Unit V
States of Consciousness
PD
Unit Overview
We take our consciousness for granted. We like to think we are conscious
and psychologically “present” at any given point in our day and confuse
our wakefulness with our being conscious. Yet, our consciousness is not
just being aware or being awake. Being conscious involves a complex mix
of different levels of awareness and wakefulness—it even includes times
during which we are not aware or even awake! This unit explores several
types of consciousness beyond our being aware and awake: hypnosis,
sleep, and psychoactive drug effects. Each state of consciousness has its
own biological and psychological effects on our awareness and wakefulness. We consider each a different state of consciousness, but we do process information and can even solve problems in these “altered” states.
So are we awake and aware even when we are not? This unit helps us start
to answer that question. After reading this unit, students will be able to:
• Describe how people have been fascinated with the study of
consciousness throughout history.
• Define hypnosis and how the process generally works.
• Debate whether hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness.
• Describe how the body’s biological rhythms influence daily life.
• Outline the different stages of sleeping and dreaming.
• Analyze the different biological and environmental influences on
our sleep patterns.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Explain why sleep is important.
•
•
•
•
Understand common misconceptions about addiction.
Evaluate the effects of sleep loss.
Identify major sleep disorders.
Understand common dream content.
Explain why we might dream.
Describe how tolerance and addiction work physiologically and
psychologically.
Identify and describe the effects of depressants.
Identify and describe the effects of stimulants.
Identify and describe the effects of hallucinogens.
Alignment to AP® Course Description
Topic 5: States of Consciousness (2–4% of AP® Examination)
Module
Topic
Essential Questions
Module 22
Defining Consciousness
• What does it mean to be conscious?
Hypnosis
• What is hypnosis?
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
• How do biological rhythms affect everyday life?
Sleep Theories
• Why do we sleep?
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep
Disorders
• If sleep is so important, why do some people avoid it?
• How do sleep disorders affect daily life?
Dreams
• Are dreams important to daily life?
Tolerance and Addiction
• How does the misuse of drugs affect daily life?
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
• Why is it important to know about the different types of psychoactive drugs?
Module 23
Module 24
Module 25
States of Consciousness
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 1
Unit V
217a
2/20/14 8:12 AM
Unit Resources
Module 22
Module 24
STUDENT ACTIVITY
• Fact or Falsehood?
• The Creative Imagination Scale
• Hypnosis as Heightened Suggestibility
TEACHER DEMONSTRATIONS
• Hypnosis—A Stage Demonstration
• The Relaxation Response
Fact or Falsehood?
School Start Times: An Informal Debate
Visiting SleepNet
Sleep Profile
Sleep Strategies
Dream Journal
FLIP IT VIDEO
FLIP IT VIDEO
• Why Do We Dream?
• Theories of Hypnosis
Module 25
Module 23
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
•
•
•
•
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Sleep IQ Test
Remembering Daydreams
Sleep Deficit Scale
Keeping a Sleep Diary
FLIP IT VIDEO
Fact or Falsehood?
Signs of Drug Abuse
Eyescube Drug Addiction Simulation
The Internet Addiction Test
Blood Alcohol Concentrations
FLIP IT VIDEOS
• REM Sleep
• The Psychology of Addiction
• Neurotransmitters and Drugs
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mo
217b
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 2
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
Unit V
States of Consciousness
Modules
22
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
23
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
24
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
25
Psychoactive Drugs
C
onsciousness can be a funny thing. It offers us weird experiences, as when
entering sleep or leaving a dream, and sometimes it leaves us wondering
who is really in control. After zoning me out with nitrous oxide, my dentist
tells me to turn my head to the left. My conscious mind resists: “No way,” I silently
say. “You can’t boss me around!” Whereupon my robotic head, ignoring my conscious
mind, turns obligingly under the dentist’s control.
During my noontime pickup basketball games, I am sometimes mildly irritated
as my body passes the ball while my conscious mind is saying, “No, stop! Sarah is
going to intercept!” Alas, my body completes the pass. Other times, as psychologist Daniel Wegner (2002) noted in The Illusion of Conscious Will, people believe
their consciousness is controlling their actions when it isn’t. In one experiment, two
people jointly controlled a computer mouse. Even when their partner (who was actually the experimenter’s accomplice) caused the mouse to stop on a predetermined
square, the participants perceived that they had caused it to stop there.
Then there are those times when consciousness seems to split. Reading Green
Eggs and Ham to one of my preschoolers for the umpteenth time, my obliging mouth
could say the words while my mind wandered elsewhere. And if someone asks
what you’re doing for lunch while you’re texting, it’s not a problem. Your thumbs
complete the message as you suggest getting tacos.
What do such experiences reveal? Was my drug-induced dental experience
akin to people’s experiences with other psychoactive drugs (mood- and perceptionaltering substances)? Was my automatic obedience to my dentist like people’s
217
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 217
1/15/14 8:46 AM
Pacing Guide
Module
Topic
Module 22
Defining Consciousness
Hypnosis
Module 23
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Sleep Theories
Module 24
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders
Dreams
Module 25
Tolerance and Addiction
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
Standard Schedule
Days
Block Schedule
Days
1
1
1
1
1/2
States of Consciousness
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 217
Unit V
217
2/20/14 8:12 AM
218
Unit V States of Consciousness
responses to a hypnotist? Does a split in consciousness, as when our minds go
TEACH
elsewhere while reading or texting, explain people’s behavior while under hypno-
Discussion Starter
sis? And during sleep, when do those weird dream experiences occur, and why?
Use the Module 22 Fact or Falsehood?
activity from the TRM to introduce the
concepts from this module.
TEACH
Before considering these questions and more, let’s ask a fundamental question:
What is consciousness?
Understanding
Consciousness and Hypnosis
Module Learning Objectives
22-1
Describe the place of consciousness in psychology’s history.
22-2
Define hypnosis, and describe how a hypnotist can influence a
hypnotized subject.
22-3
Discuss whether hypnosis is an extension of normal consciousness
or an altered state.
TEACH
E
Concept Connections
very science has concepts so fundamental they are nearly impossible to define. Biologists agree on what is alive but not on precisely what life is. In physics, matter and
energy elude simple definition. To psychologists, consciousness is similarly a fundamental yet slippery concept.
Be sure students understand the
content presented in Unit III about
the two-track mind and Unit IV about
selective attention. The study of the
brain and consciousness demonstrates
that we are able to process many kinds
of information at the same time, with
much of it processed unconsciously.
Defining Consciousness
22-1
“Psychology must discard all
reference to consciousness.”
-BEHAVIORIST JOHN B. WATSON (1913)
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 218
218
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 218
Press,
Help students see that what we know
about unconscious processing is different from Freud’s ideas about the
unconscious mind. Freud described
the unconscious as a repository of
childhood experiences that influenced
behavior without our conscious knowledge. The modern understanding of the
unconscious views it as a parallel processing system that enables us to deal
with all sorts of information and stimuli
outside the conscious. This system helps
us to be more cognitively efficient.
Inc./A
Alamy
Module 22
Common Pitfalls
ZUMA
TR M
TRM
What is the place of consciousness in psychology’s history?
At its beginning, psychology was “the description and explanation of states of consciousness” (Ladd, 1887). But during the first half of the twentieth century, the difficulty of scientifically studying consciousness led many psychologists—including those in the emerging
school of behaviorism (Module 26)—to turn to direct observations of behavior. By the 1960s,
psychology had nearly lost consciousness and was defining itself as “the science of behavior.” Consciousness was likened to a car’s speedometer: “It doesn’t make the car go, it just
reflects what’s happening” (Seligman, 1991, p. 24).
After 1960, mental concepts reemerged. Neuroscience advances related brain activity
to sleeping, dreaming, and other mental states. Researchers began studying consciousness
1/15/14 8:46 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
Daydreaming
Drowsiness
Dreaming
Some are physiologically induced
Hallucinations
Orgasm
Food or oxygen
starvation
Some are psychologically induced
Sensory
deprivation
Hypnosis
Meditation
TEACH
Note that our modern-day
understanding of the unconscious
is very different from Sigmund
Freud’s theory of the unconscious
(Module 55). Freud believed the
unconscious was a hiding place
for our most anxiety-provoking
ideas and emotions, and that
uncovering those hidden thoughts
could lead to healing. Now, most
psychologists simply view the
unconscious track as one that
operates without awareness.
Make sure you keep these two
ideas of the unconscious straight.
Teaching Tip
Point out the margin note about
Unit VII’s coverage of reconstructed
memories. It is a good idea to emphasize to students that memory is not a
computer file that can be opened and
reviewed at will. Memory is an active
system that is reworked as memories
are replayed in the conscious mind.
Because of this fact, the claim that
hypnosis enables the recall of memories with vivid detail is something to
view with skepticism.
ENGAGE
What do contemporary researchers
believe about hypnosis? For answers to
this question, students can browse the
Society for Psychological Hypnosis’s
website www.apa.org/divisions/div30.
Figure 22.1
States of consciousness
What is hypnosis, and what powers does a hypnotist have over a
hypnotized subject?
Imagine you are about to be hypnotized. The hypnotist invites you to sit back, fix your gaze
on a spot high on the wall, and relax. In a quiet voice the hypnotist suggests, “Your eyes are
growing tired. . . . Your eyelids are becoming heavy . . . now heavier and heavier. . . . They
are beginning to close. . . . You are becoming more deeply relaxed. . . . Your breathing is now
deep and regular. . . . Your muscles are becoming more and more relaxed. Your whole body is
beginning to feel like lead.”
After a few minutes of this hypnotic induction, you may experience hypnosis. When
the hypnotist suggests, “Your eyelids are shutting so tight that you cannot open them even
if you try,” it may indeed seem beyond your control to open your eyelids. Told to forget the
number 6, you may be puzzled when you count 11 fingers on your hands. Invited to smell
a sensuous perfume that is actually ammonia, you may linger delightedly over its pungent
odor. Told that you cannot see a certain object, such as a chair, you may indeed report that it
is not there, although you manage to avoid the chair when walking around (illustrating once
again that two-track mind of yours).
But is hypnosis really an altered state of consciousness? Let’s start with some frequently
asked questions.
Frequently Asked Questions About Hypnosis
Hypnotists have no magical mind-control power. Their power resides in the subjects’ openness to suggestion, their ability to focus on certain images or behaviors (Bowers, 1984). But
how open to suggestions are we?
1/15/14 8:46 AM
A P ® E x a m Ti p
Online Activities
Hypnosis
22-2
219
Stuart Franklin/Magnum Photos
Some states occur
spontaneously
Maria Teijeiro/Getty Images
altered by hypnosis and drugs. Psychologists of all persuasions were affirming the importance of cognition, or mental processes. Psychology was regaining consciousness.
Most psychologists now define consciousness as our awareness of ourselves and
our environment. As we saw in Module 13, our conscious awareness is one part of the dual
processing that goes on in our two-track minds. Although much of our information processing is conscious, much is unconscious and automatic—outside our awareness. Module 16
highlighted our selective attention, which directs the spotlight of our awareness, allowing
us to assemble information from many sources as we reflect on our past and plan for our
future. We are also attentive when we learn a complex concept or behavior. When learning
to ride a bike, we focus on obstacles that we have to steer around and on how to use the
brakes. With practice, riding a bike becomes semi-automatic, freeing us to focus our attention on other things. As we do so, we experience what the early psychologist William James
called a continuous “stream of consciousness,” with each moment flowing into the next.
Over time, we flit between different states of consciousness, including sleeping, waking, and
various altered states (FIGURE 22.1).
Module 22
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 219
In addition to normal, waking
awareness, consciousness comes
to us in altered states, including
daydreaming and meditating.
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
consciousness our awareness of
ourselves and our environment.
hypnosis a social interaction in
which one person (the subject)
responds to another person’s (the
hypnotist’s) suggestions that certain
perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or
behaviors will spontaneously occur.
1/15/14 8:46 AM
ENGAGE
Enrichment
A stage hypnotist makes ready use
of our openness to suggestion when
announcing to audience members that
they will begin to experience itching
sensations on various parts of their
bodies: the head . . . arms . . . back . . .
legs. To underscore the suggestion,
the performer may casually but not
obtrusively scratch him- or herself.
Before long, many in the audience will
follow suit.
Use Teacher Demonstration:
Hypnosis—A Stage Demonstration from the TRM to show students
some techniques used for this type of
entertainment.
Active Learning
Some obstetricians have begun teaching their
pregnant patients to self-hypnotize to alleviate
the pain of labor. Some patients report no
feelings of pain, even without the use of drugs.
Research the extent to which women going
through labor use self-hypnosis.
What techniques are important, making
success with self-hypnosis more likely?
Are these results just as likely to occur with
relaxation techniques? Why or why not?
How popular is hypnosis? Have any studies
been conducted on its effectiveness?
Are there concerns about the use of drugs
during labor that would prompt women to
choose hypnosis over drugs?
Does self-hypnosis pose dangers? How does
one come out of a self-hypnotic state? Are
there liability issues or ethical obligations
for doctors who advocate this practice?
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 219
Module 22
219
2/20/14 8:12 AM
220
Unit V States of Consciousness
•
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
Enrichment
The text notes that there are individual
differences in hypnotic responsiveness and that the Stanford Hypnotic
Susceptibility Scale (SHSS) provides a
measure of a person’s hypnotizability.
Sheryl Wilson and Theodore Barber
designed the Creative Imagination
Scale (CIT) as an alternative to earlier
scales (including the SHSS), which they
claimed were too authoritarian, usually
required a trance induction, and could
not be administered in a group setting.
Given the emergence of a more democratic culture and a more educated
public, few people, they reasoned, like
to be told, “You are under my control
and you will behave as I tell you.”
Use Student Activity: The Creative
Imagination Scale from the TRM to let
students experience this measure for
themselves.
A P ® E x a m Ti p
Psychological research corrects
the mistaken popular belief that
hypnosis or other methods can
be used to tap into a pure and
complete memory bank. You
will learn much more about how
memory really works when you
get to Unit VII.
•
“Hypnosis is not a psychological
truth serum and to regard it as such
has been a source of considerable
mischief.” -RESEARCHER KENNETH
BOWERS (1987)
FYI
See Module 33 for a more
detailed discussion of how people
may construct false memories.
So should testimony obtained under hypnosis be admissible in court? American,
Australian, and British courts have agreed it should not. They generally ban testimony
from witnesses who have been hypnotized (Druckman & Bjork, 1994; Gibson, 1995;
McConkey, 1995).
•
Can hypnosis force people to act against their will? Researchers have induced
hypnotized people to perform an apparently dangerous act: plunging one hand briefly
into fuming “acid,” then throwing the “acid” in a researcher’s face (Orne & Evans,
1965). Interviewed a day later, these people emphatically denied their acts and said
they would never follow such orders.
Had hypnosis given the hypnotist a special power to control others against their
will? To find out, researchers Martin Orne and Frederich Evans unleashed that enemy
of so many illusory beliefs—the control group. Orne asked other individuals to pretend
they were hypnotized. Laboratory assistants, unaware that those in the experiment’s
control group had not been hypnotized, treated both groups the same. The result? All
the unhypnotized participants (perhaps believing that the laboratory context assured
safety) performed the same acts as those who were hypnotized.
•
Can hypnosis be therapeutic? Hypnotherapists try to help patients harness their own
healing powers (Baker, 1987). Posthypnotic suggestions have helped alleviate
headaches, asthma, and stress-related skin disorders.
In one statistical digest of 18 studies, the average client whose therapy was
supplemented with hypnosis showed greater improvement than 70 percent of other
therapy patients (Kirsch et al., 1995, 1996). Hypnosis seemed especially helpful for
the treatment of obesity. However, drug, alcohol, and smoking addictions have not
responded well to hypnosis (Nash, 2001). In controlled studies, hypnosis speeds the
disappearance of warts, but so do the same positive suggestions given without hypnosis (Spanos, 1991, 1996).
TEACH
TR M
TRM
Common Pitfalls
Be sure to emphasize to students that
high suggestibility does not mean one
is weak minded or gullible. People who
value respect for authority may submit to
hypnotic suggestion because they want
to please the hypnotist. Environment
and attitude also play important roles in
how suggestible someone may be.
Use Student Activity: Hypnosis as
Heightened Suggestibility from the
TRM to demonstrate this phenomenon
for students.
“It wasn’t what I expected. But
facts are facts, and if one is proved
to be wrong, one must just be
humble about it and start again.”
-AGATHA CHRISTIE’S MISS MARPLE
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis
session, to be carried out after the
subject is no longer hypnotized; used
by some clinicians to help control
undesired symptoms and behaviors.
Can anyone experience hypnosis? To some extent, we are all open to suggestion.
When people stand upright with their eyes closed and are told that they are swaying
back and forth, most will indeed sway a little. In fact, postural sway is one of the items
assessed on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. People who respond to such
suggestions without hypnosis are the same people who respond with hypnosis (Kirsch
& Braffman, 2001).
Highly hypnotizable people—say, the 20 percent who can carry out a suggestion not to smell or react to a bottle of ammonia held under their nose—typically
become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities (Barnier & McConkey, 2004; Silva
& Kirsch, 1992). Many researchers refer to this as hypnotic ability—the ability to
focus attention totally on a task, to become imaginatively absorbed in it, to entertain
fanciful possibilities.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events? Most people believe (wrongly, as
Module 32 will explain) that our experiences are all “in there,” recorded in our brain
and available for recall if only we can break through our own defenses (Loftus, 1980).
But 60 years of memory research disputes such beliefs. We do not encode everything
that occurs around us. We permanently store only some of our experiences, and we
may be unable to retrieve some memories we have stored.
“Hypnotically refreshed” memories combine fact with fiction. Since 1980, thousands of people have reported being abducted by UFOs, but most such reports have
come from people who are predisposed to believe in aliens, are highly hypnotizable,
and have undergone hypnosis (Newman & Baumeister, 1996; Nickell, 1996). Without
either person being aware of what is going on, a hypnotist’s hints—“Did you hear
loud noises?”—can plant ideas that become the subject’s pseudomemory.
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 220
1/15/14 8:46 AM
Concept Connections
Link the concept of lost or hidden memories
with Freudian theory. Sigmund Freud developed the idea that people repress difficult
experiences from childhood in the subconscious or unconscious, and that these memories must be brought to consciousness so the
experiences do not interfere with adult life.
Hypnosis and dream interpretation were two
ways Freud believed these experiences and
memories could be revealed.
220
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 220
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
•
Can hypnosis relieve pain? Hypnosis can relieve pain
(Druckman & Bjork, 1994; Jensen, 2008). When unhypnotized
people put their arm in an ice bath, they feel intense pain
within 25 seconds. When hypnotized people do the same after
being given suggestions to feel no pain, they indeed report
feeling little pain. As some dentists know, light hypnosis can
reduce fear, thus reducing hypersensitivity to pain.
Hypnosis inhibits pain-related brain activity. In surgical
experiments, hypnotized patients have required less medication, recovered sooner, and left the hospital earlier than
unhypnotized control patients (Askay & Patterson, 2007;
Hammond, 2008; Spiegel, 2007). Nearly 10 percent of us can
become so deeply hypnotized that even major surgery can
be performed without anesthesia. Half of us can gain at least some pain relief from
hypnosis. The surgical use of hypnosis has flourished in Europe, where one Belgian
medical team has performed more than 5000 surgeries with a combination of hypnosis, local anesthesia, and a mild sedative (Song, 2006).
Module 22
221
BSIP SA/Alamy
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
1. A quiet, calm environment with as
few distractions as possible. A quiet
room or place of worship would be
suitable.
Hypnotherapy This therapy aims to
help people uncover problem-causing
thoughts and feelings, or to change an
unwanted behavior.
2. A mental device to prevent “mind
wandering” (a sound, a word, or a
phrase repeated silently or aloud).
Attending to the normal rhythm of
breathing is also useful.
Is hypnosis an extension of normal consciousness or an altered state?
3. A passive, “let-it-happen” attitude.
Don’t worry about distracting
thoughts or about how well you
are doing. When distractions occur,
simply return to repetition of the
sound, word, or phrase.
We have seen that hypnosis involves heightened suggestibility. We have also seen that
hypnotic procedures do not endow a person with special powers but can sometimes help
people overcome stress-related ailments and cope with pain. So, just what is hypnosis?
Psychologists have proposed two explanations.
HYPNOSIS AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON
Our attentional spotlight and interpretations powerfully influence our ordinary perceptions.
Might hypnotic phenomena reflect such workings of normal consciousness, as well as the
power of social influence (Lynn et al., 1990; Spanos & Coe, 1992)? Advocates of the social
influence theory of hypnosis believe they do.
Does this mean that subjects consciously fake hypnosis? No—like actors caught up in
their roles, they begin to feel and behave in ways appropriate for “good hypnotic subjects.”
The more they like and trust the hypnotist, the more they allow that person to direct their
attention and fantasies (Gfeller et al., 1987). “The hypnotist’s ideas become the subject’s
thoughts,” explained Theodore Barber (2000), “and the subject’s thoughts produce the hypnotic experiences and behaviors.” Told to scratch their ear later when they hear the word
psychology, subjects will likely do so—but only if they think the experiment is still under way.
If an experimenter eliminates their motivation for acting hypnotized—by stating that hypnosis reveals their “gullibility”—subjects become unresponsive. Such findings support the
idea that hypnotic phenomena are an extension of normal social and cognitive processes.
These views illustrate a principle that Module 75 emphasizes: An authoritative person in
a legitimate context can induce people—hypnotized or not—to perform some unlikely acts. Or as
hypnosis researcher Nicholas Spanos (1982) put it, “The overt behaviors of hypnotic subjects are well within normal limits.”
4. A comfortable position to prevent
muscular tension. A sitting position
is probably best. If you lie down,
you may fall asleep.
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
Other hypnosis researchers believe hypnosis is more than inducing someone to play the role
of “good subject.” How, they ask, can we explain why hypnotized subjects sometimes carry out
suggested behaviors on cue, even when they believe no one is watching (Perugini et al., 1998)?
And why does distinctive brain activity accompany hypnosis (Oakley & Halligan, 2009)? In one
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 221
Flip It
Students can get additional help understanding the different theories of hypnosis by watching the Flip It Video: Theories of Hypnosis.
1/15/14 8:46 AM
What happens? Are the students
salivating? Why or why not?
How does this demonstration
mimic hypnotic suggestion?
What about this demonstration was
particularly vivid?
Use Teacher Demonstration: The
Relaxation Response from the TRM
for another way to demonstrate this
response.
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 221
Active Learning
Tell your students to close their eyes
and imagine they are cutting a lemon
. . . a large . . . sour . . . bitter lemon . . .
so full of juice that it drips over their
fingers onto the floor. Now imagine
sucking the juice from the same fruit.
HYPNOSIS AS DIVIDED CONSCIOUSNESS
1/15/14 8:46 AM
Enrichment
Herbert Benson suggests that 4 basic
components are necessary to elicit the
relaxation response:
Explaining the Hypnotized State
22-3
ENGAGE
Module 22
221
2/20/14 8:12 AM
222
Unit V States of Consciousness
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Divide students into groups, and
have them research how hypnosis is
portrayed in different types of movies
and television shows. If possible, have
them bring in clips to demonstrate
their conclusions.
How do legal shows and movies
portray hypnosis?
How do comedic and cartoon
shows and movies portray
hypnosis?
Do either type of media cite
the drawbacks or limitations of
hypnosis? What claims are made
about what hypnosis is capable of
providing?
dissociation a split in
consciousness, which allows some
thoughts and behaviors to occur
simultaneously with others.
experiment, deeply hypnotized people were asked to imagine a color, and areas of their brain
activated as if they were really seeing the color. To the hypnotized person’s brain, mere imagination had become a compelling hallucination (Kosslyn et al., 2000). In another experiment, researchers invited hypnotizable and nonhypnotizable people to say the color of letters. This is an
easy task, but it slows if, say, green letters form the conflicting word RED, a phenomenon known
as the Stroop effect (Raz et al., 2005). When easily hypnotized people were given a suggestion to
focus on the color and to perceive the letters as irrelevant gibberish, they were much less slowed
by the word-color conflict. (Brain areas that decode words and detect conflict remained inactive.)
These results would not have surprised famed researcher Ernest Hilgard (1986, 1992),
who believed hypnosis involves not only social influence but also a special dual-processing
state of dissociation—a split between different levels of consciousness. Hilgard viewed
hypnotic dissociation as a vivid form of everyday mind splits—similar to doodling while listening to a lecture or typing the end of a sentence while starting a conversation. Hilgard felt
that when, for example, hypnotized people lower their arm into an ice bath, as in FIGURE
22.2, the hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus (of which the subjects are
still aware) from the emotional suffering that defines their experience of pain. The ice water
therefore feels cold—very cold—but not painful.
Figure 22.2
Dissociation or role playing?
A hypnotized woman tested by Ernest
Hilgard exhibited no pain when her arm
was placed in an ice bath. But asked to
press a key if some part of her felt the
pain, she did so. To Hilgard, this was
evidence of dissociation, or divided
consciousness. Proponents of social
influence theory, however, maintain that
people responding this way are caught up
in playing the role of “good subject.”
Divided-consciousness
theory:
Concept Connections
What other explanations can students
come up with to explain hypnotic
behavior? Have students research the
following social psychology concepts
related to the social influence theory.
Students should apply their research
by explaining orally or in writing how
these concepts reinforce the social
influence theory:
Conformity
Peer pressure
Groupthink
Social desirability
Social influence
theory:
The subject is so caught
up in the hypnotized role
that she ignores the cold.
Hypnosis has caused a
split in awareness.
Courtesy Elizabeth Jecker
TEACH
Attention is diverted
from a painful ice
bath. How?
Biological influences:
• distinctive brain activity
• unconscious information
processing
Another form of dual processing—selective
attention—may also play a role in hypnotic pain relief. PET scans show that hypnosis reduces brain activity in a region that processes painful stimuli, but
not in the sensory cortex, which receives the raw
sensory input (Rainville et al., 1997). Hypnosis does
not block sensory input, but it may block our attention to those stimuli. This helps explain why an injured athlete, caught up in the competition, may feel
little or no pain until the game ends.
Although the divided-consciousness theory of hypnosis is controversial, this much seems clear: There is, without doubt, much more to thinking
and acting than we are conscious of. Our information processing, which
starts with selective attention, is divided into simultaneous conscious and
nonconscious realms. In hypnosis as in life, much of our behavior occurs on
autopilot. We have two-track minds (FIGURE 22.3).
Psychological influences:
• focused attention
• expectations
• heightened suggestibility
• dissociation between normal
sensations and conscious
awareness
Hypnosis
Social-cultural
lturall iinfluences:
nflue
• presence of an authoritative
person in legitimate context
• role playing “good subject”
Figure 22.3
Levels of analysis for hypnosis Using a
biopsychosocial approach, researchers explore
hypnosis from complementary perspectives.
ENGAGE
Enrichment
Ernest Hilgard is considered to be one
of the most influential psychologists
of the 20th century. After joining the
faculty at Stanford in 1933, he pursued
many interests, one of which was
hypnosis. Hypnosis was viewed largely
as the tool of magicians and quacks,
but Hilgard’s scientific studies of the
phenomenon helped shed light on
why it worked for some people and
what applications were beneficial.
He developed the Stanford Hypnotic
Suggestibility Scale, which helped to
standardize the study of hypnosis.
222
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 222
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 222
1/15/14 8:46 AM
Concept Connections
The problems of hypnotic suggestion have
called into question the diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as
multiple personality disorder. Have students
research the criticism against DID as a legitimate psychological disorder:
Why has the legitimacy of DID come into
question in recent years?
What are some arguments for and against
its legitimacy?
What role does hypnosis play in this
debate?
What position has the American Psychiatric
Association taken on this disorder? Is it still
included in the current version of DSM? Are
there plans to remove it from the manual?
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
Module 22
223
Before You Move On
ENGAGE
䉴 ASK YOURSELF
Enrichment
You’ve read about two examples of dissociated consciousness: talking while texting, and
thinking about something else while reading a child a bedtime story. Can you think of
another example that you have experienced?
Irving Kirsch and Steven Jay Lynn
provide an excellent review of the
literature on hypnosis, including the
question of whether hypnosis produces an out-of-the-ordinary, trancelike, “altered” state of consciousness.
Research indicates the following:
䉴 TEST YOURSELF
When is the use of hypnosis potentially harmful, and when can hypnosis be used
to help?
Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.
The ability to be hypnotized does
not indicate gullibility or weakness.
Participants retain the ability to
control their behavior during
hypnosis.
Spontaneous posthypnotic amnesia
is relatively rare.
Hypnosis is not a dangerous
procedure when practiced by
qualified researchers and clinicians.
Hypnosis does not increase the
accuracy of memory.
Hypnosis does not foster a literal reexperiencing of childhood events.
Module 22 Review
22-1
•
•
After initially claiming consciousness as its area of study
in the nineteenth century, psychologists had abandoned
it in the first half of the twentieth century, turning instead
to the study of observable behavior because they believed
consciousness was too difficult to study scientifically.
Since 1960, under the influence of cognitive psychology
and neuroscience, consciousness (our awareness of
ourselves and our environment) has resumed its place as
an important area of research.
22-2
1/15/14 8:46 AM
What is the place of consciousness in
psychology’s history?
22-3
Is hypnosis an extension of normal
consciousness or an altered state?
•
Many psychologists believe that hypnosis is a form of
normal social influence and that hypnotized people act
out the role of “good subject” by following directions
given by an authoritative person.
•
Other psychologists view hypnosis as a dissociation—a
split between normal sensations and conscious awareness.
Selective attention may also contribute by blocking
attention to certain stimuli.
Kirsch, I., & Lynn, S. J. (1995). The altered
state of hypnosis: Changes in the theoretical landscape. American Psychologist, 50,
846–858.
What is hypnosis, and what powers does a
hypnotist have over a hypnotized subject?
•
Hypnosis is a social interaction in which one person
suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings,
thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
•
Hypnosis does not enhance recall of forgotten events (it
may even evoke false memories).
•
It cannot force people to act against their will, though
hypnotized people, like unhypnotized people, may
perform unlikely acts.
•
Posthypnotic suggestions have helped people harness their
own healing powers but have not been very effective in
treating addiction. Hypnosis can help relieve pain.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 223
CLOSE & ASSESS
Exit Assessment
Have students write a paragraph
comparing and contrasting the 2 main
theories of hypnosis. Ask them to
decide which one is more convincing
and why.
1/15/14 8:46 AM
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 223
Module 22
223
2/20/14 8:12 AM
Unit V States of Consciousness
224
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Questions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. What do we call awareness of our environment and
ourselves?
1. e
2. a
3. b
4. d
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Selective attention
Hypnotism
Posthypnotic suggestion
Dissociation
Consciousness
2. Which of the following is true about daydreaming?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Answer to Practice FRQ 2
1 point: Biological influence: either distinctive brain activity or unconscious
information processing.
1 point: Psychological influence:
focused attention, expectations,
heightened suggestibility, or dissociation between normal sensations and
conscious awareness.
It occurs spontaneously.
It is physiologically induced.
It is psychologically induced.
It is considered the same as waking awareness.
It is more like meditation than it is like dreaming.
3. Which of the following states of consciousness occurs
when one person suggests to another that certain
thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Dreaming
Hypnosis
Daydreaming
Hallucination
Waking awareness
4. Which of the following is the term most closely
associated with the split in consciousness that allows
some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously
with others?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Consciousness
Hypnosis
Hallucination
Dissociation
Meditation
Practice FRQs
1. Identify two states of consciousness that are
psychologically induced and two that occur
spontaneously.
Answer
2. According to the biopsychosocial approach, identify a
biological, a psychological, and a social-cultural influence
on hypnosis.
(3 points)
1 point: For any two psychologically induced states: sensory
deprivation, hypnosis, or meditation.
1 point: For any two spontaneously occurring states:
daydreaming, drowsiness, or dreaming.
1 point: Social-cultural influence: either
presence of an authoritative person or
role-playing a “good subject.”
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod22_B.indd 224
224
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 224
1/15/14 8:46 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mo
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
Module 23
225
TEACH
Module 23
my
s/Ala
Service
light V
Active Learning
Catch
Module Learning Objectives
23-1
Describe how our biological rhythms influence our daily
functioning.
23-2
Describe the biological rhythm of our sleeping and dreaming stages.
23-3
Explain how biology and environment interact in our sleep patterns.
23-4
Describe sleep’s functions.
Have students calculate roughly how
much of their lives they have spent
sleeping. Have students interview
their parents to find out how many
hours of sleep they averaged when
they were infants and toddlers. Also
have them recall their daily bedtimes
and wake-up times during the school
week. They should also keep track of
the average daily amount of sleep
they get for a week.
S
leep—the irresistible tempter to whom we inevitably succumb. Sleep—the equalizer
of teachers and teens. Sleep—sweet, renewing, mysterious sleep. While sleeping, you
may feel “dead to the world,” but you are not. Even when you are deeply asleep, your
perceptual window is open a crack. You move around on your bed, but you manage not to
fall out. The occasional roar of passing vehicles may leave your deep sleep undisturbed, but
a cry from a baby’s room quickly interrupts it. So does the sound of your name. Electroencephalograph (EEG) recordings confirm that the brain’s auditory cortex responds to
sound stimuli even during sleep (Kutas, 1990). And when you are asleep, as when you are
awake, you process most information outside your conscious awareness.
Many of sleep’s mysteries are now being solved as some people sleep, attached to recording devices, while others observe. By recording brain waves and muscle movements,
and by observing and occasionally waking sleepers, researchers are glimpsing things that
a thousand years of common sense never told us. Perhaps you can anticipate some of their
discoveries. Are the following statements true or false?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Discussion Starter
ENGAGE
isual
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
TR M
TRM
Use the Student Activity: The Sleep IQ
Test activity from the TRM to introduce
the concepts from this module.
“I love to sleep. Do you? Isn’t it
great? It really is the best of both
worlds. You get to be alive and
unconscious.” -COMEDIAN RITA
RUDNER, 1993
When people dream of performing some activity, their limbs often move in concert
with the dream.
Older adults sleep more than young adults.
Sleepwalkers are acting out their dreams.
Sleep experts recommend treating insomnia with an occasional sleeping pill.
Some people dream every night; others seldom dream.
All these statements (adapted from Palladino & Carducci, 1983) are false. To see why, read on.
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Like the ocean, life has its rhythmic tides. Over varying periods, our bodies fluctuate, and
with them, our minds. Let’s look more closely at two of those biological rhythms—our 24hour biological clock and our 90-minute sleep cycle.
1/15/14 8:46 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 225
1/15/14 8:47 AM
SleepConsciousness
Patterns and Sleep
Theories
Understanding
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 225
Module 23
22
225
2/20/14 8:12 AM
226
Unit V States of Consciousness
Circadian Rhythm
ENGAGE
23-1
Active Learning
There are actually 3 types of body
rhythms:
Circadian rhythms occur once each
day. Our circadian rhythm spans
24 hours and is responsible for our
varying levels of arousal throughout
the course of a day.
Ultradian rhythms occur more
than once each day and include the
cycles of appetite and hormonal
release.
Infradian rhythms occur once per
month or season and include the
menstrual cycle.
FYI
Dolphins, porpoises, and whales
sleep with one side of their brain at
a time (Miller et al., 2008).
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Have students conduct a sleep survey
with a representative sample of
students at your school. They should
ask how much sleep students get each
night, whether they nap in class or feel
extremely tired during the day, and
why they may or may not get enough
sleep each night.
Be sure to get approval from an
institutional review board and
obtain informed consent from
subjects before embarking on any
research project.
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 226
The rhythm of the day parallels the rhythm of life—from our waking at a new day’s birth
to our nightly return to what Shakespeare called “death’s counterfeit.” Our bodies roughly synchronize with the 24-hour cycle of day and night by an internal
biological clock called the circadian rhythm (from the Latin circa,
“about,” and diem, “day”). As morning approaches, body temperature rises, then peaks during the day, dips for a time in early afternoon (when many people take siestas), and begins to drop again in
the evening. Thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when
we are at our daily peak in circadian arousal. Try pulling an allnighter or working an occasional night shift. You’ll feel groggiest in
the middle of the night but may gain new energy when your normal
wake-up time arrives.
Age and experience can alter our circadian rhythm.
Most teens and young adults are evening-energized
Eric Isselée/Shutterstock
“owls,” with performance improving across the day
(May & Hasher, 1998). Most older adults are morning-loving “larks,” with
performance declining as the day wears on. By mid-evening, when the
night has hardly begun for many young adults, retirement homes
are typically quiet. At about age 20 (slightly earlier for women), we
begin to shift from being owls to being larks (Roenneberg et al.,
2004). Women become more morning oriented as they have children and also as they transition to menopause (Leonhard &
Randler, 2009; Randler & Bausback, 2010). Morning types
tend to do better in school, to take more initiative, and to be
less vulnerable to depression (Randler, 2008, 2009; Randler
Peter Chadwick/Science Source
& Frech, 2009).
Sleep Stages
23-2
circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an]
rhythm the biological clock;
regular bodily rhythms (for example,
of temperature and wakefulness)
that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
REM sleep rapid eye movement
sleep; a recurring sleep stage during
which vivid dreams commonly
occur. Also known as paradoxical
sleep, because the muscles are
relaxed (except for minor twitches)
but other body systems are active.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 226
226
How do our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning?
What is the biological rhythm of our sleeping and dreaming stages?
Sooner or later, sleep overtakes us and consciousness fades as different parts of our brain’s
cortex stop communicating (Massimini et al., 2005). Yet the sleeping brain remains active
and has its own biological rhythm.
About every 90 minutes, we cycle through four distinct sleep stages. This simple fact apparently was unknown until 8-year-old Armond Aserinsky went to bed one night in 1952.
His father, Eugene, a University of Chicago graduate student, needed to test an electroencephalograph he had repaired that day (Aserinsky, 1988; Seligman & Yellen, 1987). Placing
electrodes near Armond’s eyes to record the rolling eye movements then believed to occur
during sleep, Aserinsky watched the machine go wild, tracing deep zigzags on the graph
paper. Could the machine still be broken? As the night proceeded and the activity recurred,
Aserinsky realized that the periods of fast, jerky eye movements were accompanied by energetic brain activity. Awakened during one such episode, Armond reported having a dream.
Aserinsky had discovered what we now know as REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep).
Similar procedures used with thousands of volunteers showed the cycles were a normal
part of sleep (Kleitman, 1960). To appreciate these studies, imagine yourself as a participant.
As the hour grows late, you feel sleepy and yawn in response to reduced brain metabolism.
(Yawning, which can be socially contagious, stretches your neck muscles and increases your
heart rate, which increases your alertness [Moorcroft, 2003].) When you are ready for bed, a
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
Left eye movements
Right eye movements
EMG (muscle tension)
Module 23
227
Figure 23.1
Measuring sleep activity Sleep
ENGAGE
researchers measure brain-wave
activity, eye movements, and muscle
tension by electrodes that pick up
weak electrical signals from the
brain, eye, and facial muscles. (From
Dement, 1978.)
TR M
TRM
EEG (brain waves)
Hank Morgan/Science Source
Figure 23.2
Brain waves and sleep stages
The beta waves of an alert, waking
state and the regular alpha waves of
an awake, relaxed state differ from
the slower, larger delta waves of deep
NREM-3 sleep. Although the rapid
REM sleep waves resemble the nearwaking NREM-1 sleep waves, the body
is more aroused during REM sleep
than during NREM sleep.
100 nV
Rebecca Spencer, University of Masssachusetts, assisted with this figure.
researcher comes in and tapes electrodes to your
scalp (to detect your brain waves), on your chin
Waking Beta
(to detect muscle tension), and just outside the
corners of your eyes (to detect eye movements)
Waking Alpha
(FIGURE 23.1). Other devices will record your
heart rate, respiration rate, and genital arousal.
When you are in bed with your eyes closed,
the researcher in the next room sees on the
REM
EEG the relatively slow alpha waves of your
awake but relaxed state (FIGURE 23.2). As you
adapt to all this equipment, you grow tired and,
in an unremembered moment, slip into sleep
NREM-1
(FIGURE 23.3). The transition is marked by the
slowed breathing and the irregular brain waves of
non-REM stage 1 sleep. Using the new American
NREM-2
Academy of Sleep Medicine classification of sleep
stages, this is called NREM-1 (Silber et al., 2008).
In one of his 15,000 research participants,
William Dement (1999) observed the moment
NREM-3 (Delta waves)
the brain’s perceptual window to the outside
world slammed shut. Dement asked this sleepdeprived young man, lying on his back with
eyelids taped open, to press a button every time
a strobe light flashed in his eyes (about every 6
seconds). After a few minutes the young man
missed one. Asked why, he said, “Because there
was no flash.” But there was a flash. He missed
6 sec
it because (as his brain activity revealed) he had
fallen asleep for 2 seconds, missing not only the flash 6 inches from his
nose but also the awareness of the abrupt moment of entry into sleep.
Enrichment
The waves people exhibit when they
are awake and active are called beta
waves. These are high-frequency, lowamplitude waves. Theta waves characterize the transition from NREM-1
to NREM-2. Theta waves are slower,
so they have a higher amplitude and
lower frequency than alpha waves, the
type of waves that are present as we
move from relaxation to deeper sleep.
Use Student Activity: Remembering
Daydreams from the TRM to help students see that daydreams can be just
as helpful to our lives as night dreams.
ENGAGE
Enrichment
alpha waves the relatively slow
brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Another type of wave found in sleep
NREM-2 is the K-complex. As you can
see in Figure 23.2, in NREM-2 there
is a sharp upturn followed by a rapid
downturn of the wave, which looks
similar to a heartbeat pattern on an
EKG. This wave is the precursor to the
large delta waves that characterize
NREM-3 sleep.
sleep periodic, natural loss of
consciousness—as distinct from
unconsciousness resulting from
a coma, general anesthesia, or
hibernation. (Adapted from
Dement, 1999.)
Figure 23.3
The moment of sleep We seem unaware of the
Sleep
1/15/14 8:47 AM
1 second
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 227
moment we fall into sleep, but someone watching
our brain waves could tell. (From Dement, 1999.)
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Teaching Tip
Use Figure 23.2 to help students identify the
different types of brain waves characterizing
the different stages of sleep. A diagram like this
may show up on the AP® exam. Students could
need to identify which waves correspond to
each stage.
SleepConsciousness
Patterns and Sleep
Theories
Understanding
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 227
Module 23
22
227
2/20/14 8:12 AM
228
Unit V States of Consciousness
hallucinations false sensory
experiences, such as seeing
something in the absence of an
external visual stimulus.
TEACH
Teaching Tip
delta waves the large, slow brain
waves associated with deep sleep.
Be sure to point out the name for the
hallucinations people experience when
they are in the early stages of sleep:
hypnagogic sensations. This term
may show up on the AP® exam.
NREM sleep non–rapid eye
movement sleep; encompasses all
sleep stages except for REM sleep.
ENGAGE
Active Learning
During this brief NREM-1 sleep you may experience fantastic images resembling
hallucinations—sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus. You may
have a sensation of falling (at which moment your body may suddenly jerk) or of floating
weightlessly. These hypnagogic sensations may later be incorporated into your memories.
People who claim to have been abducted by aliens—often shortly after getting into bed—
commonly recall being floated off of or pinned down on their beds (Clancy, 2005).
You then relax more deeply and begin about 20 minutes of NREM-2 sleep, with its periodic sleep spindles—bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity (see Figure 23.2). Although
you could still be awakened without too much difficulty, you are now clearly asleep.
Then you transition to the deep sleep of NREM-3. During this slow-wave sleep, which
lasts for about 30 minutes, your brain emits large, slow delta waves and you are hard to
awaken. Ever say to classmates, “That thunder was so loud last night,” only to have them
respond, “What thunder?” Those who missed the storm may have been in delta sleep.
(It is at the end of the deep, slow-wave NREM-3 sleep that children may wet the bed.)
TEACH
Concept Connections
The device used to measure sleep
waves is the EEG—electroencephalogram—which was discussed in Unit III.
This device captures the electrical activity given off by the neurons as they fire
action potentials. The speed with which
the action potentials occur creates the
brain wave patterns seen during wakefulness and sleep. Sleep researchers use
other devices during sleep studies to
measure eye movements and muscle
activity to gain a better understanding
of the physiology of sleep.
ScienceCartoonsPlus.com
REM SLEEP
Students have likely experienced
hypnagogic sensations during school
when they have fallen asleep in class.
Ask students if they have ever jerked
awake as they dozed off. If they have,
they may recall what they were dreaming about at that moment—perhaps
tripping on a sidewalk or falling from
a chair. Their dream experience is then
translated into behavior since they are
not fully into REM sleep.
About an hour after you first fall asleep, a strange thing happens. You start to leave
behind the stages known as NREM sleep. Rather than continuing in deep slumber, you ascend from your initial sleep dive. Returning through NREM-2 (where you
spend about half your night), you enter the most intriguing sleep phase—REM sleep
(FIGURE 23.4). For about 10 minutes, your brain waves become rapid and saw-toothed,
more like those of the nearly awake NREM-1 sleep. But unlike NREM-1, during REM
sleep your heart rate rises, your breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and every halfminute or so your eyes dart around in momentary bursts of activity behind closed lids.
These eye movements announce the beginning of a dream—often emotional, usually
“Boy are my eyes tired! I had REM sleep
story-like, and richly hallucinatory. Because anyone watching a sleeper’s eyes can notice these
all night long.”
REM bursts, it is amazing that science was ignorant of REM sleep until 1952.
Figure 23.4
The stages in a typical night’s
sleep People pass through a
multistage sleep cycle several times
each night, with the periods of deep
sleep diminishing and REM sleep
periods increasing in duration. As
people age, sleep becomes more
fragile, with awakenings common
among older adults (Kamel et al.,
2006; Neubauer, 1999).
(a) Young Adults
REM
NREM-1
NREM-2
NREM-3
1
4
5
6
7
8
5
6
7
8
(b) Older Adults
REM
A P ® E x a m Ti p
Study this cycle of sleep carefully.
One common mistake that
students make is to believe that
REM sleep comes directly after
deep NREM-3 sleep. As you
can see, it does not. Generally,
NREM-2 follows NREM-3. Then
comes REM.
NREM-1
NREM-2
NREM-3
Teaching Tip
Figure 23.4 is a good example to use for identifying elements of a diagram. Students need
to identify the stages of sleep and explain the
relationship between REM and NREM stages
throughout the night.
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 228
3
Awake
TEACH
Unit V
2
Hours of sleep
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 228
228
REM increases
as night progresses
Awake
1
2
3
4
Hours of sleep
TEACH
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Flip It
Students can get additional help understanding paradoxical sleep by watching the Flip It
Video: REM Sleep.
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
229
FYI
ENGAGE
People rarely snore during dreams.
When REM starts, snoring stops.
Enrichment
FYI
Uriel Sinai/Getty Images
Horses, which spend 92 percent
of each day standing and can
sleep standing, must lie down for
REM sleep (Morrison, 2003).
Safety in numbers? Why would
communal sleeping provide added
protection for those whose safety
depends upon vigilance, such as
these soldiers?
ANSWER: With each soldier
cycling through the sleep stages
independently, it is very likely that at
any given time at least one of them
will be awake or easily wakened in
the event of a threat.
Except during very scary dreams, your genitals become aroused during REM sleep. You
have an erection or increased vaginal lubrication, regardless of whether the dream’s content
is sexual (Karacan et al., 1966). Men’s common “morning erection” stems from the night’s
last REM period, often just before waking.
Your brain’s motor cortex is active during REM sleep, but your brainstem blocks its
messages. This leaves your muscles relaxed, so much so that, except for an occasional finger,
toe, or facial twitch, you are essentially paralyzed. Moreover, you cannot easily be awakened. (This immobility may occasionally linger as you awaken from REM sleep, producing
a disturbing experience of sleep paralysis [Santomauro & French, 2009].) REM sleep is thus
sometimes called paradoxical sleep: The body is internally aroused, with waking-like brain
activity, yet asleep and externally calm.
The sleep cycle repeats itself about
every 90 minutes. As the night wears
on, deep NREM-3 sleep grows shorter
and disappears. The REM and NREM2 sleep periods get longer (see Figure 23.4). By morning, we have spent
20 to 25 percent of an average night’s
sleep—some 100 minutes—in REM
sleep. Thirty-seven percent of people
report rarely or never having dreams
“that you can remember the next morning” (Moore, 2004). Yet even they will,
more than 80 percent of the time, recall
a dream after being awakened during
REM sleep. We spend about 600 hours a
year experiencing some 1500 dreams, or more than 100,000 dreams over a typical lifetime—
dreams swallowed by the night but not acted out, thanks to REM’s protective paralysis.
Module 23
TEACH
What Affects Our Sleep Patterns?
23-3
Teaching Tip
How do biology and environment interact in our sleep patterns?
The idea that “everyone needs 8 hours of sleep” is untrue. Newborns often sleep two-thirds
of their day, most adults no more than one-third. Still, there is more to our sleep differences
than age. Some of us thrive with fewer than 6 hours per night; others regularly rack up 9
hours or more. Such sleep patterns are genetically influenced (Hor & Tafti, 2009). In studies
of fraternal and identical twins, only the identical twins had strikingly similar sleep patterns
and durations (Webb & Campbell, 1983). Today’s researchers are discovering the genes that
regulate sleep in humans and animals (Donlea et al., 2009; He et al., 2009).
Sleep patterns are also culturally influenced. In the United States and Canada, adults
average 7 to 8 hours per night (Hurst, 2008; National Sleep Foundation, 2010; Robinson &
Martin, 2009). (The weeknight sleep of many students and workers falls short of this average [NSF, 2008].) North Americans are nevertheless sleeping less than their counterparts a
century ago. Thanks to modern lighting, shift work, and social media and other diversions,
those who would have gone to bed at 9:00 P.M. are now up until 11:00 P.M. or later. With
sleep, as with waking behavior, biology and environment interact.
Bright morning light tweaks the circadian clock by activating light-sensitive retinal
proteins. These proteins control the circadian clock by triggering signals to the brain’s
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—a pair of grain-of-rice-sized, 10,000-cell clusters in
the hypothalamus (Wirz-Justice, 2009). The SCN does its job in part by causing the brain’s
pineal gland to decrease its production of the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin in the
morning and to increase it in the evening (FIGURE 23.5 on the next page).
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 229
ENGAGE
Dreams do not usually occur in NREM
sleep, but they can and do happen.
Have you ever fallen asleep and started
“dreaming” about something mundane—like walking down the sidewalk
or talking with a friend—only to jerk
awake when you dreamed that you
are tripping or falling? This experience
can be explained as an NREM dream.
Normally in REM sleep, the body is
completely relaxed, so people do not
react physically to their dreams. But, if
we dream during NREM, then our bodies may interpret our dreams as reality
and react to them, causing us to jump
or startle at an apparent fall.
The term paradoxical sleep is a good
one for students to know. If students
can recall this term as a synonym for
REM sleep, they will remember the
nature of this stage of sleep—that
brain wave patterns resemble wakefulness, but the body is at rest.
TEACH
Common Pitfalls
suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN) a pair of cell clusters in
the hypothalamus that controls
circadian rhythm. In response
to light, the SCN causes the
pineal gland to adjust melatonin
production, thus modifying our
feelings of sleepiness.
TEACH
Students may need help understanding why REM is called paradoxical
sleep. A paradox is something that
seems to contradict itself. It seems
illogical for your brain to be so active
while it is asleep, but this is true during
REM. When we are at our most relaxed
physically, we are experiencing one of
our most active times mentally.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Enrichment
Concept Connections
REM is also known as emergent stage 1 sleep. As
we go through the sleep cycle each night, the
body will start with the twilight sleep of stage 1
and move into deeper, slow-wave sleep patterns.
When the body cycles back up to stage 1, it again
experiences brain waves similar to those of stage
1, only this time it is in REM, the most restful
sleep. So while the body appears to be coming
out of sleep every 90 minutes, it is actually cycling
into emergent stage 1 or REM sleep.
Connect the sleep stages with information
discussed later in this unit related to sleep
disorders. People with sleep disorders experience a disruption in the regular patterns of
sleep, making their experience of them vastly
different. The most disruption occurs with their
REM patterns.
SleepConsciousness
Patterns and Sleep
Theories
Understanding
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 229
Module 23
22
229
2/20/14 8:12 AM
Unit V States of Consciousness
230
ENGAGE
Figure 23.5
The biological clock Light striking
Enrichment
the retina signals the suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN) to suppress the pineal
gland’s production of the sleep
hormone melatonin. At night, the
SCN quiets down, allowing the pineal
gland to release melatonin into the
bloodstream.
The stages of both non-REM and
REM occur at the usual hours and
last the usual amount of time.
Most users do not seem to feel
drowsy or experience side effects.
Melatonin appears to promote
sleep at any time of day.
Repeated doses at certain times
of day or night can alter circadian
body rhythms.
The data suggest that melatonin may
be helpful for people:
who need to sleep during the day
(that is, night shift workers or those
who fly across time zones).
who are taking drugs that inhibit
normal melatonin synthesis.
who are patients with diseases that
cause insomnia.
Tr y T h i s
If our natural circadian rhythm
were attuned to a 23-hour
cycle, would we instead need to
discipline ourselves to stay up
later at night and sleep in longer
in the morning?
FYI
A circadian disadvantage: One
study of a decade’s 24,121 Major
League Baseball games found
that teams who had crossed
three time zones before playing
a multiday series had nearly a 60
percent chance of losing their first
game (Winter et al., 2009).
Students should recall from Unit III
that the hypothalamus is responsible
for behaviors and mental processes
governed by hormones, such as eating,
sex, and the stress response. Point out
this unit reinforces that idea by showing that yet another behavior governed by hormones—sleep—is regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus,
a small section of the hypothalamus.
Melatonin
produced
f lo
w
Blo
Being bathed in light disrupts our 24-hour biological clock (Czeisler et al., 1999; Dement,
1999). Curiously—given that our ancestors’ body clocks were attuned to the rising and setting
Sun of the 24-hour day—many of today’s young adults adopt something closer to a 25-hour
day, by staying up too late to get 8 hours of sleep. For this, we can thank (or blame) Thomas
Edison, inventor of the light bulb. This helps explain why, until our later years, we must discipline ourselves to go to bed and force ourselves to get up. Most animals, too, when placed
under unnatural constant illumination will exceed a 24-hour day. Artificial light delays sleep.
Sleep often eludes those who stay up late and sleep in on weekends, and then go to
bed earlier on Sunday evening in preparation for the new school week (Oren & Terman,
1998). They are like New Yorkers whose biology is on California time. For North Americans
who fly to Europe and need to be up when their circadian rhythm cries “SLEEP,” bright light
(spending the next day outdoors) helps reset the biological clock (Czeisler et al., 1986, 1989;
Eastman et al., 1995).
Sleep Theories
What are sleep’s functions?
So, our sleep patterns differ from person to person and from culture to culture. But why do
we have this need for sleep?
Psychologists believe sleep may have evolved for five reasons.
“Sleep faster, we need the
pillows.” -YIDDISH PROVERB
1.
2.
Figure 23.6
Animal sleep time Would you
Concept Connections
Melatonin
production
suppressed
Light
23-4
Haimov, I., & Lavie, P. (1996). Melatonin—A
soporific hormone. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 5, 106–111.
TEACH
Pineal
gland
od
In contrast to the sleep induced by
most drugs, melatonin-induced sleep
seems remarkably normal.
Suprachiasmatic
nucleus
rather be a brown bat and sleep
20 hours a day or a giraffe and sleep
2 hours daily (data from NIH, 2010)?
Kruglov_Orda/Shutterstock; Courtesy of Andrew D. Myers;
Utekhina Anna/Shutterstock; Steffen Foerster Photography/
Shutterstock; The Agency Collection/Punchstock; Eric
Isselée/Shutterstock; pandapaw/Shutterstock
20 hours
16 hours
Sleep protects. When darkness shut down the day’s hunting, food gathering, and travel,
our distant ancestors were better off asleep in a cave, out of harm’s way. Those who didn’t
try to navigate around rocks and cliffs at night were more likely to leave descendants. This
fits a broader principle: A species’ sleep pattern tends to suit its ecological niche (Siegel,
2009). Animals with the greatest need to graze and the least ability to hide tend to sleep
less. (For a sampling of animal sleep times, see FIGURE 23.6.)
Sleep helps us recuperate. It helps restore and repair brain tissue. Bats and other
animals with high waking metabolism burn a lot of calories, producing a lot of free
radicals, molecules that are toxic to neurons. Sleeping a lot gives resting neurons time
to repair themselves, while pruning or weakening unused connections (Gilestro et al.,
2009; Siegel, 2003; Vyazovskiy et al., 2008). Think of it this way: When consciousness
leaves your house, brain construction workers come in for a makeover.
12 hours
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 230
10 hours
8 hours
4 hours
2 hours
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Concept Connections
Point out how different qualities have evolved
in animals and humans due to their sleep
habits. Nocturnal animals typically have better
night vision and larger ears than daytimeloving animals. Animals who sleep a lot also
tend to have faster metabolisms.
230
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 230
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
3.
4.
5.
Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day’s experiences.
Sleep consolidates our memories—it strengthens and stabilizes neural memory traces
(Racsmány et al., 2010; Rasch & Born, 2008). People trained to perform tasks therefore
recall them better after a night’s sleep, or even after a short nap, than after several
hours awake (Stickgold & Ellenbogen, 2008). Among older adults, more sleep leads
to better memory of recently learned material (Drummond, 2010). After sleeping
well, seniors remember more. And in both humans and rats, neural activity during
slow-wave sleep re-enacts and promotes recall of prior novel experiences (Peigneux
et al., 2004; Ribeiro et al., 2004). Sleep, it seems, strengthens memories in a way that
being awake does not.
Sleep feeds creative thinking. On occasion, dreams have inspired noteworthy
literary, artistic, and scientific achievements, such as the dream that clued chemist
August Kekulé to the structure of benzene (Ross, 2006). More commonplace is the
boost that a complete night’s sleep gives to our thinking and learning. After working
on a task, then sleeping on it, people solve problems more insightfully than do those
who stay awake (Wagner et al., 2004). They also are better at spotting connections
among novel pieces of information (Ellenbogen et al., 2007). To think smart and see
connections, it often pays to sleep on it.
Sleep supports growth. During deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth
hormone. This hormone is necessary for muscle development. A regular full
night’s sleep can also “dramatically improve your athletic ability,” report James
Maas and Rebecca Robbins (see Close-up: Sleep and Athletic Performance).
As we age, we release less of this hormone and spend less time in deep sleep
(Pekkanen, 1982).
Module 23
231
TEACH
“Corduroy pillows make
headlines.” -ANONYMOUS
TR M
TRM
ENGAGE
Given all the benefits of sleep, it’s no wonder that sleep loss hits us so hard.
TR M
TRM
Sleep and Athletic Performance
when the body’s natural cooling is most efficient. Early
Exercise improves sleep. What’s not as widely known, remorning workouts are ill-advised, because they increase
port James Maas and Rebecca Robbins (2010), is that
the risk of injury and rob athletes of valuable sleep. Heavy
sleep improves athletic performance. Well-rested
workouts within three hours of bedtime should also be avoidathletes have faster reaction times, more energy,
ed because the arousal disrupts falling asleep. Preciand greater endurance, and teams that build 8 to
sion muscle training, such as shooting free throws,
10 hours of daily sleep into their training show
may, however, benefit when followed by sleep.
improved performance. Top violinists also report
Maas has been a sleep consultant for college and
sleeping 8.5 hours a day on average, and rate
professional athletes and teams. On Maas’ advice, the Orpractice and sleep as the two most important imlando Magic cut early morning practices. He also advised
provement-fostering activities (Ericsson et al., 1993).
one young woman, Sarah Hughes, who felt stymied in
Slow-wave sleep, which occurs mostly in the
her efforts to excel in figure-skating competition. “Cut
first half of a night’s sleep, produces the human
the early morning practice,” he instructed, as part of
growth hormone necessary for muscle developthe recommended sleep regimen. Soon thereafter,
ment. REM sleep and NREM-2 sleep, which
Hughes’ performance scores increased, ultioccur mostly in the final hours of a long night’s
mately culminating in her 2002 Olympic gold
sleep, help strengthen the neural connections
AP Photo/Lionel Cironneau
medal.
that build enduring memories, including the
“muscle memories” learned while practicing
Ample sleep supports skill learning and high
tennis or shooting baskets.
performance This was the experience of Olympic gold
The optimal exercise time is late afternoon
medalist Sarah Hughes.
or early evening, Maas and Robbins advise,
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 231
1/15/14 8:47 AM
SleepConsciousness
Patterns and Sleep
Theories
Understanding
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 231
Applying Science
Have students record their sleep habits
for a week, including a weekend. Then
ask them to calculate the average number of hours of sleep they get each night,
comparing weekend sleep with weeknight sleep. Discuss with students how
their sleep patterns may be affecting
their daily performance. Ask them what
prevents them from getting more sleep,
and suggest how even 1 more hour a
night would affect their quality of life.
Use Student Activity: Keeping a
Sleep Diary from the TRM to help students assess their own sleep habits.
Close-up
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Teaching Tip
Have students brainstorm about
possible reasons why teenagers resist
getting 8–10 hours of sleep a night.
Have them consider work, academic,
familial, physiological, and social reasons for the prevalence of sleep deprivation among teens. Discuss ways they
can counter these negative influences
on getting a good night’s sleep.
Use Student Activity: Sleep Deficit
Scale from the TRM to help students
assess the effects of sleeplessness on
their own lives.
Module 23
22
231
2/20/14 8:12 AM
232
Unit V States of Consciousness
CLOSE & ASSESS
Before You Move On
Exit Assessment
䉴 ASK YOURSELF
Would you consider yourself a night owl or a morning lark? When do you usually feel most
energetic? What time of day works best for you to study?
Provide students with either Figure
23.2 or 23.4, and have them label the
graph. This activity will help you assess
each student’s knowledge of the
different stages of sleep and give all
students practice working with graphs.
䉴 TEST YOURSELF
What five theories explain our need for sleep?
Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.
Module 23 Review
23-1
How do our biological rhythms influence our
daily functioning?
•
Our bodies have an internal biological clock, roughly
synchronized with the 24-hour cycle of night and day.
•
This circadian rhythm appears in our daily patterns of
body temperature, arousal, sleeping, and waking. Age
and experiences can alter these patterns, resetting our
biological clock.
23-3
•
Biology—our circadian rhythm as well as our age and
our body’s production of melatonin (influenced by the
brain’s suprachiasmatic nucleus)—interacts with cultural
expectations and individual behaviors to determine our
sleeping and waking patterns.
23-4
23-2
What is the biological rhythm of our
sleeping and dreaming stages?
•
We cycle through four distinct sleep stages about every 90
minutes.
•
Leaving the alpha waves of the awake, relaxed stage, we
descend into the irregular brain waves of non-REM stage
1 sleep (NREM-1), often with the sensation of falling or
floating.
•
NREM-2 sleep (in which we spend the most time)
follows, lasting about 20 minutes, with its characteristic
sleep spindles.
•
We then enter NREM-3 sleep, lasting about 30 minutes,
with large, slow delta waves.
•
About an hour after falling asleep, we begin periods of
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.
•
Most dreaming occurs in this REM stage (also known
as paradoxical sleep) of internal arousal but outward
paralysis.
•
During a normal night’s sleep, NREM-3 sleep shortens
and REM and NREM-2 sleep lengthens.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 232
232
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 232
How do biology and environment interact in
our sleep patterns?
What are sleep’s functions?
•
Sleep may have played a protective role in human
evolution by keeping people safe during potentially
dangerous periods.
•
•
Sleep also helps restore and repair damaged neurons.
•
•
Sleep promotes creative problem solving the next day.
REM and NREM-2 sleep help strengthen neural
connections that build enduring memories.
During slow-wave sleep, the pituitary gland secretes
human growth hormone, which is necessary for muscle
development.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:12 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Patterns and Sleep Theories
Module 23
233
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which of the following represents a circadian rhythm?
a. A burst of growth occurs during puberty.
b. A full Moon occurs about once a month.
c. Body temperature rises each day as morning
approaches.
d. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is
winter in the southern hemisphere.
e. Pulse rate increases when we exercise.
2. In which stage of sleep are you likely to experience
hypnagogic sensations of falling?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Alpha sleep
NREM-1
NREM-2
NREM-3
REM
3. What is the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in
sleep?
a. It induces REM sleep approximately every 90 minutes
during sleep.
b. It causes the pineal gland to increase the production
of melatonin.
c. It causes the pituitary gland to increase the release of
human growth hormone.
d. It causes the pituitary gland to decrease the release of
human growth hormone.
e. It causes the pineal gland to decrease the production
of melatonin.
sleep can
• provide protection.
• promote physical growth.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Memory
Protection
Growth
Recuperation
Creativity
Answer to Practice FRQ 2
2. Name and briefly describe three stages of sleep when
1 point: NREM-1, a brief stage of light
sleep that may include hallucinations
and sensations of falling.
rapid eye movements are not occurring.
(3 points)
1 point: NREM-2, moderately deep
sleep that includes rapid bursts of
brain activity called sleep spindles.
1 point: Sleep kept our ancestors safe from nighttime
dangers.
1 point: Sleep promotes the release of pituitary growth
hormone.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod23_B.indd 233
1 point: NREM-3, deep sleep, characterized by large, slow delta waves, from
which it is difficult to awaken.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
SleepConsciousness
Patterns and Sleep
Theories
Understanding
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 233
3. e
4. d
role in restoring and repairing brain tissue?
Answer
1/15/14 8:47 AM
1. c
2. b
4. Which of the following sleep theories emphasizes sleep’s
Practice FRQs
1. Sleep serves many functions for us. Briefly explain how
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Questions
Module 23
22
233
2/20/14 8:12 AM
234
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
Active Learning
The importance of sleep cannot be
ignored, especially in today’s fastpaced society. Use the following activity to help students evaluate how sleep
may positively affect their lives.
On the left half of a piece of
paper, have students list 3 ways in
which they would like to improve in
school subjects or extracurricular and
social activities. After you discuss the
importance of getting enough sleep,
ask students to speculate on how the
3 items they listed might improve if
they changed or modified some of
their sleep habits. Encourage them to
write down the possible improvements
on the right side of the piece of paper.
These comparisons may help students
determine how they can correct
unhealthy sleep habits.
Use Student Activity: School Start
Times: An Informal Debate from the
TRM to help students apply research
on sleep deficits to a topic interesting
to them.
Sleep Deprivation,
Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Module Learning Objectives
24-1
Describe the effects of sleep loss, and identify the major
sleep disorders.
24-2
Describe the most common content of dreams.
24-3
Identify proposed explanations for why we dream.
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Disorders
24-1
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 234
How does sleep loss affect us, and what are the major
sleep disorders?
When our body yearns for sleep but does not get it, we begin to feel terrible. Trying to stay
awake, we will eventually lose. It’s easy to spot students who have stayed up late to study
for a test or finish a term paper: They are often fighting the “nods” (their heads bobbing
downward in seconds-long “microsleeps”) as they fight to stay awake.
In the tiredness battle, sleep always wins. In 1989, Michael Doucette was named America’s Safest Driving Teen. In 1990, while driving home from college, he fell asleep at the
wheel and collided with an oncoming car, killing both himself and the other driver. Michael’s driving instructor later acknowledged never having mentioned sleep deprivation
and drowsy driving (Dement, 1999).
Effects of Sleep Loss
Today, more than ever, our sleep patterns leave us not only sleepy but drained of energy
and feelings of well-being. After a succession of 5-hour nights, we accumulate a sleep debt
that need not be entirely repaid but cannot be satisfied by one long sleep. “The brain keeps
an accurate count of sleep debt for at least two weeks,” reported sleep researcher William
Dement (1999, p. 64).
Obviously, then, we need sleep. Sleep commands roughly one-third of our lives—some
25 years, on average. But why?
Allowed to sleep unhindered, most adults will sleep at least 9 hours a night (Coren,
1996). With that much sleep, we awake refreshed, sustain better moods, and perform more
efficient and accurate work. The U.S. Navy and the National Institutes of Health have demonstrated the benefits of unrestricted sleep in experiments in which volunteers spent 14
hours daily in bed for at least a week. For the first few days, the volunteers averaged 12
hours of sleep a day or more, apparently paying off a sleep debt that averaged 25 to 30 hours.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 234
234
Images
s
Use the Module 24 Fact or Falsehood?
activity from the TRM to introduce the
concepts from this module.
Module 24
Getty
Discussion Starter
Laska/
TR M
TRM
Lukhas
TEACH
Unit V States of Consciousness
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
That accomplished, they then settled back to 7.5 to 9 hours nightly and
felt energized and happier (Dement, 1999). In one Gallup survey (Mason, 2005), 63 percent of adults who reported getting the sleep they
needed also reported being “very satisfied” with their personal life
(as did only 36 percent of those needing more sleep). And when 909
working women reported on their daily moods, the researchers were
struck by what mattered little (such as money, so long as the person
was not battling poverty), and what mattered a lot: less time pressure
at work and a good night’s sleep (Kahneman et al., 2004). Perhaps it’s
not surprising, then, that when asked if they had felt well rested on
the previous day, 3 in 10 Americans said they had not (Pelham, 2010).
College and university students are especially sleep deprived; 69
percent in one national survey reported “feeling tired” or “having little
energy” on several or more days in the last two weeks (AP, 2009). In another survey, 28
percent of high school students acknowledged falling asleep in class at least once a week
(Sleep Foundation, 2006). The going needn’t get boring before students start snoring. (To
test whether you are one of the many sleep-deprived students, see TABLE 24.1.)
Sleep loss is a predictor of depression. Researchers who studied 15,500 young people,
12 to 18 years old, found that those who slept 5 or fewer hours a night had a 71 percent
higher risk of depression than their peers who slept 8 hours or more (Gangwisch et al.,
2010). This link does not appear to reflect sleep difficulties caused by depression. When
children and youth are followed through time, sleep loss predicts depression rather than
Module 24
235
MARK RALSTON/AFP/Getty Images
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Sleepless and suffering These
fatigued, sleep-deprived earthquake
rescue workers in China may
experience a depressed immune
system, impaired concentration, and
greater vulnerability to accidents.
FYI
In a 2001 Gallup poll, 61 percent of
men, but only 47 percent of women,
said they got enough sleep.
Table 24.1
Cornell University psychologist James Maas has reported that most students suffer the
consequences of sleeping less than they should. To see if you are in that group, answer the
following true-false questions:
True
False
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
I need an alarm clock in order to wake up at the appropriate time.
It’s a struggle for me to get out of bed in the morning.
Weekday mornings I hit snooze several times to get more sleep.
I feel tired, irritable, and stressed out during the week.
I have trouble concentrating and remembering.
I feel slow with critical thinking, problem solving, and being creative.
I often fall asleep watching TV.
I often fall asleep in boring meetings or lectures or in warm rooms.
I often fall asleep after heavy meals.
I often fall asleep while relaxing after dinner.
I often fall asleep within five minutes of getting into bed.
I often feel drowsy while driving.
I often sleep extra hours on weekend mornings.
I often need a nap to get through the day.
I have dark circles around my eyes.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 235
Teaching Tip
Relate to students the story of Randy
Gardner, a high school student who
in 1969 attempted to stay awake for
as long as possible. Gardner eventually stayed awake for 11 days, but he
experienced frightening symptoms as
a result of his sleep loss. He developed
a heart murmur, slurred his speech,
and couldn’t attend to a conversation for more than a few moments.
He hallucinated that street signs were
people, and he believed himself to be
an African American football star, even
though he was not African American and did not play football. When
people confronted him with the truth,
he called them racist. Once Gardner
began sleeping again, his symptoms
disappeared. He was back to his regular sleep pattern within 3–4 days of
ending his marathon of wakefulness.
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Sleep
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
Understanding
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 235
Active Learning
Have students take the sleep deprivation
quiz in Table 24.1. Have them evaluate
whether the quiz indicates that they are
experiencing sleep deprivation. Then
ask them to reflect on why they may
be sleep deprived. Challenge them to
consider ways in which lack of sleep has
adversely affected their lives and what
they can realistically do to add more
sleep to their daily schedules.
Use Student Activity: Visiting
SleepNet from the TRM to give students more information about the
importance of sleep.
If you answered “true” to three or more items, you probably are not getting enough sleep. To
determine your sleep needs, Maas recommends that you “go to bed 15 minutes earlier than
usual every night for the next week—and continue this practice by adding 15 more minutes
each week—until you wake without an alarm clock and feel alert all day.” (Sleep Quiz reprinted
with permission from James B. Maas, “Sleep to Win!” (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2013).)
1/15/14 8:47 AM
TEACH
Module 24
22
235
2/20/14 8:13 AM
236
Unit V States of Consciousness
ENGAGE
Critical Questions
If the benefits of sleep are so clear, why
does Western culture seem to disdain
it? Have students consider the factors
that keep people in the United States
and other industrialized cultures from
sleeping. How do economic factors play
into the lack of sleep? What about social
influences? How can policy makers
encourage people to get more sleep?
TEACH
TR M
TRM
Teaching Tip
Ask students if they have ever fallen
asleep when bored. Most students will
raise their hands. Tell them that boredom actually does not cause drowsiness. In fact, boredom causes restless
behavior, like fidgeting or impatience.
When people fall asleep while bored,
it is an indication of sleep deprivation.
If students are falling asleep in class,
this is a sure sign they are not getting
enough sleep during the night.
Use Student Activity: Sleep Profile
from the TRM to help students keep
track of their own sleep habits.
A P ® E x a m Ti p
Many students try to get by on
less and less sleep to try to fit
everything in. The irony is that if
you stay up too late studying, it
can be counterproductive. Sleep
deprivation makes it difficult to
concentrate and increases the
likelihood you will make silly
mistakes on tests. The impact
on your immune system means
you are more likely to get sick. To
be the best student you can be,
make sleep a priority.
“So shut your eyes
Kiss me goodbye
And sleep
Just sleep.”
-SONG BY MY CHEMICAL ROMANCE
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 236
236
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 236
vice versa (Gregory et al., 2009). Moreover, REM sleep’s processing of emotional experiences
helps protect against depression (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). After a good night’s sleep,
we often do feel better the next day. And that may help to explain why parentally enforced
bedtimes predict less depression, and why pushing back school start time leads to improved
adolescent sleep, alertness, and mood (Gregory et al., 2009; Owens et al., 2010).
Even when awake, students often function below their peak. And they know it: Four in
five teens and three in five 18- to 29-year-olds wish they could get more sleep on weekdays
(Mason, 2003, 2005). Yet that teen who staggers glumly out of bed in response to an unwelcome alarm, yawns through morning classes, and feels half-depressed much of the day may
be energized at 11:00 P.M. and mindless of the next day’s looming sleepiness (Carskadon,
2002). “Sleep deprivation has consequences—difficulty studying, diminished productivity,
tendency to make mistakes, irritability, fatigue,” noted Dement (1999, p. 231). A large sleep
debt “makes you stupid.”
It can also make you fatter. Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone, and decreases its hunger-suppressing partner, leptin (more on these in Module 38). It
also increases cortisol, a stress hormone that stimulates the body to make fat. Sure enough,
children and adults who sleep less than normal are fatter than those who sleep more (Chen
et al., 2008; Knutson et al., 2007; Schoenborn & Adams, 2008). And experimental sleep deprivation of adults increases appetite and eating (Nixon et al., 2008; Patel et al., 2006; Spiegel
et al., 2004; Van Cauter et al., 2007). This may help explain the common weight gain among
sleep-deprived students (although a review of 11 studies reveals that the mythical college
student’s “freshman 15” is, on average, closer to a “first-year 4” [Hull et al., 2007]).
In addition to making us more vulnerable to obesity, sleep deprivation can suppress
immune cells that fight off viral infections and cancer (Motivala & Irwin, 2007). One experiment exposed volunteers to a cold virus. Those who had been averaging less than 7 hours
sleep a night were 3 times more likely to develop a cold than were those sleeping 8 or more
hours a night (Cohen et al., 2009). Sleep’s protective effect may help explain why people
who sleep 7 to 8 hours a night tend to outlive those who are chronically sleep deprived, and
why older adults who have no difficulty falling or staying asleep tend to live longer than
their sleep-deprived agemates (Dement, 1999; Dew et al., 2003). When infections do set in,
we typically sleep more, boosting our immune cells.
Sleep deprivation slows reactions and increases errors on visual attention tasks similar to
those involved in screening airport baggage, performing surgery, and reading X-rays (Lim &
Dinges, 2010). Similarly, the result can be devastating for driving, piloting, and equipment operating. Driver fatigue has contributed to an estimated 20 percent of American traffic accidents
(Brody, 2002) and to some 30 percent of Australian highway deaths (Maas, 1999). One two-year
study examined the driving accident rates of more than 20,000 Virginia 16- to 18-year-olds in
two major cities. In one city, the high schools started 75 to 80 minutes later than in the other.
The late starters had about 25 percent fewer crashes (Vorona et al., 2011). Consider, too, the
timing of four industrial disasters—the 1989 Exxon Valdez tanker hitting rocks and spilling millions of gallons of oil on the shores of Alaska; Union Carbide’s 1984 release of toxic gas that
killed thousands in Bhopal, India; and the 1979 Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl nuclear
accidents. All occurred after midnight, when operators in charge were likely to be drowsiest and
unresponsive to signals requiring an alert response. Likewise, the 2013 Asiana Airlines crash
landing at San Francisco Airport happened at 3:30 A.M. Korea time, after a 10-hour flight from
Seoul. When sleepy frontal lobes confront an unexpected situation, misfortune often results.
Stanley Coren capitalized on what is, for many North Americans, a semi-annual sleepmanipulation experiment—the “spring forward” to “daylight savings” time and “fall backward” to “standard” time. Searching millions of records, Coren found that in both Canada
and the United States, accidents increased immediately after the time change that shortens
sleep (FIGURE 24.1).
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Number of
accidents
2800
Less sleep,
more
accidents
2700
4200
More sleep,
fewer accidents
4000
2500
3800
2400
237
Figure 24.1
Canadian traffic accidents On the Monday
Number of
accidents
2600
Module 24
ENGAGE
Enrichment
after the spring time change, when people
lose one hour of sleep, accidents increased,
as compared with the Monday before. In the
fall, traffic accidents normally increase because
of greater snow, ice, and darkness, but they
diminished after the time change. (Adapted from
Coren, 1996.)
According to legend, Leonardo da
Vinci slept a mere 90 minutes a day, in
catnaps of 15 minutes every 4 hours.
Salvador Dali liked to doze off while
sitting up with a spoon in his hand.
As he fell asleep, the spoon would
fall and clatter to the ground, and
he would wake rejuvenated.
Thomas Edison and Winston
Churchill also seemed to thrive on
catnaps.
Lyndon B. Johnson put on his
pajamas in the middle of the day
and slept for 30 minutes.
Bill Clinton naps in cars, buses,
trains, and planes. He jokes that
Arkansans might come naturally to
sleeping anywhere because “most
of us don’t have to go very far back
to find a family without a bed.”
3600
Spring time change
(hour of sleep lost)
Monday before time change
Fall time change
(hour of sleep gained)
Monday after time change
FIGURE 24.2 summarizes the effects of sleep deprivation. But there is good news! Psychologists have discovered a treatment that strengthens memory, increases concentration,
boosts mood, moderates hunger and obesity, fortifies the disease-fighting immune system,
and lessens the risk of fatal accidents. Even better news: The treatment feels good, it can be
self-administered, the supplies are limitless, and it’s available free! If you are a typical high
school student, often going to bed near midnight and dragged out of bed six or seven hours
later by the dreaded alarm, the treatment is simple: Each night just add 15 minutes to your
sleep. Ignore that last text, resist the urge to check in with friends online, and succumb to
sleep, “the gentle tyrant.”
Brain
Diminished attentional focus
and memory consolidation, and
increased risk of depression
Immune system
Suppression of immune cell
production and increased
risk of viral infections,
such as colds
Figure 24.2
How sleep deprivation affects us
Heart
Increased risk of
high blood pressure
Stomach
Increased hunger-arousing
ghrelin and decreased
hunger-suppressing leptin
Fat cells
Increased production
and greater risk of obesity
Joints
Increased inflammation
and arthritis
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 237
Muscles
Reduced strength, and
slower reaction time
and motor learning
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Sleep
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
Understanding
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 237
Module 24
22
237
2/20/14 8:13 AM
238
Unit V States of Consciousness
MAJOR SLEEP DISORDERS
ENGAGE
Enrichment
Gregg Jacobs and his colleagues report
much better success in treating insomnia when a combination of behavioral
techniques is used. Subjects who had
serious difficulty falling asleep were
told to try the following strategies:
Sleep restriction: Do not spend
more than 7 hours in bed. Avoid
naps, and arise at the same
time every morning, including
weekends.
Stimulus control: Go to bed only
when sleepy, and use the bed
exclusively for sleep or relaxing
activities. If you cannot fall asleep
within 20 minutes, stop trying and
do something relaxing.
Relaxation response training: Use
soothing visual imagery, rhythmic
breathing, and muscle relaxation to
calm yourself.
Jacobs, G., Benson, H., & Friedman, R. (1993).
Home-based central nervous system assessment of a multifactor behavioral intervention for chronic sleep-onset insomnia.
Behavior Therapy, 24, 159–174.
“The lion and the lamb shall lie
down together, but the lamb will
not be very sleepy.” -WOODY ALLEN,
IN THE MOVIE LOVE AND DEATH, 1975
“Sleep is like love or happiness.
If you pursue it too ardently it will
elude you.” -WILSE WEBB, SLEEP:
THE GENTLE TYRANT, 1992
insomnia recurring problems in
falling or staying asleep.
narcolepsy a sleep disorder
characterized by uncontrollable
sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse
directly into REM sleep, often at
inopportune times.
Common Pitfalls
Point out to students that insomnia
is not just an inability to fall asleep
quickly: it is also an inability to stay
asleep. Patients with insomnia often
cannot sleep through the night, waking up in the middle of the night and
then having trouble falling back asleep.
Use Student Activity: Sleep Strategies from the TRM to give students
more tools to help them fall asleep
when needed.
Table 24.2 Some Natural Sleep Aids
• Exercise regularly but not in the late evening. (Late afternoon is best.)
• Avoid caffeine after early afternoon, and avoid food and drink near bedtime. The exception
would be a glass of milk, which provides raw materials for the manufacture of serotonin, a
neurotransmitter that facilitates sleep.
• Relax before bedtime, using dimmer light.
• Sleep on a regular schedule (rise at the same time even after a restless night) and avoid
naps.
• Hide the clock face so you aren’t tempted to check it repeatedly.
• Reassure yourself that temporary sleep loss causes no great harm.
• Realize that for any stressed organism, being vigilant is natural and adaptive. A personal
conflict during the day often means a fitful sleep that night (Åkerstedt et al., 2007; Brissette
& Cohen, 2002). And a traumatic stressful event can take a lingering toll on sleep (Babson &
Feldner, 2010). Managing your stress levels will enable more restful sleeping. (See Modules
43, 44, and 84 for more on stress.)
• If all else fails, settle for less sleep, either by going to bed later or getting up earlier.
TEACH
TR M
TRM
No matter what their normal need for sleep, 1 in 10 adults, and 1 in 4 older adults, complain
of insomnia—not an occasional inability to sleep when anxious or excited, but persistent
problems in falling or staying asleep (Irwin et al., 2006).
From middle age on, awakening occasionally during the night becomes the norm, not
something to fret over or treat with medication (Vitiello, 2009). Ironically, insomnia is worsened by fretting about one’s insomnia. In laboratory studies, insomnia complainers do sleep
less than others, but they typically overestimate—by about double—how long it takes them
to fall asleep. They also underestimate by nearly half how long they actually have slept. Even
if we have been awake only an hour or two, we may think we have had very little sleep because it’s the waking part we remember.
The most common quick fixes for true insomnia—sleeping pills and alcohol—can aggravate the problem, reducing REM sleep and leaving the person with next-day blahs. Such
aids can also lead to tolerance—a state in which increasing doses are needed to produce an
effect. An ideal sleep aid would mimic the natural chemicals that are abundant during sleep,
without side effects. Until scientists can supply this magic pill, sleep experts have offered
some tips for getting better quality sleep (TABLE 24.2).
Falling asleep is not the problem for people with narcolepsy (from narco, “numbness,”
and lepsy, “seizure”), who have sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness, usually lasting
less than 5 minutes. Narcolepsy attacks can occur at the most inopportune times, perhaps
just after taking a terrific swing at a softball or when laughing loudly, shouting angrily, or
having sex (Dement, 1978, 1999). In severe cases, the person collapses directly into a brief
period of REM sleep, with loss of muscular tension. People with narcolepsy—1 in 2000 of us,
estimated the Stanford University Center for Narcolepsy (2002)—must therefore live with
extra caution. As a traffic menace, “snoozing is second only to boozing,” says the American
Sleep Disorders Association, and those with narcolepsy are especially at risk (Aldrich, 1989).
Researchers have discovered genes that cause narcolepsy in dogs and humans (Miyagawa et al., 2008; Taheri, 2004). Genes help sculpt the brain, and neuroscientists are searching
the brain for narcolepsy-linked abnormalities. One team discovered a relative absence of a
hypothalamic neural center that produces orexin (also called hypocretin), a neurotransmitter linked to alertness (Taheri et al., 2002; Thannickal et al., 2000). (That discovery has led to
the clinical testing of a new sleeping pill that works by blocking orexin’s arousing activity.)
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 238
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Concept Connections
Narcolepsy is often treated with powerful
stimulants, called amphetamines, to keep the
patient’s brain from going into the REM patterns that are most restful. Amphetamines are
discussed in greater detail later in the unit.
238
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 238
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Foundation (2009) survey found 27
percent of people reporting sleeplessness
related to the economy, their personal
finances, and employment, as seems
evident in this man looking for work.
ENGAGE
sleep apnea a sleep disorder
characterized by temporary
cessations of breathing during
sleep and repeated momentary
awakenings.
Active Learning
night terrors a sleep disorder
characterized by high arousal and
an appearance of being terrified;
unlike nightmares, night terrors
occur during NREM-3 sleep, within
two or three hours of falling asleep,
and are seldom remembered.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 239
Some people have theorized that sleep
apnea is related to SIDS or Sudden
Infant Death Syndrome, which occurs
when infants seem to die without
cause in their sleep. Parents have been
given conflicting advice throughout
the years on how to avoid this disturbing and controversial problem. Have
students explore what researchers
know about SIDS and its link to sleep
disorders:
What are some possible causes of
SIDS? How might one explanation
be related to apnea?
What is the current advice to
parents about preventing SIDS?
How has this advice differed over
the years?
What are some recent research
projects that explore the causes
and prevention of SIDS?
Did Brahms need his own
lullabies? Cranky, overweight, and
nap-prone, Johannes Brahms exhibited
common symptoms of sleep apnea
(Margolis, 2000).
Brian Chase/Shutterstock
Narcolepsy, it is now clear, is a brain disease; it is not just “in your mind.” And this gives
hope that narcolepsy might be effectively relieved by a drug that mimics the missing orexin
and can sneak through the blood-brain barrier (Fujiki et al., 2003; Siegel, 2000). In the meantime, physicians are prescribing other drugs to relieve narcolepsy’s sleepiness in humans.
Although 1 in 20 of us have sleep apnea, it was unknown before modern sleep research.
Apnea means “with no breath,” and people with this condition intermittently stop breathing
during sleep. After an airless minute or so, decreased blood oxygen arouses them and they
wake up enough to snort in air for a few seconds, in a process that repeats hundreds of times
each night, depriving them of slow-wave sleep. Apnea sufferers don’t recall these episodes
the next day. So, despite feeling fatigued and depressed—and hearing their mate’s complaints
about their loud “snoring”—many are unaware of their disorder (Peppard et al., 2006).
Sleep apnea is associated with obesity, and as the number of obese Americans has increased, so has this disorder, particularly among overweight men, including some football
players (Keller, 2007). Other warning signs are loud snoring, daytime sleepiness and irritability, and (possibly) high blood pressure, which increases the risk of a stroke or heart attack
(Dement, 1999). If one doesn’t mind looking a little goofy in the dark (imagine a snorkeler
at a slumber party), the treatment—a masklike device with an air pump that keeps the
sleeper’s airway open—can effectively relieve apnea symptoms.
Unlike sleep apnea, night terrors target mostly children, who may sit up or walk
around, talk incoherently, experience doubled heart and breathing rates, and appear
terrified (Hartmann, 1981). They seldom
wake up fully during an episode and recall
little or nothing the next morning—at most,
a fleeting, frightening image. Night terrors are not nightmares (which, like other dreams,
typically occur during early morning REM sleep); night terrors usually occur during the first
few hours of NREM-3.
Sleepwalking—another NREM-3 sleep disorder—and sleep talking are usually childhood disorders, and like narcolepsy, they run in families. (Sleep talking—usually garbled or
nonsensical—can occur during any sleep stage [Mahowald & Ettinger, 1990].) Occasional
childhood sleepwalking occurs for about one-third of those with a sleepwalking fraternal
twin and half of those with a sleepwalking identical twin. The same is true for sleep talking (Hublin et al., 1997, 1998). Sleepwalking is usually harmless. After returning to bed on
their own or with the help of a family member, few sleepwalkers recall their trip the next
morning. About 20 percent of 3- to 12-year-olds have at least one episode of sleepwalking,
239
The Granger Collection, New York
AP Photo/Paul Sakuma, File
Economic recession and stress
can rob sleep A National Sleep
Module 24
ENGAGE
Now I lay me down to sleep
Enrichment
For many with sleep apnea, a
continuous positive airway pressure
(CPAP) machine makes for sounder
sleeping and better quality of life.
Some studies have shown a link
between Type 2 diabetes and apnea.
Dr. Arthur Friedlander (2000) published a study suggesting that diabetic
patients were 3 times more likely to
develop sleep apnea. The link may be
correlational rather than causal; that
is, being overweight may be a factor in
both disorders.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Divide your students into groups, and have
each one research a different sleep disorder.
Have the groups collect information on the
causes, treatments, and symptoms of their
disorder. Challenge students to go beyond
the information in the text. If possible, have
them find a patient with this particular disorder
to see what his or her day-to-day life is like.
(Alternatively, they could find a written account
by someone who describes living with the
sleep disorder that the students have been
assigned.) Groups can then present their findings in several ways:
Create a poster for display to educate other
students about the sleep disorder.
Write a newspaper item about the disorder
for the school or local newspaper.
Create a PowerPoint presentation for a
seminar about sleep disorders sponsored
by the psychology club.
Sleep
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
Understanding
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 239
Module 24
22
239
2/20/14 8:13 AM
240
Unit V States of Consciousness
usually lasting 2 to 10 minutes; some 5 percent have repeated episodes (Giles et al., 1994).
Young children, who have the deepest and lengthiest NREM-3 sleep, are the most likely to
experience both night terrors and sleepwalking. As we grow older and deep NREM-3 sleep
diminishes, so do night terrors and sleepwalking. After being sleep deprived, we sleep more
deeply, which increases any tendency to sleepwalk (Zadra et al., 2008).
ENGAGE
Enrichment
Stanley Krippner and his colleagues
compared the dreams of more than
400 Argentinean, Brazilian, and American adults:
Americans tended to dream
about animals and food, whereas
Brazilians had more sexual and
emotional dreams.
Americans and Argentineans
reported more dreams about
architecture than Brazilians did.
Argentineans reported more
dreams about aggression and
good fortune than Brazilians or
Americans did.
Inception creatively played off our
interest in finding meaning in our
dreams, and in understanding
the layers of our consciousness.
It further explored the idea of
creating false memories through
the power of suggestion—an idea
we will explore in Module 33.
dream a sequence of images,
emotions, and thoughts passing
through a sleeping person’s
mind. Dreams are notable for
their hallucinatory imagery,
discontinuities, and incongruities,
and for the dreamer’s delusional
acceptance of the content and later
difficulties remembering it.
The dreams of Americans from different parts of the country differed in
content:
Northeasterners have dreams with
images of time, activity, streets, and
architecture.
Southerners dream of nature,
good fortune, emotion, and family
members.
Westerners dream about
architecture, objects, negative
emotions, and indoor settings.
“I do not believe that I am now
dreaming, but I cannot prove that
I am not.” -PHILOSOPHER BERTRAND
RUSSELL (1872–1970)
FYI
Would you suppose that people
dream if blind from birth? Studies
in France, Hungary, Egypt, and
the United States all found blind
people dreaming of using their
nonvisual senses—hearing,
touching, smelling, tasting (Buquet,
1988; Taha, 1972; Vekassy, 1977).
In the United States, men were
more likely to dream about
aggression and tools; women
were more likely to dream about
children, clothes, food, and friendly
interactions.
There were relatively few gender
differences in dreams within the
Latin American sample. Other
researchers have found that
Mexican women’s dreams are
significantly more emotional than
men’s.
Casto, K. L., Krippner, S., & Tartz, R. (1999).
The identification of spiritual content in
dream reports. Anthropology of Consciousness, 10(1), 43–53.
240
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 240
“For what one has dwelt on by
day, these things are seen in
visions of the night.” -MENANDER
OF ATHENS (342–292 B.C.E.), THE
PRINCIPAL FRAGMENTS
Dreams
Now playing at an inner theater near you:
the premiere showing of a sleeping person’s
vivid dream. This never-before-seen mental movie features captivating characters
wrapped in a plot so original and unlikely,
yet so intricate and so seemingly real, that
the viewer later marvels at its creation.
Waking from a troubling dream, wrenched
by its emotions, who among us has not wondered about this weird state of consciousness? How can our brain so creatively, colorfully, and
completely construct this alternative world? In the shadowland between our dreaming and
waking consciousness, we may even wonder for a moment which is real.
Discovering the link between REM sleep and dreaming opened a new era in dream
research. Instead of relying on someone’s hazy recall hours or days after having a dream, researchers could catch dreams as they happened. They could awaken people during or within
3 minutes after a REM sleep period and hear a vivid account.
What We Dream
24-2
Krippner also found some differences
between the genders:
Photofest/Warner Bros. Pictures
A dreamy take on
dreamland The 2010 movie
What do we dream?
Daydreams tend to involve the familiar details of our life—perhaps picturing ourselves explaining to a teacher why a paper will be late, or replaying in our minds personal encounters
we relish or regret. REM dreams—“hallucinations of the sleeping mind”(Loftus & Ketcham,
1994, p. 67)—are vivid, emotional, and bizarre—so vivid we may confuse them with reality.
Awakening from a nightmare, a 4-year-old may be sure there is a bear in the house.
We spend six years of our life in dreams, many of which are anything but sweet. For
both women and men, 8 in 10 dreams are marked by at least one negative event or emotion
(Domhoff, 2007). Common themes are repeatedly failing in an attempt to do something;
of being attacked, pursued, or rejected; or of experiencing misfortune (Hall et al., 1982).
Dreams with sexual imagery occur less often than you might think. In one study, only 1 in 10
dreams among young men and 1 in 30 among young women had sexual content (Domhoff,
1996). More commonly, the story line of our dreams incorporates traces of previous days’
nonsexual experiences and preoccupations (De Koninck, 2000):
•
After suffering a trauma, people commonly report nightmares, which help extinguish
daytime fears (Levin & Nielsen, 2007, 2009). One sample of Americans recording their
dreams during September 2001 reported an increase in threatening dreams following
the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Propper et al., 2007).
•
After playing the computer game Tetris for 7 hours and then being awakened
repeatedly during their first hour of sleep, 3 in 4 people reported experiencing images
of the game’s falling blocks (Stickgold et al., 2000).
•
Compared with city-dwellers, people in hunter-gatherer societies more often dream of
animals (Mestel, 1997). Compared with nonmusicians, musicians report twice as many
dreams of music (Uga et al., 2006).
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 240
1/15/14 8:47 AM
ENGAGE
TR M
TRM
Enrichment
Students are fascinated by dream analysis. Popularized by Sigmund Freud as being the key
to understanding our unconscious thoughts,
dream analysis is still used by some psychoanalysts to help clients understand the causes of
their current life problems. Typically, however,
these professionals leave most of the interpretation up to the client, forgoing the practice
of imposing symbolic interpretation on the
patient. Most dream interpretation books on
the market today are not based on scientific
testing and shouldn’t be used as evaluation
tools.
Use Student Activity: Dream Journal from
the TRM to help students assess their nightly
dreaming experiences.
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Module 24
241
Our two-track mind is also monitoring our environment while we sleep.
Sensory stimuli—a particular odor or a phone’s ringing—may be instantly
and ingeniously woven into the dream story. In a classic experiment, researchers lightly sprayed cold water on dreamers’ faces (Dement & Wolpert, 1958). Compared with sleepers who did not get the cold-water treatment, these people were more likely to dream about a waterfall, a leaky
roof, or even about being sprayed by someone.
So, could we learn a foreign language by hearing it played while
we sleep? If only it were so easy. While sleeping we can learn to associate a sound with a mild electric shock (and to react to the sound
accordingly). But we do not remember recorded information played
while we are soundly asleep (Eich, 1990; Wyatt & Bootzin, 1994). In fact,
anything that happens during the 5 minutes just before we fall asleep “Uh-oh. I think I’m having one of those dreams again.”
is typically lost from memory (Roth et al., 1988). This explains why sleep
apnea patients, who repeatedly awaken with a gasp and then immediately
fall back to sleep, do not recall the episodes. It also explains why dreams that mo“Follow your dreams, except for
mentarily awaken us are mostly forgotten by morning. To remember a dream, get up and
that one where you’re naked at
work.” -ATTRIBUTED TO COMEDIAN
stay awake for a few minutes.
TEACH
© The New Yorker Collection, 2008, Jack Ziegler from
cartoonbank.com.All Rights Reserved.
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Enrichment
Freud believed that dreams were the
“royal road” to the unconscious, shedding light on the forbidden thoughts
and feelings we keep hidden from
ourselves and the world.
Why We Dream
What are the functions of dreams?
Dream theorists have proposed several explanations of why we dream, including these:
To satisfy our own wishes. In 1900, in his landmark book The Interpretation of Dreams,
Sigmund Freud offered what he thought was “the most valuable of all the discoveries it has
been my good fortune to make.” He proposed that dreams provide a psychic safety valve
that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. He viewed a dream’s manifest content
(the apparent and remembered story line) as a censored, symbolic version of its latent
content, the unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly.
Although most dreams have no overt sexual imagery, Freud nevertheless believed that most
adult dreams could be “traced back by analysis to erotic wishes.” Thus, a gun might be a
disguised representation of a penis.
Freud considered dreams the key to understanding our inner conflicts. However, his
critics say it is time to wake up from Freud’s dream theory, which is a scientific nightmare.
Based on the accumulated science, “there is no reason to believe any of Freud’s specific
claims about dreams and their purposes,” observed dream researcher William Domhoff
(2003). Some contend that even if dreams are symbolic, they could be interpreted any way
one wished. Others maintain that dreams hide nothing. A dream about a gun is a dream
about a gun. Legend has it that even Freud, who loved to smoke cigars, acknowledged that
“sometimes, a cigar is just a cigar.” Freud’s wish-fulfillment theory of dreams has in large
part given way to other theories.
To file away memories. The information-processing perspective proposes that dreams
may help sift, sort, and fix the day’s experiences in our memory. Some studies support this
view. When tested the next day after learning a task, those deprived of both slow-wave
and REM sleep did not do as well on their new learning as those who slept undisturbed
(Stickgold et al., 2000, 2001). People who hear unusual phrases or learn to find hidden visual
images before bedtime remember less the next morning if awakened every time they begin
REM sleep than they do if awakened during other sleep stages (Empson & Clarke, 1970;
Karni & Sagi, 1994).
Brain scans confirm the link between REM sleep and memory. The brain regions that
buzz as rats learn to navigate a maze, or as people learn to perform a visual-discrimination
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 241
Sleep serves many functions, allowing us to process many things at once.
We are great multitaskers when we
sleep—protecting, recuperating, making memories, thinking creatively, and
growing all at the same time.
ENGAGE
HENNY YOUNGMAN
24-3
Concept Connections
FYI
TEACH
A popular sleep myth: If you dream
you are falling and hit the ground
(or if you dream of dying), you die.
(Unfortunately, those who could
confirm these ideas are not around
to do so. Some people, however,
have had such dreams and are
alive to report them.)
Flip It
Students can get additional help
understanding the function of dreams
by watching the Flip It Video: Why Do
We Dream?
“When people interpret [a dream]
as if it were meaningful and then
sell those interpretations, it’s
quackery.” -SLEEP RESEARCHER J.
ALLAN HOBSON (1995)
manifest content according to
Freud, the remembered story line of
a dream (as distinct from its latent,
or hidden, content).
latent content according to
Freud, the underlying meaning of a
dream (as distinct from its manifest
content).
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Sleep
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
Understanding
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 241
Module 24
22
241
2/20/14 8:13 AM
242
Unit V States of Consciousness
ENGAGE
Critical Questions
Does the sleep bulimia as described
by Robert Stickgold occur among your
students? Have them discuss whether
they use the weekend to play catch-up
on their sleep or to become night owls,
staying up extremely late participating
in social activities. Have them discuss
the effect of this erratic sleep behavior
on their daily performance.
FYI
Rapid eye movements also stir
the liquid behind the cornea; this
delivers fresh oxygen to corneal
cells, preventing their suffocation.
ENGAGE
Applying Science
Have students correlate GPA with
hours of sleep to try to replicate the
findings of the Wolfson and Carskadon
study. Ask them to hypothesize the
reasons why those with higher GPAs
may get more sleep than those with
lower GPAs. Have students share their
experiences with sleep and academic
achievement.
FYI
Question: Does eating spicy foods
cause one to dream more?
Answer: Any food that causes
you to awaken more increases
your chance of recalling a dream
(Moorcroft, 2003).
Figure 24.3
Sleep across the life span As we age,
TEACH
our sleep patterns change. During our first few
months, we spend progressively less time in
REM sleep. During our first 20 years, we spend
progressively less time asleep. (Adapted from
Snyder
y
& Scott,, 1972.))
Concept Connections
Point out to students how sleep differences occur in a developmental
pattern, with infants spending up to
16 hours a day sleeping. Older adults
actually sleep about 1 hour less a night
than their younger counterparts. This
was described in more detail earlier in
the unit, but students should be aware
of the developmental differences in
sleep patterns.
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 242
24
Average
daily sleep 16
(hours)
Marked drop in
REM during infancy
14
Waking
12
REM sleep
10
8
6
4
Non-REM sleep
2
0
1– 3–5 6–23
1–15
days mos. mos.
da
2 3–4 5–13 14–18 19–30
yrs. yrs. yrs.
yrs.
yrs.
31–45
yrs.
90
yrs.
swissmacky/Shutterstock
Infancy
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 242
242
task, buzz again during later REM sleep (Louie & Wilson, 2001; Maquet, 2001). So precise
are these activity patterns that scientists can tell where in the maze the rat would be if
awake. Others, unpersuaded by these studies, note that memory consolidation may also
occur during non-REM sleep (Siegel, 2001; Vertes & Siegel, 2005). This much seems true: A
night of solid sleep (and dreaming) has an important place in our lives. To sleep, perchance
to remember.
This is important news for students, many of whom, observed researcher Robert Stickgold
(2000), suffer from a kind of sleep bulimia—binge-sleeping on the weekend. “If you don’t get
good sleep and enough sleep after you learn new stuff, you won’t integrate it effectively into
your memories,” he warned. That helps explain why high school students with high grades
have averaged 25 minutes more sleep a night than their lower-achieving classmates (Wolfson
& Carskadon, 1998).
To develop and preserve neural pathways. Perhaps dreams, or the brain activity associated with REM sleep, serve a physiological function, providing the sleeping brain with
periodic stimulation. This theory makes developmental sense. As you will see in Unit IX,
stimulating experiences preserve and expand the brain’s neural pathways. Infants, whose
neural networks are fast developing, spend much of their abundant sleep time in REM sleep
(FIGURE 24.3).
To make sense of neural static. Other theories propose that dreams erupt from
neural activation spreading upward from the brainstem (Antrobus, 1991; Hobson, 2003,
2004, 2009). According to one version, dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of
random neural activity. Much as a neurosurgeon can produce hallucinations by stimulating different parts of a patient’s cortex, so can stimulation originating within the
brain. These internal stimuli activate brain areas that process visual images, but not the
visual cortex area, which receives raw input from the eyes. As Freud might have expected, PET scans of sleeping people also reveal increased activity in the emotion-related
limbic system (in the amygdala) during REM sleep. In contrast, frontal lobe regions
responsible for inhibition and logical thinking seem to idle, which may explain why we
are less inhibited in our dreams than when awake (Maquet et al., 1996). Add the limbic
system’s emotional tone to the brain’s visual bursts and—voila!—we dream. Damage
either the limbic system or the visual centers active during dreaming, and dreaming
itself may be impaired (Domhoff, 2003).
Childhood Adolescence
Adulthood and old age
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
To reflect cognitive development. Some dream researchers dispute both the Freudian
and neural activation theories, preferring instead to see dreams as part of brain maturation and cognitive development (Domhoff, 2010, 2011; Foulkes, 1999). For example, prior
to age 9, children’s dreams seem more like a slide show and less like an active story in
which the dreamer is an actor. Dreams overlap with waking cognition and feature coherent speech. They simulate reality by drawing on our concepts and knowledge. They engage
brain networks that also are active during daydreaming. Unlike the idea that dreams arise
from bottom-up brain activation, the cognitive perspective emphasizes our mind’s topdown control of our dream content (Nir & Tononi, 2010).
TABLE 24.2 compares major dream theories. Although today’s sleep researchers debate dreams’ function—and some are skeptical that dreams serve any function—there is
one thing they agree on: We need REM sleep. Deprived of it by repeatedly being awakened, people return more and more quickly to the REM stage after falling back to sleep.
When finally allowed to sleep undisturbed, they literally sleep like babies—with increased
REM sleep, a phenomenon called REM rebound. Withdrawing REM-suppressing sleeping
medications also increases REM sleep, but with accompanying nightmares.
Most other mammals also experience REM rebound, suggesting that the causes and
functions of REM sleep are deeply biological. That REM sleep occurs in mammals—and
not in animals such as fish, whose behavior is less influenced by learning—also fits the
information-processing theory of dreams.
So does this mean that because dreams serve physiological functions and extend normal cognition, they are psychologically meaningless? Not necessarily. Every psychologically
meaningful experience involves an active brain. We are once again reminded of a basic
principle: Biological and psychological explanations of behavior are partners, not competitors.
Module 24
243
ENGAGE
Enrichment
What happens when we don’t get REM
sleep? Students may have seen movies
or TV shows that depict people becoming delusional if deprived of dreaming.
Some studies have shown that REM
deprivation can lead to confusion,
irritability, and lack of concentration.
Others have shown that very few ill
effects occur when one is deprived of
REM. Studies of animals suggest that
they will behave as though acting out
dreams when REM deprived. Regardless, when people or animals are
deprived of REM, they experience REM
rebound: falling more easily into REM
and staying in REM longer than normal.
REM rebound the tendency for
REM sleep to increase following
REM sleep deprivation (created by
repeated awakenings during REM
sleep).
Table 24.2 Dream Theories
Theory
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Explanation
Critical Considerations
Freud’s wishfulfillment
Dreams provide a “psychic safety
valve”—expressing otherwise
unacceptable feelings; contain
manifest (remembered) content
and a deeper layer of latent
content—a hidden meaning.
Lacks any scientific support;
dreams may be interpreted in
many different ways.
Informationprocessing
Dreams help us sort out the
day’s events and consolidate our
memories.
But why do we sometimes
dream about things we have not
experienced?
Physiological
function
Regular brain stimulation from
REM sleep may help develop and
preserve neural pathways.
This does not explain why we
experience meaningful dreams.
Neural activation
REM sleep triggers neural activity
that evokes random visual
memories, which our sleeping
brain weaves into stories.
The individual’s brain is weaving
the stories, which still tells us
something about the dreamer.
Cognitive
development
Dream content reflects dreamers’
cognitive development—their
knowledge and understanding.
Does not address the
neuroscience of dreams.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 243
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Sleep
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
Understanding
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 243
Module 24
22
243
2/20/14 8:13 AM
244
Unit V States of Consciousness
Before You Move On
CLOSE & ASSESS
䉴 ASK YOURSELF
Exit Assessment
In some places, the school day for teenagers runs from 9:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M. But in the United
States, the teen school day often runs from 8:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M., or even 7:00 A.M. to 2:00 P.M.
Early to rise isn’t making kids wise, say critics—it’s making them sleepy. For optimal alertness
and well-being, teens need 8 to 9 hours of sleep a night. So, should early-start schools move to
a later start time, even if it requires buying more buses or switching start times with elementary
schools? Or is this impractical, and would it do little to remedy the tired-teen problem?
Use Table 24.2 to help students keep
the theories of dreaming distinct in
their minds. Note how Freud’s theory
differs from the other theories, especially the neural activation theory.
A useful exercise may be to have
students write a compare-and-contrast
essay on the theories.
䉴 TEST YOURSELF
Are you getting enough sleep? What might you ask yourself to answer this question?
Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.
Module 24 Review
24-1
•
•
How does sleep loss affect us, and what are
the major sleep disorders?
•
•
There are five major views of the function of dreams.
Sleep disorders include insomnia (recurring wakefulness);
narcolepsy (sudden uncontrollable sleepiness or lapsing
into REM sleep); sleep apnea (the stopping of breathing
while asleep; associated with obesity, especially in men);
night terrors (high arousal and the appearance of being
terrified; NREM-3 disorder found mainly in children);
sleepwalking (NREM-3 disorder also found mainly in
children); and sleep talking.
•
Information-processing: Dreams help us sort out the day’s
events and consolidate them in memory.
•
Physiological function: Regular brain stimulation may
help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain.
•
Neural activation: The brain attempts to make sense of
neural static by weaving it into a story line.
•
Cognitive development: Dreams reflect the dreamer’s
level of development.
•
Most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its
associated dreams serve an important function, as
shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM
deprivation in humans and other species.
What do we dream?
•
We usually dream of ordinary events and everyday
experiences, most involving some anxiety or misfortune.
•
Fewer than 10 percent (and less among women) of
dreams have any sexual content.
•
Most dreams occur during REM sleep; those that happen
during NREM sleep tend to be vague fleeting images.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 244
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 244
What are the functions of dreams?
Sleep deprivation causes fatigue and irritability, and
it impairs concentration, productivity, and memory
consolidation. It can also lead to depression, obesity,
joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed
performance (with greater vulnerability to accidents).
24-2
244
24-3
Freud’s wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a psychic
“safety valve,” with manifest content (story line) acting as
a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning
that gratifies our unconscious wishes).
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams
Module 24
245
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Sleep deprivation can lead to weight gain, reduced
muscle strength, suppression of the cells that fight
common colds, and most likely which of the following?
dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate
our memories?
a
b.
c.
d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Increased productivity
Depression
Decreased mistakes on homework
Increased feeling of well-being
Sleep apnea
2. What do we call the sleep disorder that causes you to
1. b
2. c
Information-processing
Wish-fulfillment
Physiological function
Neural activation
Neural disconnection
most likely to experience after sleep deprivation?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Night terrors
Sleep apnea
Manifest content dreams
Narcolepsy
REM rebound
Answer to Practice FRQ 2
Practice FRQs
1. Identify and briefly describe the three major sleep
disorders experienced by adults.
Answer
2 points: Sleep apnea: stops breathing during sleep.
3. a
4. e
4. According to research, which of the following are we
stop breathing and awaken in order to take a breath?
Narcolepsy
Insomnia
Sleep apnea
Nightmares
Night terrors
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Questions
3. Which of the following dream theories states that
2. Explain the following two theories regarding why we
2 points: Freud’s wish-fulfillment
theory states that dreams are a psychic
safety valve to express otherwise unacceptable feelings. Criticism: It has no
scientific support.
dream. Include a criticism each faces:
• Freud’s theory
• Neural activation theory
(4 points)
2 points: Narcolepsy: falls asleep suddenly.
2 points: Insomnia: can’t fall asleep.
2 points: The neural activation theory
states that REM evokes random visual
images and the brain turns them into
stories. Criticism: The individual’s brain
is weaving stories, which still tells us
something about the dreamer.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod24_B.indd 245
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Sleep
Understanding
Deprivation, Consciousness
Sleep Disorders,and
andHypnosis
Dreams
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 245
Module 24
22
245
2/20/14 8:13 AM
246
Module 25
TEACH
Discussion Starter
Use the Module 25 Fact or Falsehood?
activity from the TRM to introduce the
concepts from this module.
ock
Psychoactive Drugs
TEACH
TR M
TRM
Module Learning Objectives
Teaching Tip
If students approach you about drugrelated problems they or someone
they care about has, help them understand your obligations as a teacher.
While you can assure them a certain
level of confidentiality, you may be
obligated to report behaviors that may
cause them personal harm to a guidance counselor, school psychologist,
and/or parent. Inform them upfront
that you will do everything in your
power to help, but for their safety, that
help may involve other people more
qualified than you.
Use Student Activity: Signs of Drug
Abuse from the TRM to help students
recognize when someone might be
addicted to drugs.
25-1
Define substance use disorders, and explain the roles of tolerance,
withdrawal, and addiction.
25-2
Identify the depressants, and describe their effects.
25-3
Identify the stimulants, and describe their effects.
25-4
Identify the hallucinogens, and describe their effects.
L
et’s imagine a day in the life of a legal-drug-using business executive. It begins with
a wake-up latte. By midday, several cigarettes have calmed frazzled nerves before an
appointment at the plastic surgeon’s office for wrinkle-smoothing Botox injections.
A diet pill before dinner helps stem the appetite, and its stimulating effects can later be
partially offset with a glass of wine and two Tylenol PMs. And if performance needs enhancing, there are beta blockers for onstage performers, Viagra for middle-aged men, hormonedelivering “libido patches” for middle-aged women, and Adderall for those hoping to focus
their concentration. Before drifting off into REM-depressed sleep, our hypothetical drug
user is dismayed by news reports of pill-sharing, pill-popping students.
Tolerance and Addiction
25-1
TEACH
substance use disorder
continued substance craving
and use despite significant life
disruption and/or physical risk.
Concept Connections
Drugs can have such an effect on the
body because they are chemically similar
to the brain’s natural neurotransmitters.
Here is a list of some commonly known
drugs and the neurotransmitters they are
similar to:
Cocaine is chemically similar to
dopamine.
LSD is chemically similar to
serotonin.
Opiates are chemically similar
to endorphins. Even the name
endorphins is a combination of the
NT’s technical name, endogenous
morphines. Endogenous means
“naturally occurring.”
246
Gang
Liu/Shu
tterst
TR M
TRM
Unit V States of Consciousness
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 246
psychoactive drug a chemical
substance that alters perceptions
and moods.
tolerance the diminishing effect
with regular use of the same dose
of a drug, requiring the user to
take larger and larger doses before
experiencing the drug’s effect.
What are substance use disorders, and what role do tolerance,
withdrawal, and addiction play in these disorders?
Most of us manage to use some nonprescription drugs in moderation and without disrupting our lives. But some of us develop a self-harming substance use disorder (TABLE
25.1). In such cases, the substances being used are psychoactive drugs, chemicals that
change perceptions and moods. A drug’s overall effect depends not only on its biological
effects but also on the psychology of the user’s expectations, which vary with social and cultural contexts (Ward, 1994). If one culture assumes that a particular drug produces euphoria
(or aggression or sexual arousal) and another does not, each culture may find its expectations fulfilled. In Module 81, we’ll take a closer look at these interacting forces in the use
and potential abuse of particular psychoactive drugs. But here let’s consider how our bodies
react to the ongoing use of psychoactive drugs.
Why might a person who rarely drinks alcohol get buzzed on one can of beer while a
long-term drinker shows few effects until the second six-pack? The answer is tolerance. With
continued use of alcohol and some other drugs (marijuana is an exception), the user’s brain
chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect (a process called neuroadaptation). To experience the
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 246
TR M
TRM
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Common Pitfalls
Drug use can be a difficult topic to discuss
since the social stigma of drug use is so profound. If students are using drugs illegally, they
or their parents may be in denial of a problem, or their parents may be unaware of it. In
discussing drug use and addiction, be sensitive
about accusing someone of being a drug user
but be open to discussing privately any personal concerns students may have about their
own problems or those of family and friends.
Use Student Activity: Eyescube Drug Addiction Simulation from the TRM to help students
empathize with those who might be addicted
to drugs.
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
Module 25
247
TEACH
Table 25.1 When Is Drug Use a Disorder?
Teaching Tip
A person may be diagnosed with substance use disorder when drug use continues despite
significant life disruption. Resulting changes in brain circuits may persist after quitting use of
the substance (thus leading to strong cravings when exposed to people and situations that
trigger memories of drug use). The severity of substance use disorder varies from mild (two
to three symptoms) to moderate (four to five symptoms) to severe (six or more symptoms)
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Contact a local psychologist who
specializes in substance dependence
to get his or her thoughts on the
various addictions found in the U.S.
population.
Impaired Control
1.
2.
3.
4.
Uses more substance, or for longer, than intended.
Tries unsuccessfully to regulate substance use.
Spends much time gaining, using, or recovering from substance use.
Craves the substance.
Does the psychologist believe
addictions to the Internet,
shopping, or sex have the same
fundamental basis as substance
dependence? Why or why not?
Does the psychologist treat all
addictions to substances the same
way? Why or why not?
Social Impairment
5. Use disrupts obligations at work, school, or home.
6. Continues use despite social problems.
7. Use causes reduced social, recreational, and work activities.
Risky Use
8. Continues use despite hazards.
9. Continues use despite worsening physical or psychological problems.
Drug Action
10. Experiences tolerance (needing more substance for the desired effect).
11. Experiences withdrawal when attempting to end use.
TEACH
TR M
TRM
same effect, the user requires larger and larger doses (FIGURE 25.1). In chronic alcohol abuse,
for example, the person’s brain, heart, and liver suffer damage from the excessive amounts of
alcohol being “tolerated.” Ever-increasing doses of most psychoactive drugs can pose a serious threat to health and may lead to addiction: The person craves and uses the substance
despite its adverse consequences. (See Thinking Critically About: Addiction on the next page.)
The World Health Organization (2008) has reported that, worldwide, 90 million people suffer
from such problems related to alcohol and other drugs. Regular users often try to fight their addiction, but abruptly stopping the drug may lead to the undesirable side effects of withdrawal.
FYI
The odds of getting hooked after
using various drugs:
Tobacco
32%
Heroin
23%
Alcohol
15%
Marijuana
9%
Source: National Academy of
Science, Institute of Medicine
(Brody, 2003).
Figure 25.1
Drug tolerance With repeated exposure
Big
effect
Drug
effect
to a psychoactive drug, the drug’s effect
lessens. Thus, it takes larger doses to get
the desired effect.
Response to
first exposure
After repeated
exposure, more
drug is needed to
produce same effect
Little
effect
Small
Large
addiction compulsive craving of
drugs or certain behaviors (such as
gambling) despite known adverse
consequences.
withdrawal the discomfort and
distress that follow discontinuing
an addictive drug or behavior.
Drug dose
1/15/14 8:47 AM
TEACH
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 247
Concept Connections
Teens often feel as though their own
behaviors do not qualify as addictive
or destructive. They attribute them to
situational factors and the behavior of
others to dispositional factors—a type
of attribution known as the fundamental attribution error (discussed in
Unit XIV). Students will say they drink
or take drugs due to factors such as
stress or social pressure. They will say
that others drink or take drugs due
to weakness or bad decision making. Help students evaluate their own
behaviors critically, asking themselves
whether their own behavior would
qualify as destructive.
Use Student Activity: The Internet
Addiction Test from the TRM to help
students see that many types of behaviors are addictive behaviors.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Flip It
Students can get additional help understanding why people become addicted to drugs by
watching the Flip It Video: The Psychology of
Addiction.
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 247
Module 25
22
247
2/20/14 8:13 AM
Unit V States of Consciousness
248
TEACH
Common Pitfalls
Addiction
Battling student misconceptions can
be difficult because beliefs tend to persist even in the face of disconfirming
evidence. Student beliefs about drug
use and addiction can be powerfully
persistent since their popular culture
often seems to validate such myths.
Use this opportunity, along with the
Thinking Critically About box, to dispel
some of these persistent myths.
In recent years, the concept of addiction has been extended
to cover many behaviors formerly considered bad habits or
even sins. Psychologists debate whether the concept has been
stretched too far, and whether addictions are really as irresistible
as commonly believed. For example, “even for a very addictive
drug like cocaine, only 15 to 16 percent of people become addicted within 10 years of first use,” observed Terry Robinson
and Kent Berridge (2003).
Addictions can be powerful, and many addicts do benefit
from therapy or group support. Alcoholics Anonymous has
supported millions of people in overcoming their alcohol addiction. But viewing addiction as an uncontrollable disease can
undermine people’s self-confidence and their belief that they
can change. And that, critics say, would be unfortunate, for
many people do voluntarily stop using addictive drugs, without
any treatment. Most ex-smokers, for example, have kicked the
habit on their own.
The addiction-as-disease-needing-treatment idea has been
offered for a host of driven, excessive behaviors—eating, shopping, gambling, work, and sex. However, critics suggest that “addiction” can become an all-purpose excuse when used not as a
metaphor (“I’m a science fiction addict”) but as reality. Moreover,
they note that labeling a behavior doesn’t explain it. Attributing
serial adultery, as in the case of Tiger Woods, to a “sex addiction”
does not explain the sexual impulsiveness (Radford, 2010).
Sometimes, though, behaviors such as gambling, video gaming, or online surfing do become compulsive and dysfunctional,
TEACH
Concept Connections
Many antidepressants are known as
SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors. These drugs block the
reabsorption of serotonin so it remains
in the synapse longer. Some disorders
that these drugs are effective in treating include depression, bulimia nervosa, obsessive-compulsive disorder,
anorexia nervosa, and panic disorder.
David Horsey/Hearst Newspapers
Thinking Critically About
A social networking addiction?
much like abusive drug taking (Gentile, 2009; Griffiths, 2001;
Hoeft et al., 2008). Thus, psychiatry’s manual of disorders now
includes behavior addictions such as “gambling disorder” and
proposes “Internet gaming disorder” for further study (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). Some Internet users, for example,
display an apparent inability to resist logging on, and staying on,
even when this excessive use impairs their work and relationships
(Ko et al., 2005). Stay tuned. Debates over the nature of addiction
continue.
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
AP
TEACH
®
E x a m Ti p
These three categories—
depressants, stimulants, and
hallucinogens—are important.
There are likely to be questions
on the AP® exam that will require
you to know how a particular
psychoactive drug is classified.
Flip It
Students can get additional help
understanding the biology of drug
use by watching the Flip It Video:
Neurotransmitters and Drugs.
The three major categories of psychoactive drugs are depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. All do their work at the brain’s synapses, inhibiting, stimulating, or mimicking the
activity of the brain’s own chemical messengers, the neurotransmitters.
Depressants
25-2
What are depressants, and what are their effects?
Depressants are drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates that calm
neural activity and slow body functions.
ALCOHOL
depressants drugs (such as
alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates)
that reduce neural activity and slow
body functions.
True or false? In small amounts, alcohol is a stimulant. False. Low doses of alcohol may, indeed,
enliven a drinker, but they do so by acting as a disinhibitor—they slow brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions. Alcohol is an equal-opportunity drug: It increases (disinhibits) helpful tendencies, as when tipsy restaurant patrons leave extravagant tips (Lynn, 1988).
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 248
ENGAGE
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Active Learning
Have students explore the advertising techniques alcohol distributors use:
248
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 248
Is there a common theme in the type of
scenes depicted in the ads? Describe it.
To what type of audience is the ad directed?
Are there laws that limit what alcohol
advertising can depict? Are there limits to
where distributors can advertise?
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
Module 25
249
Ray Ng/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
And it increases harmful tendencies, as when sexually
aroused men become more disposed to sexual aggression.
Alcohol + sex = the perfect storm. When drinking,
both men and women are more disposed to casual sex
(Cooper, 2006; Ebel-Lam et al., 2009). The urges you would
feel if sober are the ones you will more likely act upon when
intoxicated.
SLOWED NEURAL PROCESSING Low doses of alcohol relax the drinker by slowing sympathetic nervous system
activity. Larger doses cause reactions to slow, speech
to slur, and skilled performance to deteriorate. Paired
with sleep deprivation, alcohol is a potent sedative.
Add these physical effects to lowered inhibitions, and
the result can be deadly. Worldwide, several hundred
thousand lives are lost each year in alcohol-related accidents and violent crime. As blood-alcohol levels rise and judgment falters, people’s
qualms about drinking and driving lessen. In experiments, virtually all drinkers who had
insisted when sober that they would not drive under the influence later decided to drive
home from a bar, even when given a breathalyzer test and told they were intoxicated
(Denton & Krebs, 1990; MacDonald et al., 1995). Alcohol can also be life threatening
when heavy drinking follows an earlier period of moderate drinking, which depresses
the vomiting response. People may poison themselves with an overdose that their bodies would normally throw up.
Dangerous disinhibition Alcohol
consumption leads to feelings of
invincibility, which become especially
dangerous behind the wheel of a car,
such as this one totaled by a teenage
drunk driver. This Colorado University
Alcohol Awareness Week exhibit
prompted many students to post their
own anti-drinking pledges (white flags).
TR M
TRM
REDUCED SELF-AWARENESS AND SELF-CONTROL In one experiment, those who consumed alcohol (rather than a placebo beverage) were doubly likely to be caught mind-wandering
during a reading task, yet were less likely to notice that they zoned out (Sayette et al., 2009).
Alcohol not only reduces self-awareness, it also produces a sort of “myopia” by focusing
attention on an arousing situation (such as a provocation) and distracting attention from
normal inhibitions and future consequences (Giancola et al., 2010; Hull et al., 1986; Steele
& Josephs, 1990).
Reduced self-awareness may help explain why people who want to suppress their
awareness of failures or shortcomings are more likely to drink than are those who feel good
about themselves. Losing a business deal, a game, or a romantic partner sometimes elicits
a drinking binge.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 249
Why have efforts to prohibit
alcohol’s sale and consumption
failed in the past?
Are current laws that regulate the
sale and consumption of alcohol
effective? Why or why not? What
laws or enforcement techniques
should be enacted for better effect?
What are some of the health
benefits of alcohol consumption?
What recommendations do
doctors give for healthful alcohol
consumption?
Should there be different blood
alcohol limits for men and women
considering how the drug affects
each gender differently? Why or
why not?
Use Student Activity: Blood Alcohol
Concentrations from the TRM to help
students understand the physical
effects of different levels of alcohol.
TEACH
alcohol use disorder (popularly
known as alcoholism). Alcohol use
marked by tolerance, withdrawal,
and a drive to continue
problematic use.
Concept Connections
1/15/14 8:47 AM
ENGAGE
Critical Questions
Alcohol is a controversial drug. Its
misuse has led to countless tragedies.
Moderate, thoughtful use is linked to
significant health benefits. Have students explore the following questions
related to alcohol consumption:
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
MEMORY DISRUPTION Alcohol can disrupt memory formation, and heavy
drinking can have long-term effects on the brain and cognition. In rats,
at a developmental period corresponding to human adolescence, binge
drinking contributes to nerve cell death and reduces the birth of new
nerve cells. It also impairs the growth of synaptic connections (Crews
et al., 2006, 2007). In humans, heavy drinking may lead to blackouts, in
which drinkers are unable to recall people they met the night before or
Scan of woman with
Scan of woman without
what they said or did while intoxicated. These blackouts result partly from
alcohol use disorder
alcohol use disorder
the way alcohol suppresses REM sleep, which helps fix the day’s experiFigure 25.2
ences into permanent memories.
Disordered drinking shrinks
The prolonged and excessive drinking that characterizes alcohol use disorder can
the brain MRI scans show brain
shrink the brain (FIGURE 25.2). Girls and young women (who have less of a stomach
shrinkage in women with alcohol use
enzyme that digests alcohol) can become addicted to alcohol more quickly than boys and
disorder (left) compared with women in
a control group (right).
young men do, and they are at risk for lung, brain, and liver damage at lower consumption
levels (CASA, 2003; Wuethrich, 2001).
ENGAGE
Alcohol has been shown to affect the
hippocampus, the area of the brain
that is responsible for forming new
memories. This effect helps explain
why people who drink heavily lose
their memories of the period during
which they were intoxicated.
Active Learning
Have students explore the rates of violent
crime that occur when people are acting under
the influence of alcohol:
What percentage of murders occurs while
either the victim or assailant is under the
influence?
What percentage of sexual assaults occurs
while either the victim or assailant is under
the influence? Does this percentage change
depending on the age of either person?
How does the influence of alcohol affect
other violent crimes such as theft, battery,
or domestic abuse?
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 249
Module 25
22
249
2/20/14 8:13 AM
250
Unit V States of Consciousness
EXPECTANCY EFFECTS As with other drugs, expectations influence behavior. When people believe that alcohol affects social behavior in certain ways, and believe, rightly or wrongly, that
they have been drinking alcohol, they will behave accordingly (Moss & Albery, 2009). In a
classic experiment, researchers gave Rutgers University men (who had volunteered for a study
on “alcohol and sexual stimulation”) either an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic drink (Abrams &
Wilson, 1983). (Both had strong tastes that masked any alcohol.) In each group, half the participants thought they were drinking alcohol and half thought they were not. After watching
an erotic movie clip, the men who thought they had consumed alcohol were more likely to
report having strong sexual fantasies and feeling guilt free. Being able to attribute their sexual
responses to alcohol released their inhibitions—whether or not they had actually consumed
any alcohol. Alcohol’s effect lies partly in that powerful sex organ, the mind.
TEACH
Concept Connections
Explain to students that expectancy
effects are similar to the placebo effect.
Both involve the mind convincing the
body that an effect will occur. The effects
that the body expects may or may not
be the actual effects of the drug or treatment, or the effects may be an exaggerated effect of the drug or treatment.
BARBITURATES
Like alcohol, the barbiturate drugs, or tranquilizers, depress nervous system activity. Barbiturates such as Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are sometimes prescribed to induce sleep
or reduce anxiety. In larger doses, they can impair memory and judgment. If combined with
alcohol—as sometimes happens when people take a sleeping pill after an evening of heavy
drinking—the total depressive effect on body functions can be lethal.
ENGAGE
Enrichment
OPIATES
Laudanum was a common medicine
used in the Victorian era to treat a
variety of different ailments. Most successfully, it was used as a painkiller and
cough suppressant. It was also found to
help with loose stool. Mothers used it
often to soothe their fussy babies. What
made laudanum so effective? It was a
special mixture of alcohol and opium.
Doctors during the Victorian period
were so impressed with the medicinal
properties of opium and laudanum
that they neglected to tell their patients
about its addictive properties. Officials
in the United States banned the practice
of prescribing opium in 1914.
TEACH
Concept Connections
Link information about amphetamines
to neuroscience by pointing out that
recent research has shown that detoxified former methamphetamine users
often lose some key dopamine transporters crucial to movement, verbal
performance, and memory. Patients
with Parkinson’s disease experience
similar decreases in these same dopamine transporters.
The opiates—opium and its derivatives—also depress neural functioning. When using the
opiates, which include heroin, a user’s pupils constrict, breathing slows, and lethargy sets
in as blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety. For this short-term pleasure, opiate users
may pay a long-term price: a gnawing craving for another fix, a need for progressively larger
doses (as tolerance develops), and the extreme discomfort of withdrawal. When repeatedly
flooded with an artificial opiate, the brain eventually stops producing endorphins, its own
opiates. If the artificial opiate is then withdrawn, the brain lacks the normal level of these
painkilling neurotransmitters. Those who cannot or choose not to tolerate this state may pay
an ultimate price—death by overdose. Opiates include the narcotics, such as codeine and
morphine, which physicians prescribe for pain relief.
barbiturates drugs that depress
central nervous system activity,
reducing anxiety but impairing
memory and judgment.
opiates opium and its derivatives,
such as morphine and heroin; they
depress neural activity, temporarily
lessening pain and anxiety.
stimulants drugs (such as caffeine,
nicotine, and the more powerful
amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy,
and methamphetamine) that excite
neural activity and speed up body
functions.
amphetamines drugs that
stimulate neural activity, causing
speeded-up body functions and
associated energy and mood
changes.
nicotine a stimulating and highly
addictive psychoactive drug in
tobacco.
Stimulants
25-3
What are stimulants, and what are their effects?
A stimulant excites neural activity and speeds up body functions. Pupils dilate, heart and breathing rates increase, and blood sugar levels
rise, causing a drop in appetite. Energy and self-confidence also rise.
Stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, the amphetamines, cocaine, methamphetamine (“speed”), and Ecstasy (which is also a mild
hallucinogen). People use stimulants to feel alert, lose weight, or boost
mood or athletic performance. Unfortunately, stimulants can be addictive, as you may know if you are one of the many who use caffeine daily
Vasca/Shutterstock
in your coffee, tea, soda, or energy drinks. Cut off from your usual dose, you
may crash into fatigue, headaches, irritability, and depression (Silverman et al., 1992). A mild
dose of caffeine typically lasts three or four hours, which—if taken in the evening—may be
long enough to impair sleep.
NICOTINE
One of the most addictive stimulants is nicotine, found in cigarettes and other tobacco
products. Imagine that cigarettes were harmless—except, once in every 25,000 packs, an
occasional innocent-looking one is filled with dynamite instead of tobacco. Not such a bad
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 250
ENGAGE
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Active Learning
Have students research the effects of caffeine.
They should investigate both the negative
effects and health benefits of caffeinated products. While caffeine may not be dangerous in
and of itself, the products that contain caffeine
(coffee, sodas, and so on) are not considered
healthful products.
250
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 250
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
risk of having your head blown off. But with 250 million packs a day consumed worldwide,
we could expect more than 10,000 gruesome daily deaths (more than three times the 9/11
fatalities each and every day)—surely enough to have cigarettes banned everywhere.1
The lost lives from these dynamite-loaded cigarettes approximate those from today’s
actual cigarettes. A teen-to-the-grave smoker has a 50 percent chance of dying from the
habit, and each year, tobacco kills nearly 5.4 million of its 1.3 billion customers worldwide.
(Imagine the outrage if terrorists took down an equivalent of 25 loaded jumbo jets today, let
alone tomorrow and every day thereafter.) By 2030, annual deaths are expected to increase
to 8 million. That means that 1 billion twenty-first-century people may be killed by tobacco
(WHO, 2008). Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other
preventive measure.
Those addicted to nicotine find it very hard to quit because tobacco products are as
powerfully and quickly addictive as heroin and cocaine. Attempts to quit even within
the first weeks of smoking often fail (DiFranza, 2008). As with other addictions, smokers
develop tolerance, and quitting causes nicotine-withdrawal symptoms, including craving, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, and distractibility. Nicotine-deprived smokers trying
to focus on a task experience a tripled rate of mind-wandering (Sayette et al., 2010).
When not craving a cigarette, they tend to underestimate the power of such cravings
(Sayette et al., 2008).
All it takes to relieve this aversive state is a cigarette—a portable nicotine dispenser.
Within 7 seconds, a rush of nicotine signals the central nervous system to release a flood
of neurotransmitters (FIGURE 25.3). Epinephrine and norepinephrine diminish appetite
and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Dopamine and opioids calm anxiety and reduce
sensitivity to pain (Nowak, 1994; Scott et al., 2004).
1
This analogy, adapted here with world-based numbers, was suggested by mathematician Sam Saunders, as
reported by K. C. Cole (1998).
Module 25
251
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Tobacco companies have come under
intense scrutiny over the last decade as
states sued them for reimbursement of
the medical expenses of tobacco users.
The companies signed a record-setting
agreement to settle the claims brought
by the states as their legal costs began
to mount.
FYI
Smoke a cigarette and nature will
charge you 12 minutes—ironically,
just about the length of time you
spend smoking it (Discover, 1996).
Humorist Dave Barry (1995)
recalling why he smoked his
first cigarette the summer he
turned 15: “Arguments against
smoking: ‘It’s a repulsive addiction
that slowly but surely turns you
into a gasping, gray-skinned,
tumor-ridden invalid, hacking up
brownish gobs of toxic waste
from your one remaining lung.’
Arguments for smoking: ‘Other
teenagers are doing it.’ Case
closed! Let’s light up!”
What were the details of this
settlement?
What did the companies have to do
differently as a result?
What benefits did the states get by
settling? Did they relinquish any
rights regarding future litigation?
ENGAGE
Enrichment
Figure 25.3
Where there’s smoke . . . : The
physiological effects of nicotine Nicotine
1. Arouses the brain to
a state of increased
alertness
4. Reduces circulation
to extremities
reaches the brain within 7 seconds, twice as fast
as intravenous heroin. Within minutes, the amount
in the blood soars.
2. Increases heart rate
and blood pressure
3. At high levels, relaxes
muscles and triggers the
release of neurotransmitters
that may reduce stress
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 251
Some of the carcinogenic chemicals
inhaled by tobacco smokers include
formaldehyde, ammonia, and tar—
all of which are potentially lethal if
ingested into the body separately. Over
time, the buildup of these chemicals in
the lungs is what leads to lung cancer.
5. Suppresses appetite
for carbohydrates
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 251
Module 25
22
251
2/20/14 8:13 AM
Unit V States of Consciousness
Nic-A-Teen Virtually nobody starts
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Tobacco companies were banned from
advertising on television in the 1960s.
Their advertising efforts, however,
center on print media and sponsoring
sports events. The recent tobacco settlement put limits on such advertising
since those ads could be seen by teens.
Divide students into groups to study
advertising by tobacco companies
today.
One group can study magazine
ads. In what magazines do tobacco
ads regularly appear? To what
demographic do they seem to be
appealing? Do antismoking ads also
appear in the same magazines?
Another group can study tobacco
companies’ sponsorship of sports
events. What events do tobacco
products directly sponsor? Whom
do these events appeal to? What
events do subsidiaries of tobacco
companies sponsor? Is their
relationship to a tobacco company
ever mentioned?
TEACH
Concept Connections
Help students see that operant conditioning is a factor in nicotine and other
drug addiction. The faster the high,
the more reinforcing the drug-taking
behavior is. For many drug users, the
cycle of taking drugs and withdrawal
from them is a negatively reinforcing
system. Once the drug’s effects start
to wane, painful withdrawal symptoms occur. Taking more of the drug
eliminates the negative symptoms,
reinforcing the drug-taking behavior
even more.
smoking past the vulnerable teen
years. Eager to hook customers whose
addiction will give them business for
years to come, cigarette companies
target teens. Portrayals of smoking
by popular actors, such as Robert
Pattinson in Remember Me, entice
teens to imitate.
“Cocaine makes you a new man.
And the first thing that new man
wants is more cocaine.” -COMEDIAN
GEORGE CARLIN (1937–2008)
cocaine a powerful and
addictive stimulant, derived
from the coca plant, producing
temporarily increased alertness and
euphoria.
methamphetamine a powerfully
addictive drug that stimulates
the central nervous system, with
speeded-up body functions and
associated energy and mood
changes; over time, appears to
reduce baseline dopamine levels.
These rewards keep people smoking,
even among the 8 in 10 smokers who wish
they could stop (Jones, 2007). Each year,
fewer than 1 in 7 smokers who want to quit
will be able to. Even those who know they
are committing slow-motion suicide may
be unable to stop (Saad, 2002). Asked “If
you had to do it all over again, would you
start smoking?” more than 85 percent of
adult smokers have answered No (Slovic et
al., 2002).
Nevertheless, repeated attempts seem
to pay off. Half of all Americans who have
ever smoked have quit, sometimes aided
by a nicotine replacement drug and with
encouragement from a counselor or a
support group. Success is equally likely
whether smokers quit abruptly or gradually (Fiore et al., 2008; Lichtenstein et al., 2010; Lindson et al., 2010). For those who endure, the acute craving and withdrawal symptoms gradually dissipate over the ensuing 6
months (Ward et al., 1997). After a year’s abstinence, only 10 percent will relapse in the
next year (Hughes et al., 2010). These nonsmokers may live not only healthier but also
happier lives. Smoking correlates with higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and
divorce (Doherty & Doherty, 1998; Vita et al., 1998). Healthy living seems to add both
years to life and life to years.
James Devaney/WireImage
252
COCAINE
The recipe for Coca-Cola originally included an extract of the coca plant, creating a
cocaine tonic for tired elderly people. Between 1896 and 1905, Coke was indeed “the real
thing.” But no longer. Cocaine is now snorted, injected, or smoked. It enters the bloodstream
quickly, producing a rush of euphoria that depletes the brain’s supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine (FIGURE 25.4). Within the hour, a crash of
agitated depression follows as the drug’s effect wears off. Many regular cocaine users chasing this high become addicted. In the lab, cocaine-addicted monkeys have pressed levers
more than 12,000 times to gain one cocaine injection (Siegel, 1990).
In situations that trigger aggression, ingesting cocaine may heighten reactions. Caged
rats fight when given foot shocks, and they fight even more when given cocaine and foot
shocks. Likewise, humans who voluntarily ingest high doses of cocaine in laboratory experiments impose higher shock levels on a presumed opponent than do those receiving a
placebo (Licata et al., 1993). Cocaine use may also lead to emotional disturbances, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure.
In national surveys, 3 percent of U.S. high school seniors and 6 percent of British 18- to
24-year-olds reported having tried cocaine during the past year (ACMD, 2009; Johnston et
al., 2011). Nearly half had smoked crack, a faster-working crystallized form of cocaine that
produces a briefer but more intense high, followed by a more intense crash. After several
hours, the craving for more wanes, only to return several days later (Gawin, 1991).
Cocaine’s psychological effects depend in part on the dosage and form consumed, but
the situation and the user’s expectations and personality also play a role. Given a placebo,
cocaine users who thought they were taking cocaine often had a cocaine-like experience
(Van Dyke & Byck, 1982).
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 252
Active Learning
The United States has a strained relationship
with some countries due to cocaine trafficking.
In Peru, for example, cultivation of the coca
bush is legal, as long as farmers sell their crop
to the state. But studies show that farmers can
earn much more money selling to illegal markets, making cocaine a problem in the developing world. Some leaders in foreign countries
and groups within the United States argue
that if the U.S. government cracked down on
the demand of people who use drugs, then
drug traffickers would not find dealing to be
252
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 252
1/22/14 8:08 AM
ENGAGE
as profitable, thus ending the drug problem
altogether.
What should the U.S. government do to
curb the drug trade? Have such efforts been
successful in the past?
Should the U.S. government cut off
diplomatic and economic ties with drugtrafficking countries? Why or why not?
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
Module 25
253
ENGAGE
Sending
neuron
Enrichment
Action
potential
Reuptake
Synaptic gap
Receiving neuron
Neurotransmitter
molecule
Cocaine
Receptor
sites
(a)
(b)
(c)
Neurotransmitters carry a message from a
sending neuron across a synapse to receptor
sites on a receiving neuron.
The sending neuron normally reabsorbs
excess neurotransmitter molecules, a
process called reuptake.
By binding to the sites that normally reabsorb
neurotransmitter molecules, cocaine blocks
reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and
serotonin (Ray & Ksir, 1990). The extra
neurotransmitter molecules therefore remain
in the synapse, intensifying their normal moodaltering effects and producing a euphoric rush.
When the cocaine level drops, the absence of
these neurotransmitters produces a crash.
Figure 25.4
Cocaine euphoria and crash
ECSTASY
National Pictures/Topham/The Image Works
Methamphetamine is chemically related to its parent drug, amphetamine (NIDA, 2002,
2005) but has even greater effects. Methamphetamine triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which stimulates brain cells that enhance energy and mood, leading to
eight hours or so of heightened energy and euphoria. Its aftereffects may include irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures, social isolation, depression, and occasional violent
outbursts (Homer et al., 2008). Over
time, methamphetamine may reduce
baseline dopamine levels, leaving
the user with depressed functioning.
1/22/14 8:08 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 253
ENGAGE
Figure 25.4 is an excellent review
of how neurotransmitters work.
If there is any part of this that
you don’t understand, head
back to Module 9 for a complete
explanation.
Dramatic drug-induced
Ecstasy, a street name for MDMA
( m e t hy l e n e d i o x y m e t h a m p h e t amine), is both a stimulant and a
mild hallucinogen. As an amphetamine derivative, Ecstasy triggers
dopamine release, but its major effect is releasing stored serotonin and blocking its reuptake, thus prolonging serotonin’s
feel-good flood (Braun, 2001). Users feel the effect about a half-hour after taking an Ecstasy pill. For three or four hours, they experience high energy, emotional elevation, and
(given a social context) connectedness with those around them (“I love everyone”).
During the 1990s, Ecstasy’s popularity soared as a “club drug” taken at nightclubs
and all-night raves (Landry, 2002). The drug’s popularity crosses national borders, with
an estimated 60 million tablets consumed annually in Britain (ACMD, 2009). There are,
however, reasons not to be ecstatic about Ecstasy. One is its dehydrating effect, which—
when combined with prolonged dancing—can lead to severe overheating, increased
TEACH
Teaching Tip
Reinforce your study of neurotransmitters and action potentials with
Figure 25.4, which shows how drugs
affect the action at the synapse. You
will know here whether students
learned the material covered in
Unit III. If students can understand
this material after having learned
about action potentials, they will
have successfully transferred their
learning from one unit to another.
A P ® E x a m Ti p
METHAMPHETAMINE
Sigmund Freud was a strong advocate
of the use of cocaine in his early years.
He took the drug himself on a daily
basis and advised its use as a treatment
for mental and physical disorders (such
as asthma), as an aphrodisiac, and as a
local anesthetic. Freud was even hired
by two pharmaceutical firms, Merck
and Parke-Davis, to promote the use of
their cocaine-based products.
decline This woman’s
methamphetamine addiction led
to obvious physical changes. Her
decline is evident in these two
photos, taken at age 36 (left) and,
after four years of addiction, at age
40 (right).
ENGAGE
Active Learning
The use of methamphetamine (aka
“crystal meth”) has been on the increase
in the United States in recent years.
Have students conduct research on the
prevalence of crystal meth use in their
local community. Also have them consider the economic impact that crystal
meth use has had on the community.
Discuss with them how information
about addiction explains the virulent
use of meth in some communities.
Ecstasy (MDMA) a synthetic
stimulant and mild hallucinogen.
Produces euphoria and social
intimacy, but with short-term
health risks and longer-term harm
to serotonin-producing neurons
and to mood and cognition.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Enrichment
Ecstasy, or MDMA, is a highly addictive and dangerous drug. As Myers points out, studies show
that taking Ecstasy only once can lead to significant degeneration of serotonin neurons in the
brain. This finding seems to be the basis of the
popular notion that taking Ecstasy causes “holes
in the brain.” While the drug does not produce
visible holes, it does cause significant damage,
which is about as close to making holes in the
brain as you can get.
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 253
Module 25
22
253
2/20/14 8:13 AM
254
Unit V States of Consciousness
Bill Greenblatt UPI Photo Service/Newscom
Meth bust As use of the dangerously
addictive stimulant methamphetamine
has increased, enforcement agencies
have increased their efforts to snuff out
the labs that produce it.
blood pressure, and death. Another is that long-term, repeated leaching of brain serotonin can damage serotonin-producing neurons, leading to decreased output and increased risk of permanently depressed mood (Croft et al., 2001; McCann et al., 2001;
Roiser et al., 2005). Ecstasy also suppresses the disease-fighting immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep by interfering with serotonin’s control
of the circadian clock (Laws & Kokkalis, 2007; Pacifici et al., 2001; Schilt et al., 2007).
Ecstasy delights for the night but dispirits the morrow.
ENGAGE
Hallucinogens
Enrichment
25-4
Flashbacks are associated with LSD
use. These experiences can occur
days, months, or years after an initial
“trip.” Flashbacks can be as intense as
the original trip, but because of their
unpredictable nature, they are often
terrifying for the user.
hallucinogens psychedelic
(“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such
as LSD, that distort perceptions
and evoke sensory images in the
absence of sensory input.
LSD a powerful hallucinogenic
drug; also known as acid (lysergic
acid diethylamide).
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 254
254
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 254
What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?
Hallucinogens distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory
input (which is why these drugs are also called psychedelics, meaning “mind-manifesting”).
Some, such as LSD and MDMA (Ecstasy), are synthetic. Others, including the mild hallucinogen marijuana, are natural substances.
LSD
Chemist Albert Hofmann created—and on one Friday afternoon in April 1943 accidentally
ingested—LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). The result—“an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors”—reminded
him of a childhood mystical experience that had left him longing for another glimpse of “a
miraculous, powerful, unfathomable reality” (Siegel, 1984; Smith, 2006).
The emotions of an LSD trip vary from euphoria to detachment to panic. The user’s
current mood and expectations color the emotional experience, but the perceptual distortions and hallucinations have some commonalities. Whether provoked to hallucinate by
drugs, loss of oxygen, or extreme sensory deprivation, the brain hallucinates in basically
the same way (Siegel, 1982). The experience typically begins with simple geometric forms,
such as a lattice, cobweb, or spiral. The next phase consists of more meaningful images;
some may be superimposed on a tunnel or funnel, others may be replays of past emotional experiences. As the hallucination peaks, people frequently feel separated from their
body and experience dreamlike scenes so real that they may become panic-stricken or
harm themselves.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:13 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
Module 25
255
Figure 25.5
Near-death vision or
hallucination? Psychologist
These sensations are strikingly similar to the
near-death experience, an altered state of consciousness reported by about 15 percent of patients
revived from cardiac arrest (Agrillo, 2011; Greyson,
2010). Many describe visions of tunnels (FIGURE
25.5), bright lights or beings of light, a replay of
old memories, and out-of-body sensations (Siegel,
1980). Given that oxygen deprivation and other
insults to the brain are known to produce hallucinations, it is difficult to resist wondering whether
a brain under stress manufactures the near-death
experience. Following temporal lobe seizures, patients have reported similarly profound mystical
experiences. So have solitary sailors and polar explorers while enduring monotony, isolation, and
cold (Suedfeld & Mocellin, 1987).
ENGAGE
Ronald Siegel (1977) reported
that people under the influence
of hallucinogenic drugs often see
“a bright light in the center of the
field of vision. . . . The location
of this point of light create[s] a
tunnel-like perspective.” This is
very similar to others’ near-death
experiences.
MARIJUANA
For 5000 years, hemp has been cultivated for its fiber. The leaves and flowers of this plant,
which are sold as marijuana, contain THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol). Whether smoked
(getting to the brain in about 7 seconds) or eaten (causing its peak concentration to be
reached at a slower, unpredictable rate), THC produces a mix of effects. Synthetic marijuana
(also called K2 or Spice) mimics THC. Its harmful side effects, which can include agitation
and hallucinations, led to its ingredient becoming illegal under the U.S. Synthetic Drug
Abuse Prevention Act of 2012.
Marijuana is a difficult drug to classify. It is a mild hallucinogen, amplifying sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. But like alcohol, marijuana relaxes, disinhibits, and
may produce a euphoric high. Both alcohol and marijuana impair the motor coordination,
perceptual skills, and reaction time necessary for safely operating an automobile or other
machine. “THC causes animals to misjudge events,” reported Ronald Siegel (1990, p. 163).
“Pigeons wait too long to respond to buzzers or lights that tell them food is available for
brief periods; and rats turn the wrong way in mazes.”
Marijuana and alcohol also differ. The body eliminates alcohol within hours. THC and
its by-products linger in the body for a week or more, which means that regular users experience less abrupt withdrawal and may achieve a high with smaller amounts of the drug
than would be needed by occasional users. This is contrary to the usual path of tolerance, in
which repeat users need to take larger doses to feel the same effect.
A user’s experience can vary with the situation. If the person feels anxious or depressed,
using marijuana may intensify these feelings. The more often the person uses marijuana,
especially during adolescence and in today’s stronger, purified form, the greater the risk of
anxiety or depression (Bambico et al., 2010; Hall, 2006; Murray et al., 2007). Daily use bodes
a worse outcome than infrequent use.
Marijuana also disrupts memory formation and interferes with immediate recall of
information learned only a few minutes before. Such cognitive effects outlast the period
of smoking (Messinis et al., 2006). Heavy adult use for over 20 years is associated with a
shrinkage of brain areas that process memories and emotions (Yücel et al., 2008). Prenatal
exposure through maternal marijuana use impairs brain development (Berghuis et al., 2007;
Huizink & Mulder, 2006).
To free up resources to fight crime, some states and countries have passed laws legalizing the possession of small quantities of marijuana. In some cases, legal medical marijuana use has been granted to relieve the pain and nausea associated with diseases such
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 255
near-death experience an
altered state of consciousness
reported after a close brush with
death (such as by cardiac arrest);
often similar to drug-induced
hallucinations.
Enrichment
Students may have heard before that
marijuana is considered to be a “gateway” drug, which means that it leads
users to try harder drugs like heroin.
A study of 311 sets of identical and
fraternal twins in Australia found that
those teens who used marijuana early
(before age 17) were 2–5 times more
likely to use harder drugs later in life.
In each of these sets of twins, one twin
was a user while the other was not,
helping to control for confounding factors like genetics and environment.
ENGAGE
THC the major active ingredient
in marijuana; triggers a variety
of effects, including mild
hallucinations.
Enrichment
Marijuana smokers typically take
longer drags on a marijuana
cigarette than on a traditional
cigarette.
Marijuana cigarettes are not usually
filtered, as most tobacco cigarettes
are.
ENGAGE
Enrichment
A study released by the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (SAMHSA) showed
that teen marijuana use increased by
about 20 percent during the last half
of the 1990s. In 1994, 43 percent of
teens treated for substance abuse used
marijuana, but in 1999, that number
was 60 percent.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 255
Module 25
22
255
2/20/14 8:13 AM
256
Unit V States of Consciousness
as AIDS, glaucoma, and cancer (Munsey, 2010; Watson et al., 2000). In such cases, the
Institute of Medicine recommends delivering the THC with medical inhalers. Marijuana
smoke, like cigarette smoke, is toxic and can cause cancer, lung damage, and pregnancy
complications.
ENGAGE
Active Learning
Cancer and AIDS advocacy groups
have been pushing for the legalization
of marijuana for medicinal purposes.
Marijuana has been shown to help curb
the nausea associated with chemotherapy for cancer and AIDS, helping
patients to keep up their strength as
they endure uncomfortable treatments. Explore laws across the United
States that address the medical use of
marijuana.
How many states authorize the
medical use of marijuana?
How does the federal government
handle cases of people authorized
to use marijuana medicinally?
***
Despite their differences, the psychoactive drugs summarized in TABLE 25.2 share a common feature: They trigger negative aftereffects that offset their immediate positive effects
and grow stronger with repetition. And this helps explain both tolerance and withdrawal.
As the opposing, negative aftereffects grow stronger, it takes larger and larger doses to produce the desired high (tolerance), causing the aftereffects to worsen in the drug’s absence
(withdrawal). This in turn creates a need to switch off the withdrawal symptoms by taking
yet more of the drug (which may lead to addiction).
Table 25.2 A Guide to Selected Psychoactive Drugs
Does the federal government
supply the drug to people
authorized to use marijuana
medically? Why or why not?
Drug
Type
Pleasurable Effects
Adverse Effects
Alcohol
Depressant
Initial high followed by
relaxation and disinhibition
Depression, memory loss,
organ damage, impaired
reactions
Heroin
Depressant
Rush of euphoria, relief
from pain
Depressed physiology,
agonizing withdrawal
Caffeine
Stimulant
Increased alertness and
wakefulness
Anxiety, restlessness, and
insomnia in high doses;
uncomfortable withdrawal
Methamphetamine
Stimulant
Euphoria, alertness,
energy
Irritability, insomnia,
hypertension, seizures
Cocaine
Stimulant
Rush of euphoria,
confidence, energy
Cardiovascular stress,
suspiciousness,
depressive crash
Nicotine
Stimulant
Arousal and relaxation,
sense of well-being
Heart disease, cancer
Ecstasy (MDMA)
Stimulant;
mild
hallucinogen
Emotional elevation,
disinhibition
Dehydration, overheating,
depressed mood,
impaired cognitive and
immune functioning
Marijuana
Mild
hallucinogen
Enhanced sensation, relief
of pain, distortion of time,
relaxation
Impaired learning and
memory, increased risk of
psychological disorders,
lung damage from smoke
To learn about the influences on drug use, see Module 81.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 256
256
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 256
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:14 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Psychoactive Drugs
Module 25
257
Before You Move On
CLOSE & ASSESS
䉴 ASK YOURSELF
Exit Assessment
Do you think people can become addicted not only to psychoactive drugs but also to other
repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors (such as gambling or “Internet game playing”)?
Use Table 25.2 as an assessment tool.
Have students fill in important details
from this chart from memory. You can
use this exercise to assess their knowledge of psychoactive drugs.
䉴 TEST YOURSELF
Why do tobacco companies try so hard to get customers hooked as teens?
Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.
Module 25 Review
25-1
What are stimulants, and what are
their effects?
Stimulants—including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, the
amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy—excite
neural activity and speed up body functions, triggering
energy and mood changes. All are highly addictive.
Psychoactive drugs alter perceptions and moods.
•
These drugs may produce tolerance—requiring larger
doses to achieve the desired effect—and withdrawal—
significant discomfort accompanying efforts to quit.
Nicotine’s effects make smoking a difficult habit to kick,
yet the percentage of Americans who smoke has been
dramatically decreasing.
•
Addiction is compulsive craving and use of drugs or certain
behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse
consequences.
Cocaine gives users a fast high, followed within an hour
by a crash. Its risks include cardiovascular stress and
suspiciousness.
•
Use of methamphetamines may permanently reduce
dopamine production.
•
Ecstasy (MDMA) is a combined stimulant and mild
hallucinogen that produces euphoria and feelings of
intimacy. Its users risk immune system suppression,
permanent damage to mood and memory, and (if taken
during physical activity) dehydration and escalating
body temperatures.
Those with a substance use disorder may exhibit impaired
control, social disruption, risky behavior, and the physical
effects of tolerance and withdrawal.
•
•
•
What are depressants, and what are their
effects?
•
Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates
(which include narcotics), dampen neural activity and
slow body functions.
•
Alcohol tends to disinhibit, increasing the likelihood that
we will act on our impulses, whether harmful or helpful.
It also impairs judgment, disrupts memory processes by
suppressing REM sleep, and reduces self-awareness and
self-control.
•
25-3
•
•
25-2
1/15/14 8:47 AM
What are substance use disorders, and
what role do tolerance, withdrawal, and
addiction play in these disorders?
25-4
•
Hallucinogens—such as LSD and marijuana—distort
perceptions and evoke hallucinations—sensory images in the
absence of sensory input. The user’s mood and expectations
influence the effects of LSD, but common experiences are
hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic.
•
Marijuana’s main ingredient, THC, may trigger feelings
of disinhibition, euphoria, relaxation, relief from pain, and
intense sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It may also increase
feelings of depression or anxiety, impair motor coordination
and reaction time, disrupt memory formation, and damage
lung tissue (because of the inhaled smoke).
User expectations strongly influence alcohol’s
behavioral effects.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 257
What are hallucinogens, and what are
their effects?
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Psychoactive
Drugs
Understanding Consciousness
and Hypnosis
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 257
Module 25
22
257
2/20/14 8:14 AM
Unit V States of Consciousness
258
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Questions
1. d
2. c
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which of the following represents drug tolerance?
a. Hans has grown to accept the fact that his wife likes
to have a beer with her dinner, even though he
personally does not approve of the use of alcohol.
b. Jose often wakes up with a headache that lasts until
he has his morning cup of coffee.
c. Pierre enjoys the effect of marijuana and is now using
the drug several times a week.
d. Jacob had to increase the dosage of his pain
medication when the old dosage no longer effectively
controlled the pain from his chronic back condition.
e. Chau lost his job and is now homeless as a result of
his drug use.
3. e
4. d
2. Which of the following drugs is classified as an opiate?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Answer to Practice FRQ 2
2 points: Alcohol is classified as a
depressant. Effects include reduced
self-awareness.
2 points: Caffeine is classified as a
stimulant. Effects include impaired
sleep.
Nicotine
Marijuana
Heroin
Methamphetamine
Cocaine
3. Which of the following drugs produces effects similar to
a near-death experience?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Ecstasy
Nicotine
Barbiturate
Methamphetamine
LSD
4. Which of the following statements is true of alcohol?
a. Alcohol is a stimulant because it produces insomnia.
b. Alcohol is a depressant because it produces bipolar
disorder.
c. Alcohol is a stimulant because people do foolish
things while under its influence.
d. Alcohol is a depressant because it calms neural
activity and slows body function.
e. Alcohol is a stimulant because it increases instances
of casual sex.
Practice FRQs
1. Name and compare the effects of the two hallucinogens
discussed in the text.
Answer
1 point: LSD creates vivid hallucinations and strong
emotions.
2. Three of the most widely used psychoactive drugs—
alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine—are legal for large
segments of the population. Name the category that
each of these drugs belongs to, and describe one effect of
each.
(6 points)
1 point: Marijuana creates mild hallucinations, enhanced
sensory experiences, and impaired judgment.
2 points: Nicotine is classified as a
stimulant. Effects include diminished
appetite.
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 258
258
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 258
1/15/14 8:47 AM
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:14 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Review
Unit V
259
Unit V Review
Key Terms and Concepts to Remember
consciousness, p. 219
narcolepsy, p. 238
barbiturates, p. 250
hypnosis, p. 219
sleep apnea, p. 239
opiates, p. 250
posthypnotic suggestion, p. 220
night terrors, p. 239
stimulants, p. 250
dissociation, p. 222
dream, p. 240
amphetamines, p. 250
circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm,
p. 226
manifest content, p. 241
nicotine, p. 250
latent content, p. 241
cocaine, p. 252
REM sleep, p. 226
REM rebound, p. 243
methamphetamine, p. 253
alpha waves, p. 227
substance use disorder, p. 246
Ecstasy (MDMA), p. 253
sleep, p. 227
psychoactive drug, p. 246
hallucinogens, p. 254
hallucinations, p. 228
tolerance, p. 246
LSD, p. 254
delta waves, p. 228
addiction, p. 247
near-death experience, p. 255
NREM sleep, p. 228
withdrawal, p. 247
THC, p. 255
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), p. 229
depressants, p. 248
insomnia, p. 238
alcohol use disorder, p. 249
Key Contributors to Remember
William James, p. 219
Ernest Hilgard, p. 222
Sigmund Freud, p. 241
AP® Exam Practice Questions
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Questions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Sudden sleep attacks at inopportune times are
symptomatic of which sleep disorder?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Sleep apnea
Insomnia
Night terrors
Sleepwalking
Narcolepsy
2. Deep sleep occurs in which stage?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Hypnagogic
REM
Alpha
NREM-1
Delta
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 259
3. Recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep are
characteristic of which sleep disorder?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1. e
2. e
3. c
4. b
Sleep apnea
Narcolepsy
Insomnia
Sleep talking
Sleepwalking
4. What is the pineal gland’s role in sleep?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Activating the suprachiasmatic nucleus
The production of melatonin
The location of hypnagogic images
Remembering dreams upon waking
Emitting alpha waves
1/15/14 8:47 AM
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis Review
Module
Unit22
V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 259
259
2/20/14 8:14 AM
260
5.
6.
7.
8.
d
e
b
a
9.
10.
11.
12.
a
c
b
d
13. e
14. d
15. b
Rubric for Free-Response
Question 2
1 point: Posthypnotic suggestions
have been used by therapists to
help people overcome health issues.
Patients typically don’t remember
these suggestions that are made
during a hypnotic state, but such
suggestions may influence a patient’s
behavior after the hypnosis session.
These deliberate posthypnotic suggestions are unique to hypnosis and
contradict Phil’s claim that dreams
and hypnosis are equivalent states of
consciousness.
pp. 220–221
1 point: Some physiological studies
indicate that hypnotic states are associated with unique patterns of activation
in the brain. If brain scans indicate specific patterns unique to hypnotic states
that are different from those associated with dreaming or others states of
consciousness, Phil’s claim may not be
accurate.
pp. 221–222
1 point: Social influence theory
explains the impact of hypnosis
through the powerful social pressures experienced by people being
hypnotized. Some studies show that
people pretending to be hypnotized
and people who are “really” hypnotized
behave in similar ways, indicating that
hypnosis may not lead to a “different
state of consciousness,” as claimed by
Phil.
pp. 221–222
Unit V States of Consciousness
5. What are bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity
that occur during NREM-2 sleep?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hallucinations
Circadian rhythms
Alpha waves
Sleep spindles
Delta waves
6. Increasing amounts of paradoxical sleep following a
period of sleep deprivation is known as what?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Circadian sleep
Sleep shifting
Narcolepsy
Sleep apnea
REM rebound
7. Which of these drugs, which acts as both a stimulant and
a hallucinogen, can also cause dangerous dehydration?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
LSD
Ecstasy
Alcohol
Cocaine
Caffeine
8. Recent research most consistently supports the
effectiveness of hypnosis in which of the following
areas?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pain relief
Recovery of lost memories
Reduction of sleep deprivation
Forcing people to act against their will
Cessation of smoking
9. What are the three major categories of drugs?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants
Stimulants, barbiturates, and hallucinogens
Amphetamines, barbiturates, and opiates
MDMA, LSD, and THC
Alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine
10. Jarod’s muscles are relaxed, his body is basically
paralyzed, and he is hard to awaken. Which sleep state is
Jarod probably experiencing?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11. The effects of opiates are similar to the effects of which
neurotransmitter?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Barbiturates
Endorphins
Tranquilizers
Nembutal
Acetylcholine
12. Slowed reactions, slurred speech, and decreased skill
performance are associated with abuse of which drug?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Nicotine
Methamphetamine
Caffeine
Alcohol
Ecstasy
13. What term did Ernest Hilgard use to describe a split
between different levels of consciousness?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hypnagogic imagery
REM sleep
Delta waves
Spindles
Dissociation
14. Psychologists who study the brain’s activity during sleep
are most likely to use which of these technologies?
a.
b.
d.
d.
e.
MRI
CT scan
PET scan
EEG
EKG
15. What term describes the brain’s adaptation to a drug’s
chemistry, requiring larger and larger doses to experience
the same effect?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Withdrawal
Tolerance
Addiction
Substance use disorder
Disinhibiting
Sleep apnea
Hypnagogic
Paradoxical
Delta
Sleep deprivation
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 260
1/15/14 8:47 AM
1 point: Hilgard’s studies in support of
the divided-consciousness theory indicate that dissociation may occur during
hypnosis. If there is a “split” between different levels of consciousness, and one
level may be aware of information that
another level is ignorant of, Phil’s claim
that hypnosis is similar to dreaming
needs to be modified.
p. 222
260
Unit V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 260
States of Consciousness
2/20/14 8:14 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e
Review
Unit V
261
Free-Response Questions
1. Different biological changes are associated with
different states of consciousness. Explain the biological
changes (if any) typically associated with the following
consciousness-related concepts:
• Sleep deprivation
• REM
• Tolerance
• Opiates
his roommate, Phil. Phil says: “I can’t believe so many
people fall for that hypnosis stuff. Hypnosis is just like
dreaming. It’s just a different state of consciousness,
and a dream can affect someone just like a supposed
hypnotic state can.”
• Posthypnotic suggestion
• Divided-consciousness theory
1 point: Sleep deprivation causes a wide range of biological
changes in the body, all associated with decreased performance while awake. These biological changes include lack
of energy, falling asleep during the day, changes in appetite,
suppression of the immune system, decreased focus and attention, and depressed mood.
Pages 234–237
• Social influence theory
1 point: After repeated use of some drugs, humans develop
tolerance for those substances, meaning that increasing dosages of those drugs are needed to produce the same effect.
Tolerance occurs because of biological changes in the brain.
The brain’s chemistry changes when some psychoactive
drugs are repeatedly ingested, interfering with the brain’s
ability to produce or use some neurotransmitters.
Pages 246–247
1 point: Drugs categorized as opiates cause a range of biological changes in the body. Some of the changes mentioned
in the text are: pupil constriction, slower breathing, lethargy,
and eventually, painful withdrawal symptoms as the brain
Page 250
loses its ability to produce “natural” endorphins.
1 point: Students should establish a
definition that includes the idea that
consciousness is related to awareness
of our internal and external environments.
pp. 218–219
Explain how Ernest might use the following terms as he
discusses the validity of Phil’s claims.
Rubric for Free Response Question 1
1 point: The REM stage of the sleep cycle is associated with
dramatic biological changes. Brain waves and breathing
become irregular, heart rate increases, and eyes dart back and
forth beneath the eyelids.
Pages 228–229
Rubric for Free-Response
Question 3
2. Ernest, a psychology major, is discussing hypnosis with
1 point: Hypnosis relates to this definition because hypnotic states can influence awareness of both environments.
Hypnotized individuals can be given
suggestions that lead them to forget
events that occurred while hypnotized,
indicating a loss of awareness of the
environment during hypnosis.
pp. 219–222
• Dissociation
(4 points)
3. Consciousness has been defined and studied differently
throughout the history of psychology. In your own
words, explain how modern psychologists define
consciousness, and explain how the following “altered”
states of consciousness relate to your definition.
• Hypnosis
• Sleep stages
• Dreams
1 point: As we pass through the stages
of sleep, we become less and less
aware of our outside environment.
During deeper stages of sleep, we are
less likely to be awakened by noise in
our environment, indicating a change
in consciousness according to this
definition.
pp. 226–229
• Psychoactive drugs
(5 points)
Multiple-choice self-tests and more may be found at
www.worthpublishers.com/MyersAP2e
1 point: Environmental stimuli are
often incorporated into dreams, indicating that we are partially aware of
our outside environment even during
this sleep stage.
pp. 240–241
1/15/14 8:47 AM
MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod25_B.indd 261
1/15/14 8:47 AM
1 point: Psychoactive drugs by definition alter our perceptions of the world.
These altered perceptions influence
our awareness of the external and
internal worlds. Changes in perception may influence us, causing us to
ignore some environmental stimuli,
react powerfully to others, or even
react to stimuli that we hallucinate
because of the influence of the drugs.
Module 25
Understanding Consciousness and Hypnosis Review
Module
Unit22
V
MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U05.indd 261
261
2/20/14 8:14 AM