• President routinely covered
• Other politicians must be controversial or have a
national reputation or buy time
• Shorter sound bites on the nightly news make it more
difficult for candidates and officeholders to convey their
messages.
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Journalism in American Political History
The Internet
• Increasingly important: 50 percent of American
households have access to the Internet.
• Free market in political news: from news stories to
blogs to gossip
• Facilitates communication between voters and
political activists
• Some analysts fear the Internet may promote
isolation within the public and may contribute to the
promotion of extreme opinions.
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Journalism in American Political History
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Journalism in American Political History
The Internet: A Powerful Influence
• Raise money
• Candidate websites
• Facebook, Twitter
• Organize people to attend meetings
• Sample public opinion
• Air criticism of opponents
• Target likely supporters
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Blogs, both conservative
and liberal, have become
an important form of
political advertising.
Powerlineblog.com. Reprinted with permission.
Are bloggers
“journalists?”
As appeared on www.dailykos.com. Reprinted with permission.
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
JOURNALISM CODE OF ETHICS
• Seek Truth and Report It -- Journalists should
be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting
and interpreting information.
• Minimize Harm -- Ethical journalists treat sources,
subjects and colleagues as human beings deserving of
respect.
• Act Independently -- Journalists should be free of
obligation to any interest other than the public's right
to know.
• Be Accountable -- Journalists are accountable to
their readers, listeners, viewers and each other.
Society of Professional Journalists
JOURNALISM CODE OF ETHICS:
“FAIRNESS”
• Test the accuracy of information from all sources and
exercise care to avoid inadvertent error. Deliberate
distortion is never permissible.
• Diligently seek out subjects of news stories to give them
the opportunity to respond to allegations of wrongdoing.
• Identify sources whenever feasible.
• Avoid undercover or other surreptitious methods of
gathering information except when traditional open methods
will not yield information vital to the public.
• Distinguish between advocacy and news reporting. [Do]
not misrepresent fact or context.
• Support the open exchange of views.
Society of Professional Journalists
Degree of Competition
Newspapers
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Number of daily newspapers has declined
significantly.
Number of cities with multiple papers has declined.
Sixty percent of cities had competing newspapers in
1900; four percent in 1972
Subscription rates have fallen, however, as most
people get their news from television.
In 2008, the Internet surpassed newspapers as a
major source of news for Americans (24% in 2007;
40% in 2008)
Young people have turned away from political news
altogether.
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Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Conclusion: People are not
abandoning traditional news
sources but are incorporating
online sources into their
consumption habits.
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Roles of the Media
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Reporting the news
“Gatekeeper” (agenda setting)
Scorekeeper
Watchdog
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Roles of the Media
Reporting the news
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Has been a major function of the print media
since early 19th Century.
Early television: news was reported in 15
minute segments before entertainment
programs.
Cable television has made round-the-clock
news reporting possible (CNN, MSNBC, Fox
News).
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Roles of the Media
Setting the Agenda (“Gatekeeper”)
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Influences what subjects become national political
issues and for how long.
This is a source of power for the media. They can
influence the political process.
Simply by covering a topic puts it on the public
agenda.
Topics covered gain public concern; topics ignored
are forgotten by the public (AIDS in Africa).
The media “may not be successful...in telling people what to think,
but it is stunningly successful in telling them what to think about.”
Bernard C. Cohen, Professor of Political
Science,
University
Copyright
© 2011
Cengage of Wisconsin-Madison.
Roles of the Media
Setting the Agenda (“Gatekeeper”)
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Media can set public agenda because nearly all
major news organizations focus on the same
stories and interpret them the same way.
Despite hundreds of newspapers (1,500 est.) and
local TV stations (1,000 est.), news is presented in
a very similar way.
Reasons: 1) emphasis on objective journalism.
2) reliance on wire services (AP)
3) use of New York Times as compass.
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Roles of the Media
Setting the Agenda (“Gatekeeper”)
DANGER!: “media reality” vs. “objective reality”
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Media has powerful effect on what people believe is true.
In early 1990s local TV newcasts ratings were declining.
They increased crime coverage to attract more viewers.
Crime also became the most heavily reported national issue.
Late 80s: 5% of Americans believed crime was biggest
problem. In 1994 it was 40%.
FACT: From 1990-1994 the
rate of violent crime in the
U.S. dropped by 5%.
(U.S. Dept. of Justice data)
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Roles of the Media
“Scorekeeper”

Tracks political reputations and
candidacies
(In: John Boehner
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Out: Nancy Pelosi)
Scorekeeping can help decide who
wins and who loses in Washington.
Elections are covered like horse
races rather than as choices among
policy alternatives
Media momentum during the
presidential primary season is crucial
Disproportionate attention can distort
campaign outcomes. (Iowa & NH)
Roles of the Media
Watchdog
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Media accepts responsibility to protect public from
government corruption and irresponsibility.
Expose officials who violate legal, ethical or
performance standards.
Sometimes called the “fourth branch” of
government because media can check the abuse
of power.
Roles of the Media
Watchdog
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Fact-checking websites developed during
2008 election to hold politicians accountable
for their claims.
Politifact – Non-partisan site that tracks and
rates claims made in speeches, commercials
and interviews.
FactChecker.org - from Annenberg
Roles of the Media
Watchdog role: Famous examples
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McCarthy communist hunt: failure of media to
check power.
September 11 attacks: media backed off of
criticism of public officials.
Pentagon Papers: NYT published secret
documents revealing government had deceived
public regarding progress of Vietnam War.
Bush wiretaps: GWB authorized National
Security Agency to wiretap outgoing overseas
communications.
Watergate: The ultimate example.
Roles of the Media
Watchdog
DANGER!: Overzealous watchdogs
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Media is quick to pounce on a good story. Sometimes
too quick.
Basic tenets of journalism ethics: seek reliable
sources, verify information.
2008 NYT story reported that John McCain provided
inappropriate favors for a lobbyist and might have had
a sexual relationship with her.
Report was based on circumstantial evidence and
allegations. Story did not meet NYT’s own standards
according to one editor.
Rules Governing the Media
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Newspapers – least
governmental regulation
Radio and TV – most
governmental regulation
Confidentiality of Sources
Regulating Broadcasting
Campaigning
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Bebeto Matthews/AP Photo
Activists urge Congress
to pass a law shielding
reporters from being
required to testify about
their sources. p. 296
Rules Governing the Media
• Newspapers are almost entirely free from
government regulation.
• Prosecutions only after the fact—no prior restraint
• After publication, plaintiffs can sue only for libel,
obscenity, incitement to illegal act
• Each of these conditions has been defined narrowly
by the courts to enhance the freedom of the press.
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Rules Governing the Media
New York Times v. Sullivan
(1964)
• The NYT ran a full-page ad placed by four black ministers
alleging that the arrest of the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. in
Alabama was part of a conspiracy by government officials to
destroy King's efforts. The ad contained factual errors.
• Montgomery city commissioner L. B. Sullivan filed a libel action
against the newspaper and four black ministers who placed the
ad, claiming that the allegations against the Montgomery police
defamed him personally.
• Under Alabama law, Sullivan did not have to prove that he
had been harmed. Sullivan won a $500,000 judgment
against the paper.
Rules Governing the Media
New York Times v. Sullivan
(1964)
• By not requiring Sullivan to prove that an advertisement
personally harmed him and dismissing the same as untruthful
due to factual errors, did the Alabama libel law infringe on
the First Amendment's freedom of speech and freedom of
press protections?
• YES. The First Amendment protects the publication of all
IN A NUTSHELL
statements, evenAfalse
ones,
about
the conduct of public
newspaper cannot be found guilty of libel
officials except when
statements
are made
withthe
actual
malice are
against
a public official
unless
statements
(with knowledge made
that they
falsemalice
or in reckless
disregard
withare
actual
(knowing
they areof
false
their truth or falsity).
Under this
new standard,
case
or recklessly
disregarding
theirSullivan's
truth or falsity).
collapsed.
Rules Governing the Media
New York Times v. Sullivan
(1964)
“...debate on public issues should be uninhibited,
robust, and wide-open, and that it may well include
vehement, caustic, and sometimes unpleasantly sharp
attacks on government and public officials.”
Rules Governing the Media
New York Times v. U.S.
(1971)
• Known as the “Pentagon Papers” case.
• The Nixon Administration attempted to prevent the New York
Times and Washington Post from publishing materials belonging
to a classified Defense Department study regarding the history
of United States activities in Vietnam.
• Nixon argued that prior restraint was necessary to protect
national security.
• Prior restraint = censorship. The government prohibits the
publication of something before it is published.
Rules Governing the Media
New York Times v. U.S.
(1971)
• Did Nixon’s efforts to prevent publications of what he
declared to be classified information violate the First
Amendment?
IN A NUTSHELL
• YES. The Court held that the government
did not overcome the
Prior restraint
(censorship)
is permitted
"heavy presumption against"
prior restraint
of the press
in this
only when publication "will surely result in
case.
direct, immediate, and irreparable damage
to our Nation or its people.“
• The vague word "security" should not be used "to abrogate
[abolish or annul] the fundamental
law embodied in the First
“…only a free and unrestrained press can
Amendment."
effectively expose deception in the
government.”
• Since publication would not cause an inevitable, direct, and
immediate event imperiling the safety of American forces, prior
restraint was unjustified
Rules Governing the Media
Confidentiality of sources
• Reporters want right to keep sources
confidential.
• “Shield laws” protect journalists from
being required to reveal their sources.
• Most states and the federal
government disagree.
• Supreme Court allows the
government to compel reporters to
divulge information in court if it bears
on a crime.
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Rules Governing the Media
The Electronic Media
• The government can and does regulate TV and
radio.
• The FCC is the primary agency
• FCC licensing is the main method of control
 TV and radio stations must have a license to
operate.
 Licenses automatically renewed unless a community
group complains.
 Limit on number of stations that one company can
own in a single market.
 Stations must serve “community needs”
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Rules Governing the Media
The FCC “is charged
with regulating
interstate and
international
communications by
radio, television, wire,
satellite and cable.”
Attempts to promote
competition, localism
and diversity.
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Rules Governing the Media
The Electronic Media
• Recent
movement to deregulate
 Relaxation of some rule enforcement
 Telecommunications Act of 1996 part of radio
deregulation.
 Radio has been the most deregulated regarding
both ownership and content (compared to
television).
 Deregulation has led
Rules Governing the Media
The Electronic Media
• Other radio and television regulations
 Fairness doctrine: an attempt to ensure that all
coverage of controversial issues by a broadcast station
be fair and balanced.
 Fairness doctrine was established in 1949 when
there were fewer than 3,000 radio stations in the U.S.
 Fairness doctrine was not enforced during the
1990s and 2000s and was formally abolished in
2011; has permitted the rise of controversial
talk shows.
 Right-of-reply rule: allows a person who is
attacked on a broadcast the right to reply on the same
station.
Rules Governing the Media
Campaigning
• Equal-time
rule applies for political advertising.
 Equal access for all candidates
 Rates no higher than the cheapest commercial rate
 Stations no longer have to invite all candidates to a
broadcast debate.
• Scholars are concerned about horse-race
journalism that focuses on which candidate is
leading in the campaign rather than on a
discussion of issues within the campaign.
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Rules Governing the Media
The Internet
• Unregulated – it’s a free-for-all.
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Are the National Media Biased?
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Do members of the media have a
distinctive political attitude?
Does that attitude affect what they
write or say?
Does what they write or say affect
what citizens believe?
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Are the National Media Biased?
What are the views of members of the
national media?
• Large majority of journalists are more liberal than
the average citizen.
• Majority is also more secular
• Conservative media outlets have become more
visible in recent years.
 Desire for big audience ratings; more self-described
conservatives than liberals
 Conservative listeners do not think their views are
reflected in big-city media.
Copyright © 2011 Cengage
Are the National Media Biased?
• Do the beliefs of the national media affect how
they report the news?
 Journalistic philosophy (ethics) is that the news
should be neutral and objective.
 Does not apply to editorials or talk radio.
• News stories differ in opportunity for bias.
 Routine stories cover major political events;
involve relatively simple matters with little room for
bias.
 Feature stories cover public events that are not
routinely covered by the press; easier to reflect
journalistic or editorial biases.
 Insider stories cover things that are often secret
(leaked by people in government); also easier to
reflect journalistic or editorial biases.
Figure 12.2 Public Perception of
Accuracy in the Media
Source: Pew Research Center, “The People and the Press” (August 2007).
Copyright © 2011 Cengage