RF System Design Program Instructions Wireless communication is being used in all facets of industrial applications from voice to data, but few people have a working knowledge of radio or how to design a Eric P. Marske Customer Support reliable communication system. Every radio frequency (RF) application is unique. ESTeem Wireless Modems Although many radio applications are similar or provide the same coverage area, no two are exactly the same. Understanding that each radio system is different explains why each site needs to be tested. Wireless vendors provide a dizzying array of ranges and specifications for their products and this paper will help you sort through this information and terminology. The purpose of the paper is to introduce some basic radio concepts and how they apply them to designing a reliable communication system. Radio system design is not a difficult process but it does take some time prior to selecting the final hardware for the application. Your time is well spent because it can point out problems in the selected hardware and allow radio system design modifications prior to installation and eliminate costly rework. Radio site analysis can be broken down into three phases; first is the initial site work, second is the RF data analysis and the final phase would be the on-site testing. This paper and presentation will focus on the first two phases of this process because the final on-site testing phase is a validation of the calculated values in the first two phases. This on-site radio survey requires RF test equipment that few people outside the radio world will have. The tool used by RF system designers in the site analysis phase is a computer software program that calculates all radio parameters and allows the user to evaluate how the radio equipment will operate in the supplied conditions. There are many computer programs on the market ranging to thousands of dollars, but the one we are going to use as an example in this paper is proved by ESTeem Wireless Modems. Radio Basics Radio Frequencies In the United States use of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum, known as the radio spectrum, for wireless communication is governed the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Frequencies in this radio spectrum are divided up for use by application such as radio and television broadcasting, navigation and wireless communication to name just a few. There are specific frequencies used for two-way voice and digital telemetry applications within this radio spectrum that provide a majority of the wireless applications in use today. Licensed and Unlicensed Frequencies Within the radio frequency band, the FCC has designated specific frequencies as Licensed and Unlicensed. Use of a radio transmitter in a licensed frequency band requires that each site’s location, output power and bandwidth be filed with the FCC for use in coordinating transmitting stations. These licensed frequencies use a single, narrowband, channel to transmit all their data. The licensing process allows multiple users in an area to operate on separate frequencies and not cause undue interference with each other. The unlicensed frequency bands are open for all users in an area that have the equipment itself certified by the FCC to fit within specific transmission guidelines. These guidelines allow radios in an area “an even playing field” where the hardware itself is used to differentiate between other transmitters. The most common method for this ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 1 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions type of transmitter is known as spread-spectrum. The designated widths of the radio frequency channels (bandwiths) are much greater in the unlicensed frequency bands than those in the licensed frequencies and the radio hardware can provide a much higher data rate. Radio Frequency Selection The first step in designing a wireless application is determining the correct frequency band for use. There are frequencies available for use in both the licensed and unlicensed frequency band (Table 1). In general, the application itself will dictate what frequency band to use. For example, if you are looking to installing a highspeed wireless Ethernet system you will be using either the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency bands. Licensed Narrow Band Radios Frequency Tx Power RF Data Rate Interfaces 72 to 79 MHz 1 Watt 1.2 to 19.2 Kbps RS-232/422/485 150 to 174 MHz 1 to 40 Watts 1.2 to 19.2 Kbps RS-232/422/485 400 to 420 MHz 1 to 40 Watts 1.2 to 19.2 Kbps RS-232/422/485 450 to 470 MHz 1 to 40 Watts 1.2 to 19.2 Kbps RS-232/422/485 900 Mhz 2 to 4 Watts 1.2 to 19.2 Kbps RS-232/422/485 Spread Spectrum, Unlicensed Radios Frequency Tx Power RF Data Rate Interfaces 900 Mhz .1 to 1 Watt 100 to 150 Kbps RS-232/422/485 2.4 GHz .1 to 1 Watt 100 to 171 Kbps RS-232/422/485 Ethernet, Spread Spectrum, Unlicensed Radios Frequency Tx Power RF Data Rate 900 MHz .1 to 1 Watt .1 to 500 Mbps Interfaces Ethernet 2.4 GHz .1 to 1 Watt .1 to 11 Mbps Ethernet 5 GHz .1 to 1 Watt .1 to 54 Mbps Ethernet Table 1 – Radio Types Decibels The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure used in all mathematical calculations in the radio world. The decibel is a logarithmic number (10 log (linear number)) used when calculating the power factors to the gains and losses in a radio system. All radio components such as antennas, coax cables, receiver sensitivities and transmitter powers are rated on this common unit of measure. Since you can multiply and divide linear numbers by adding and subtracting their logarithms, this can greatly simplify the mathematics. An easy rule to remember when dealing with decibels is that a three decibel increase (+3dB) will double your output power, while a three decibel decrease (-3dB) will cut your power in half. Feedlines Most radio applications require that the antenna be mounted in a different location than the radio transceiver. The devices used to feed the energy from the transmitter to the antenna is a special type of cable called a coaxial cable or better know as coax. The coax cable is a tuned pipeline that allows movement of the energy produce by the transmitter to the antenna with a minimal amount of signal loss. Different cable types have different losses and ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 2 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions those losses are based upon their length. Table 2 lists some common coaxial cable types used in radio applications. All coax cables have signal loss regardless of the diameter or cost. You can see that the higher the frequency the greater the signal losses and how the length of the cable greatly effects how much signal will arrive at the antenna. Frequency Band (MHz) 66 to 79 150 to 174 400 to 420 450 to 470 900 to 940 2400 to 2500 5100 to 5400 RG-58 2.5 5.2 8.4 9 13.7 n/a n/a LMR195 2 4.4 7.8 7.8 11.1 19 38 RG-8 (Solid) 1.1 1.7 2.9 3 4.5 7 14 LMR600 0.547 0.964 1.72 1.72 2.5 4.42 7.3 3/8" Heliax 0.084 1.48 2.48 2.64 3.97 6.47 10.2 1/2" Heliax 0.463 0.88 1.36 1.45 2.17 3.52 5.5 7/8" Heliax 0.254 0.486 0.758 0.808 1.23 2.02 3.4 Table 2 – Feedline Losses Antennas An antenna is a tuned element that allows the energy from the transmitter to radiate into open air. The length of an antenna is based upon the wavelength of the tuned frequency. There are many different types of antennas but they can be put into two general categories; omni-directional antennas and directional antennas. Omni-directional antennas radiate energy in all directions from the antenna (Figure 1). These antennas are used in locations that communicate to more than one remote site such as the Master or Repeater nodes. 360 degrees Top View Radiation Pattern Vertical Polarization Side View Radiation Pattern Vertical Polarization Omni-directional Antenna Vertical Polarized Figure 1 – Omni Directional Antennas ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 3 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions A directional antenna radiates a majority of the transmitter energy in a single direction. This radiation pattern will have an area on both the vertical (up and down) and horizontal (side to side) plane where most of the energy is being focused (Figure 2). The angle that this pattern creates is known as the vertical and horizontal beamwidth. These angles are used when installing the antenna to verify that the energy will be directed to the correct site. These antennas are best suited for use at remote sites in multi-point system or point-to-point applications. 3 dB Points 3 dB Points Vertical Beam Width (degrees) Horizontal Beam Width (degrees) Back Lobe Back Lobe Top View Radiation Pattern Vertically Polarized Side View Radiation Pattern Vertically Polarized Figure 2 – Directional Antenna Patterns An antenna is a passive device and can not increase the amount of power from a transmitter, but as we see in the directional antenna, the total amount of radiated energy can be manipulated in a specific direction. This manipulation of the radiation pattern can increase or decrease the amount of received signal in a given area. Antennas will have a gain (+dB) or loss (-dB) based upon their design and how efficient they radiate energy. The higher the gain of the antenna, the more directional it becomes. The gains or losses on the antenna also increase or decrease the received signal strength by the same power factor. Another phenomenon that needs be addresses when using antennas is their polarization. The horizontal or vertical polarization of the radiating element is based upon its reference to the Earth surface. All antennas in a radio system need to be on the same polarization or losses will be induced. Most wireless industrial telemetry applications or Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems combine both omni-directional and directional antennas. Vertical polarization is the only type that is generally be used in a combined antenna system. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 4 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Effective Radiated Power (ERP) We have now seen that the major components in a radio system (the transmitter, coax cable and antenna) all effect each other through gains and losses. The end result is the total energy radiated from any radio site or the Effective Radiated Power (ERP). The ERP is calculated by taking the transmit power of the radio, subtracting the losses in the coax cable and adding the gain of the antenna. TX Power-Feedline Loss +Antenna Gains = ERP This simple calculation is the basis for all further RF site calculations. Line of Site (LOS) The term Line of Site is used by all radio manufactures, but what does it mean and why is it of such concern? All frequencies used for industrial wireless communication (Table 1) require a clear, unobstructed path between antennas to make any predictions on system performance. If anything such as trees, buildings or hills are in the direct radio path between the antennas the RF energy will be reflected, absorbed or scattered and signal loss will occur. The amount of these losses will be based on frequency and the composition of the reflecting material. In all cases, if there is no LOS between the antennas, predictions on system performance can not be accurately made and on-site testing is required. If evaluating a radio system’s performance over a distance of miles, the curvature of the Earth’s surface and its effect on required antenna heights must also be evaluated. As we have learned, line of site is critical to making predictions on system performance. As the distance between two radio sites increases the minimum height to clear the Radio Horizon will also increase (Figure 3). To maintain a clear line of site, adjustments may needed to the antenna height on either end of the system. Distance (miles) Minimum Height (ft.) Radio Horizon Earth Minimum Height (ft.) Antenna B Antenna A Figure 3 – Minimum Antenna Height Required to Clear Radio Horizon ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 5 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Freznel Zone With the use of higher frequency transmitters (2.4 Ghz and above) in high-speed wireless networks, another radio phenomenon called the Freznel zone must be considered. Radio waves to not radiate out in straight lines. The Fresnel zone is the ellipsoid spread of the radio waves around the visual line-of-sight after they leave the antenna (Figure 4). This area must be clear of obstructions or the signal strength will be reduced due to signal blockage. Typically, a blockage in the first 20% of the Fresnel Zone height introduces little signal loss to the link. Beyond 40% blockage, signal loss will become significant. The height of the Freznel zone will be calculated and displayed in the RF Design Tools when using frequency bands that are more effected by these blockages. Fresnel Zone D (miles) R (ft.) Figure 4 – Freznel Zone Diagram ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 6 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Fade Margin The minimum amount of signal that a receiver requires to correctly demodulate the data is called the receiver sensitivity. The fade margin is the amount of signal, in dB, above this receiver sensitivity. All hardware gains and losses (transmitter power, coax cable, antenna, spreading losses) on both ends of the radio system (Figure 5) control the fade margin. Effective Radiated Power Spreading Losses (Controlled by Nature) Tx Antenna Gain Rx Antenna Gain Feedline Losses Feedline Losses Tx Power (watts) Rx Sensitivity (dBm) Lightning Arrestor Lightning Arrestor Figure 5 – Total Fade Margin Diagram The fade margin is the most critical piece of information in radio system calculations. The radio system reliability, efficiency and data rate are directly related to the fade margin. The reason we need fade margin is because the radio world is not perfect. Equipment ages, antennas go out of alignment or unexpected naturally occurring or man-made noise interferes with the radio signal. With a fade margin designed in the system, the radio can continue to operation through these conditions. Without a fade margin the system will fail over time. The minimum fade margin for any radio system is 3dB above the total background noise on a frequency, better know as the noise floor. The amount of fade margin can also predict the expected link retries over time. • • • 10dB = 10% Link Retries 20dB = 1% Link Retries 30dB = 0.1% Link Retries As you can see, the greater the amount of fade margin designed in the radio network from the beginning will provide a more reliable link in the future. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 7 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Initial Site Work Pump Site #3 5. S LO s ile m 5 LOS N LOS Water Tank ile s 9m 3 miles Pump Site #2 LO Pump Site #1 LOS S 5m es 6 mil ile s LO S Control Room Figure 6 – Example Site Layout Diagram Now that we have a good understanding of the terms used in radio system design, it is time to begin our analysis. Before we begin to use the Site Design software, we need to gather some information on the radio site. 1. Simple Site Layout - All radio systems are a series of point to point links and each of these links will need to be evaluated. Begin by making a simple diagram of all locations in the radio system. Include all locations where the radio communication is required (Figure 6). 2. LOS - Mark all areas on the diagram where there is no line of site (LOS) between the antennas (Figure 6). 3. Distances - Mark all distances between sites on the diagram that have a line of site or will need communication between them. Distances can be gathered from site maps, GPS data or if the longitude and latitude for each site is known, the Site Design software has a tool for calculating the distance between two points given the longitude and latitude of each point. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 8 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions 4. Site Data Chart – Make a site data chart like the one in Table 3. Site Information Name Site Elev. Elev. Dif. Ant. Hgt. Adj. Ant. Hgt. Feedline Lgh. Control Room 560 80 20 100 30 Pump Site #1 570 90 20 110 30 Pump Site #2 820 340 20 360 30 Water Tank 1100 620 120 740 130 Pump Site #3 480 0 15 15 30 Ant. Type Omni-Dir. Direction Direction Omni-Dir. Directional Table 3 – Site Data Chart 5. Elevation – Find the elevation above sea level for each node in the system and put the values in the Data Chart. Site elevation can be gathered from a topographical map or GPS data. 6. Antenna Height – Estimate the antenna height (in feet) above ground level (Figure 7) required to achieve LOS to the designation site and mark the values in the Data Chart. 7. Cable Length – Estimate the feedline length (in feet) from the antenna to the equipment cabinet (Figure 7) and mark the length in the Data Chart. 8. Elevation Differential – The elevation differential is used to relate all antenna heights to each other in single system. To calculate the elevation differential for all sites in the system, find the site with the lowest elevation and make its value 0 in the Data Chart. Subtract the elevation of this lowest site for all other elevations in the system and mark their values in the Elevation Differential block. Adjusted Antenna Height – To calculate the adjusted antenna height, add the value from the Antenna Height block to the Elevation Differential block. Site Information Name Site Elev. Elev. Dif. Ant. Hgt. Adj. Ant. Hgt. Feedline Lgh. Control Room 560 80 20 100 30 Pump Site #1 570 90 20 110 30 Pump Site #2 820 340 20 360 30 Water Tank 1100 620 120 740 130 Pump Site #3 480 0 15 15 30 5.5 S LO Ant. Type Omni-Dir. Direction Direction Omni-Dir. Directional Pump Site #3 les mi LOS N LOS Water Tank 9m ile s 3 miles Pump Site #2 LO Pump Site #1 LOS S 5m ile s es 6 mil LOS Control Room Figure 8 – System Layout and Data ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 9 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions 9. All the data you will need for using the RF Design Program is now available in the Site Data Chart and the Simple Site Layout Figure 8. Antenna Feedline Height of Antenna Above Ground Equipment Cabinet Terrain Height Above Sea Level Figure 7 – Estimated Antenna Height and Cable Length ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 10 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Rf Site Design Program The ESTeem RF Site Design Tool is a Microsoft Excel® spread sheet that analyzes all the data we have gathered on the site during the Initial Site Work. The program automatically calculates the system gains, losses and heights and displays these values on the screen (Figure 9). Through comparisons from on-site measurements to calculated values, the calculated values tend to be more conservative. Figure 9- RF Design Tools Screen You will want to analyze all communication paths in the system, such as the Master to Remote, Master to Repeater or Repeater to Remote. Each of these point to point link tests will build the backbone for the entire RF system. As an example, we will use the radio site in (Figure 6) and select a radio that will provide us a high-speed wireless Ethernet system. Any radio vendor hardware can be tested with the software but for this example we will use the ESTeem Model 192E, 2.4 GHz Wireless Ethernet modem. All communication paths in a radio system need to be evaluated. We will be looking at a few select paths in our example site that provide some unique conditions and discuss how to deal with them. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 11 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Site Example 1 – Control Room to Pump Site #1 We will begin our analysis by looking at the link from the Control Room to the Pump Site #1 (Figure 10). Using the information we gathered during the initial site work, enter all information into the Data Entry Keyboard section of the program (Figure 10). Pump Site #3 5 .5 S LO le mi s LOS N LOS Water Tank ile s 9m 3 miles Pump Site #2 LO S LOS 5m iles Pump Site #1 es 6 mil Control Room Site Information Name Site Elev. Elev. Dif. Ant. Hgt. Adj. Ant. Hgt. Feedline Lgh. Control Room 560 80 20 100 30 Pump Site #1 570 90 20 110 30 Pump Site #2 820 340 20 360 30 Water Tank 1100 620 120 740 130 Pump Site #3 480 0 20 20 30 Ant. Type Omni-Dir. Direction Direction Omni-Dir. Directional Figure 10 – Control Room to Pump #1 Data Entry Once all the site data has been entered the RF Path Analysis will be displayed (Figure 11). Note that all the calculated radio site values such as ERP, Feedline Loss, TX Power, Expected RX Signal Strength, Receiver Sensitivity, and Maximum Distance are displayed for each end of the radio system. The key site data such as Fade Margin, Height Warnings and Freznel Zone Warnings will be displayed in the center of the data field and will turn red if a problem is found in the link. The Fade Margin for this radio path is calculated at 6.5dB for the equipment we specified. This number will increase or decrease with any hardware change in the system. Remembering that the fade margin level we are ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 12 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Figure 11 – Example 1 - RF Path Analysis looking for during analysis is greater than 3dB, this communication link will work reliably at 11Mbps over the distance of 6 miles. Site Example 2 – Pump Site #2 to Water Tank If we look at the link from the Pump Site #2 to the Water Tank (Figure 12) we will see that distance is 9 miles. Using the information we gathered during the initial site work, enter all information into the Data Entry Keyboard section of the program. Pump Site #3 5 .5 S LO mi le s LOS N LOS Water Tank iles 9m 3 miles Pump Site #2 Pump Site #1 LOS LOS es 6 mil 5m iles LOS Control Room Figure 12 – Example Site #2 Layout Diagram The results from the RF Site Analysis data show that this link is not operational (Figure 13). There are a few changes that we could make to the system to make it function. Increasing the gain on the antenna would raise the fade margin, but still leave the link marginal (<3dB). If we lower the data rate on the ESTeem to 1Mbps (-91dBm Receiver Sensitivity) the fade margin will increase to 6.5dB. We already have a communication link directly from the Control Room to Pump Site #2 so we will let that be the primary communication pathway. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 13 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Site Example 3 – Water Tank to Pump Site #3 For our final example, we will look at the link from the Water Tank to the Pump Site #3 (Figure 14). Using the information we gathered during the initial site work, enter all information into the Data Entry Keyboard section of the program. The results from the RF Site Analysis data show that this link is operational but there is a problem in the selected antenna height (Figure 15). The remote site height of 15 feet is below the minimum Freznel zone height of 19.5 feet. By increasing the height of Pump Site #3 to greater 19.5 feet height of the Freznel Zone) a serious problem in signal strength can be avoided. Pump Site #3 N 5. s ile 5m LOS LOS Water Tank LO S ile s 9m 3 miles Pump Site #2 Pump Site #1 LOS LOS es 6 mil 5m iles LO S Control Room Figure 14 – Example Site 3 Layout Diagram ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 14 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Figure 13 – Example 2 - RF Path Analysis ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 15 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com RF System Design Instructions Figure 15 – Example #3 - RF Path Analysis Lessons Learned from Using RF Design Tools • • • By using the RF Design Tools, prior to installation, we have identified radio sites where the RF signal level is too low for reliable communications and sites were the antenna height was too low. With small adjustments to the radio system design, we could easily correct any of these found problems and would have dramatic effect on system performance. These adjustments can be made by simple hardware or location changes saving many hours and costs if the site were already installed. A quick site evaluation has pointed out several radio problems that could not be identified on a map and could not be predicted based upon the rated communication distance of the product. Conclusion Radio system design is not a difficult process, but the time spent planing and evaluating the radio hardware are key to a reliable communication network. With education and the proper tools you can be confident in the system you design. Use the knowledge and tools learned in this paper to evaluate the claims from different radio manufacturers and make an informed decision on the radio hardware you will use for your next application. We want you next wireless application to be a success and we hope that the information provided will give you the confidence to design your own radio system. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY 415 N. QUAY STREET • KENNEWICK, WA 99336 Page 16 of 16 509-735-9092 (O) www.esteem.com