CHCFC503A: Foster social development
in early childhood
Support children to build and maintain trusting
relationships
Contents
Support children to build and maintain trusting relationships
3
Theoretical perspectives
3
Trust versus mistrust
3
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
5
Initiative versus guilt
6
Industry versus inferiority
7
Influences on social development
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Listen attentively and show children their views are valued and
acknowledged
How to show children that you care for and value them
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Acknowledge and support children’s preferences for particular
adults and peers
12
Help children to understand and accept responsibility for their
actions
13
Aggression
2
10
13
Encourage children to express and manage feelings
appropriately
14
Support children’s various levels of interaction and participation
with others during play
15
Joining groups and initiating interactions with peers
15
Social play
15
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Support children to build and maintain
trusting relationships
Theoretical perspectives
Note: This first section on theoretical perspectives is the same as the text in Topic
1 of CHCFC504A Encourage children’s independence and autonomy. It is included
in both units as it covers the theoretical aspects in both and demonstrates the
close links between social, emotional and psychological development.
In this section we will be looking very closely at the work of a theorist called Erik
Erikson. You may have come across some information on him in other learning
topics. Here we will be looking very specifically at the first four stages that Erikson
describes. Erikson’s work is very closely linked to children developing control of
their lives and gradual independence.
Erikson (1902–1994) built upon Sigmund Freud’s work. He identified eight
separate stages across the lifespan. He believed that in each stage we face a crisis
that needs to be resolved in order for us to develop socially and emotionally. Each
stage can be resolved in a positive or a negative way, though in reality the
resolution will be somewhere between these two extremes. The outcome of the
stage is determined by our environment and the caregiving strategies or
experiences to which we are exposed.
The stages that we will be examining are:
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trust versus mistrust: 0–18 months
autonomy versus shame and doubt: 18 months–3 years
initiative versus guilt: 3–5 years
industry versus inferiority: 5–12 years
Trust versus mistrust
Infancy correlates with Erikson’s first stage: trust versus mistrust. In this stage the
infant is beginning to interact and engage with the people they come into contact
with to deal with the first crisis identified by Erikson. This crisis is to determine
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whether the infant should trust the world and the people in it or mistrust the
world and its people.
Trust or mistrust in the world will be determined by the type of care the infant is
receiving from the adults. Trust, like attachment, is built through our basic
caregiving strategies. Feeding a hungry baby, cuddling and soothing a fearful baby
and allowing the tired child to sleep, helps build trust.
Building trust
Trust
Mistrust
Child who explores world
Fearful child
Child who seeks caregiver’s attention
appropriately
Mistrust adults
Child uses parent as secure base
Open
Withdrawn
Trusting
Not very curious
Wants to be near people
Doesn’t explore freely
Inquisitive
Activity 1
Developing trusting relationships with infants
It is vital that we develop trusting relationships with the infants in our care.
Without these relationships the infants will not be able to create the emotional
base needed for future development.
Activity 2
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Autonomy versus shame and doubt
In toddlerhood, the child is now moving to a new stage in their development.
Erikson describes a new crisis that must be dealt with. Again, the real usefulness
of this theory is in the information it gives us about the appropriate caregiving
strategies that we need to employ to help each child reach their full potential.
In this toddler stage, Erikson describes the crisis as being one of autonomy versus
shame and doubt. During this stage the toddler will learn that they are an
autonomous, independent person who has control in their world or they will learn
that making independent decisions is something to be ashamed of. This is often a
challenging stage for many adults. Our first word is often ‘NO’. Being told ‘no’ all
the time leads to feelings of shame and doubt. We need to ensure that we give
toddlers the opportunity to make limited decisions. We will discuss decision
making in more detail later.
Outcomes of autonomy
Toddlers who are encouraged to be autonomous and who receive appropriate
caregiving strategies in this stage will:
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have a positive self-concept
be eager to try new skills
be independent
be motivated to do things for self
have a good relationship with the primary caregiver
demonstrate self-help and self-care skills
be confident
trust in others
want to explore their environment and new environments
gain a sense of belonging
be able to express feelings appropriately
be curious
come to the caregiver for support and reassurance
show emotions in actions
make simple demands
gain mastery over their bodily functions
want to do things alone
be able to accept help and guidance
take pride in their new skills
learn that failure is a learning process
be more self-sufficient
be more sociable
need confirmation and recognition of efforts.
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Outcomes of shame or doubt
Alternatively the child who is not allowed to explore their environment and who
does not receive appropriate caregiving strategies for this stage of development
will:
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doubt themselves and their capabilities
often be withdrawn
feel shame in the eyes of themselves and others
or may be disruptive
demonstrate unrealistic fears
be dependant on others
feel worthless and have a low self-esteem
demonstrate poor social skills
have negative self-concepts
lack motivation or have poor motivation to complete tasks
often require lots of adult assistance
demonstrate a lack of willingness to explore the environment
often be unsociable
demonstrate lots of frustration
be lacking skills in all areas
be unsure and lacking confidence
often lack mastery over bodily functions.
Activity 3
Initiative versus guilt
Erikson and the preschooler
Now that the child is a preschooler, a new crisis is emerging. Erikson now tells us
that the child is moving into the initiative-versus-guilt stage. In this stage the child
will either gain a sense of initiative by being able to make decisions, plan activities
and events and see them carried through, or a feeling of guilt as they are
continually told ‘no’ or have their ideas squashed. Caregivers need to ensure they
are allowing the children in their care the opportunities to make plans and see
them carried through to fruition.
Erikson stresses that a person’s personality emerges from the child’s interactions
and experiences with significant people. Much of this interaction occurs around all
the different skills that are developing during the preschool years.
During the preschool stage we find that children are ready and eager to learn and
achieve goals. They learn to plan and to carry out these plans. They are also
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developing a sense of right and wrong. They see themselves as being able to do
more things but realise there are limits – if they go beyond these limits, they will
feel guilty. By four years the preschooler should be able to formulate a plan of
action and carry it out. The positive outcome is a sense of initiative – the sense
that one’s desires and actions are good and OK.
As caregivers we need to ensure that we are helping preschoolers to focus their
energies on what is allowed and directing them towards acceptable activities so
that guilt is kept to a minimum. We can ensure that we are encouraging initiative
by asking the children to suggest activities which could be included within the
program. When they make suggestions we then need to ensure that we treat
children’s ideas and suggestions seriously. It is important that we do not dismiss
them with ridicule or laugh at them. If children’s ideas are unacceptable then
discuss with the children alternatives which are socially acceptable. Following
these simple strategies will ensure that children navigate through this stage
leading to a positive outcome.
The outcomes of children gaining a good sense of initiative are to:
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use their initiative constructively
enjoy their increasing power
become better able to cooperate
be better able to accept guidance
use their initiative within the limits of acceptable behaviour
experience a minimum of guilt.
The negative outcome of this stage is ‘guilt and shame’. Guilt and shame will occur
if children are continually punished for initiating and carrying out plans. They will
also experience this if their ideas are rejected out of hand or laughed at, ridiculed
or ignored. These feelings of guilt lead to feelings of shame and fear and a lack of
assertiveness in their behaviour. One of the dangers of this stage is that, if
children are punished for initiative, they will turn their energies into being
obedient and conforming in order to avoid feeling guilty.
Activity 4
Industry versus inferiority
Erikson and the school-aged child
School-aged children between six and 12 years of age are beginning to settle
down to the serious business of learning to read and write as well as the many
other skills that are being developed at this stage. They are often in a routine
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involving school and their peers. Erikson’s fourth stage, industry versus inferiority,
is usually being demonstrated at this time.
Erikson saw this stage as the time when children will begin to be industrious and
work towards their future careers and lives. They will learn the skills associated
with their society. Children who are reared in a positive, appropriate way will
navigate through this stage with positive outcomes. They will feel good about
themselves and their abilities. Children who are receiving negative messages from
the people around them will feel inferior to those around them and thus will
come through this stage with negative thoughts.
Encourage school-aged children to feel good about themselves
Activity 5
Now, let’s look briefly at some influences on social development.
Influences on social development
As with emotional development there are a number of influences that are going
to directly impact the child’s social development and competence.
Culture and ethnicity
Culture and ethnicity are going to directly influence children’s social competence
and development. Individual cultures have different expectations of children. In
some cultures children are expected to be seen but not heard, while others value
children who speak their minds and ‘have attitude’. Middle Eastern cultures often
have different expectations of the girls than they do of the boys. Each of these
factors and many more are going to affect the caregiver’s interactions with and
understanding of the family. Caregivers need to be very aware of their values and
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attitudes and ensure they are aware of the values and attitudes of the cultures of
the families within their care.
Family and socio-economic status (SES)
The influence of the family and also the SES cannot be underestimated.
Remember the quality of the caregiving and interactions within the family has the
greatest impact on the child’s social competence.
If children are not given the opportunity to practice their social skills or have
inappropriate skills consistently demonstrated to them, they are less likely to
become socially competent children.
Parenting styles
Three types of parenting styles have been identified by Diana Baumrind (Berk
1996). The table below summarises the parent behaviours and the outcomes or
behaviours of children.
Parenting style
Parent behaviours
Children’s outcomes
Authoritative
Expects appropriate maturity
from children
Children develop well
Sets limits consistently
Shows affection
Children allowed to express
their points of view
Children participate in family
decisions
Authoritarian
Unresponsive and rejecting
when children do not obey
Children are not negotiated
with
Children are punished for being
disobedient
Happy
Lively
Attempt and master new tasks
Self-controlled
Friendly and cooperative
Anxious
Withdrawn
Unhappy
React with hostility
Quick to anger
Openly defiant
Dependant
Permissive
Very accepting of children
Difficulty controlling impulses
Little or no discipline or limits
set
Demanding of adults
Lack of persistence.
Berk (1996)
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Listen attentively and show children
their views are valued and
acknowledged
Children gain their understanding of the social world and their place in it from
what they experience. If adults respond to a child frequently with warm, caring
and respectful interactions, the child will build an image of themself as someone
who is cared about, who has worthwhile ideas and who is interesting to others.
What kind of behaviours should we use in our interactions with children that
show them that we care about them and are interested in what they
communicate?
How to show children that you care for
and value them
As a sound foundation, we need to make sure of our motivation. Children are very
quick to recognise when they are being patronised or when communication is not
genuine. In everything you do and say, you need to show children that you enjoy
being in their company and are interested in their communications. Making time
to listen and respond to each child is more important than almost any other
aspect of our work with children.
Some of the ways you can ensure that your interactions with children are
frequent, caring and respectful are outlined below.
Spend time with each child
Make time to spend with each child in both planned and spontaneous situations.
If you are just beginning to work with children you may need to structure this into
your planning until you become more skilled in time management. Over time, you
will develop your abilities until frequent, quality interactions with individual
children become a natural part of the flow of every day. Do not forget that this
applies to all children, including babies who cannot yet talk, children who are not
able to communicate freely through speech and children with a first language
other than English.
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Communicate interest and respect
Use your body language to show your interest and respect. Non-verbal
communication, for example personal space, facial expressions and body posture,
gives the child a very clear indication of your involvement in the interaction. Lean
into the child, kneel or crouch down so your face and eye level are similar, use
appropriate facial expressions and encouragement to show you are engaged in
what the child is communicating.
Follow up on interactions
Refer to the interaction at another time. Provide appropriate resources that show
the child you have taken note of their interests and share appropriate
communications with others. For example, tell other children about your
conversation during a group time.
How we respond to the children will affect how they interact with the rest of the
environment. If we show interest and are actively involved in experiences and
activities, then the children will follow our lead.
There are several ways that we can show children that their views are valued and
acknowledged. We can:
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listen to what they have to say
make eye contact when you or they are talking (please remember that in
some cultures this may not be appropriate)
speak warmly and enthusiastically
value their work by putting it on display
encourage and guide children to recognise and solve problems in
appropriate ways
allow children to play an active role in setting up and maintaining the
environment
be aware of ensuring that activities are child-centred, rather than carerdirected
be positive in our language—both verbal and non-verbal
recognise and accept children’s emotions
follow through on children’s requests and interests
provide advice and suggestions, but allow them the final decision
treat them with warmth and respect
treat other staff members with respect
value the skills that others can bring to a service—staff, parents, students,
volunteers and children.
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Acknowledge and support children’s
preferences for particular adults and
peers
We all have favourites—this is only natural. Children will prefer particular carers
and we should acknowledge and support their preferences. We should not allow
feelings of envy or jealousy taint our interactions with children. Children will
model themselves on our behaviour and so we should treat all children with the
same respect and fairness. Naturally we will have favourites among the children,
but we must be careful not to treat these favourites any different to the other
children. Children will also have favourites amongst themselves. Again we should
acknowledge and support this. However we should look out for those children
who are not ‘preferred’ and appear not to have any particular friends and try to
work out why this is so and if the child seems distressed about this, try subtly to
do something to remedy this.
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Help children to understand and
accept responsibility for their actions
Aggression
Children are aggressive for a variety of individual and environmental reasons. It is
essential that workers are sensitive to any emergence of aggressive behaviours
within a group or individual. It is often an alarm bell that the environment and the
care giving practices within the service are not inclusive or supportive of social
skill development appropriate to the children's age or stage of development.
Aggression is seen in many different forms and may be either verbal or physical.
Aggression can be further divided into either reactive or proactive aggression.
Reactive aggression is responding to someone else’s behaviour—this is where
children are provoked by others. Proactive aggression occurs for seemingly no
reason—the child has not been provoked in any way (Dodge and Coie 1987 cited
in Trawick Smith 2000).
Any aggression in children’s services needs to be dealt with by caregivers. There
needs to be clear, consistent rules for children so they understand what is
acceptable and not acceptable with agreed consequences for behaviour.
Caregivers need to praise and reinforce when children are displaying the
appropriate behaviour.
Understanding aggression is an important part of understanding how to foster
social development and to know what normal levels of aggressive behaviour are
for children at different stages bullying
Bullying
Bullying is a form of aggressive behaviour that begins to emerge in early childhood
and unfortunately is common in middle childhood. Did you experience bullying as
a child? For boys, bullying is more likely to be physical or name calling such as
‘four eyes’ for children with glasses, while for girls the comments are more likely
to be passed in an undertone, and the behaviour to be more social exclusion than
physical. For example, a group of girls is more likely to ‘gang up’ and exclude
another girl because ‘she smells’ and use moving or turning away as a form of
exclusion. This form of bullying is less obvious to carers, but is still bullying.
Activity 6
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Encourage children to express and
manage feelings appropriately
Activity 7
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Support children’s various levels of
interaction and participation with
others during play
Joining groups and initiating
interactions with peers
The ability to join groups of other children and the desire to do so begins at an
early age and progresses through a developmental sequence. Mildred Parten an
early theorist focused on the different types of social play. Parten observed
children in the first half of the 20th century. In her research she discovered that
children of different ages actually played together differently. They were capable
of different levels or categories of social play. Her categories of social play are still
a useful tool to help focus on how social play changes and develops at different
stages of our lives. (Beck (1996))
Social play
Ways children join in with other children
So far we have looked at the theory behind why children play differently at
different stages of their development. Have you also noticed though that some
children are extremely skilled at entering play and organising games while other
children can find it more difficult? There are a number of different ways children
can join other children and access their play. These include:
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standing nearby and watching, waiting for an invitation to join
going up to the child or children and saying: 'Can I play?'
sitting next to and engaging in a similar activity in the hope they are
included
asking other children to play with them
telling carers they want to join in a game.
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All of these are appropriate ways of gaining access to a group. Sometimes,
however, children will have learnt inappropriate ways of accessing groups such as
joining the play uninvited and ‘taking over’ or destroying the construction or
collaborative project the children have been working on. It takes much care as a
childcare educator to deal with these situations. It is not enough to simply let the
child know that the behaviour is inappropriate. We also need to give the child the
skills to be able to join in play appropriately. We can do this by:
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modelling appropriate ways to join in play: 'Hi John and Simon, I see you
are building an airport, Can I help?'
giving the child the appropriate language to use
supporting the child’s attempts at joining in play situations by being there
to monitor the reactions of the other children
fostering the child’s friendships with other children and groups of
children. You will learn more about this in the next section.
Consider this scenario.
Hannah sets out a craft activity. There are differently-sized pieces of paper
to work on and a central area to collect materials from. Hannah explains to
the group that they can work on their own or with a friend to create what
they like. While the children choose to either work together or with a
friend, Shari sits on the floor at the edge of the group. Hannah takes her a
cushion and says: ‘Do you want to watch for a while, Shari? Here you go,
make yourself comfortable.’
Hannah has respected Shari’s right to watch, while catering for the social
needs and abilities of the others and allowing them choices. There is
naturally a balance between respecting a child’s right to watch and
encouraging socially unconfident children to enter a group. You need to
observe all the children in your care closely and watch for their cues that
indicate they would like to participate but are not sure of their skills.
Activity 8
Children with disabilities may need even more collaboration or direction from
adults. This website gives a range of considerations and strategies:
http://www.pediatricservices.com/parents/pc-28.htm
Activity 9
Activity 10
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