APUSH Unit 8 Textbook Outline
Chapter 21 Toward Empire
America Looks Forward
Expansion until 1890 was within contiguous United States; after 1890, US expanding into areas beyond its borders—new ones were used as 1. Naval bases 2. Commercial centers 3. Viewed as colonies, not as states in the making;
Catching the Spirit of Empire
Until late 19 th , US enjoyed “free security” w/o appreciating it (sheltered by two oceans and British Navy)— could issue Monroe Doctrine w/o fear of reprisals; allowed for the spread of isolationism
—a desire to stay out of foreign affairs; in 1870s, Americans increasingly looked to events abroad with interest—part of new technology like telegraphs/telephones— imperialism will come in 1890s—stronger nations seeking to control/dominate weaker ones.
Reasons for Expansion
Reasons for expansion: 1. Manifest Destiny was accomplished 2. Overproduction on farms and factories—Sec of State Blaine sought markets in Latin America, Asia, and Africa (Africa overrun by Euro imperialism) 3.
Intellectual reasons— Social Darwinism
—survival of the fittest applied to society at large—primitive peoples were in arrested development and needed supervision and protection—superiority of Anglo-Saxon race 4.
Humanitarian/religious reasons ( Josiah Strong
—advocate of expansion to spread Christian religion using trade; these developments helped prepare the US for a larger role in the world—first time US felt need for foreign “policy.”
Foreign Policy Approaches 1867-1900
Various foreign policies until 1867— Europe —trade and avoid diplomatic entanglements— N & S America — based on Monroe Doctrine
—
Pacific
—US coveted
Hawaii and other outposts on the sea-lanes to China; Sec of
State William Seward (1861-1869)—aggressive, expansive foreign policy—foresaw huge empire in NA for
US, Caribbean to protect a canal across isthmus, Hawaii and other stepping-stone island towards Asia—was able to annex Midway (first US possession outside of NA continent)—also purchased Alaska from Russia
(
Seward’s folly
); Sec of State Hamilton Fish under Grant—main accomplishment was Treaty of Washington
1871—arbitration over the USS Alabama (Civil War ship damaged by Confederate ships armed by GB); Sec of
State Frelinghuysen opened markets for American goods in many Caribbean and Latin American places; reciprocity agreements b/t US and Latin American to open up their markets to US goods and to keep European goods out of Latin America (so important it almost led to war b/t US & GB over boundary issue in
Venezuela/British Guiana); GB caved on the issue due to more important concerns with imperialism in Africa.
The Lure of Hawaii and Samoa
Hawaii was tempting target for refueling station towards Asia—US missionaries arrived in 1820 to convert islanders to Christianity; US reciprocity agreements for Hawaiian sugar duty free but HA could not make other agreements with other countries—leads to HA economic dependence on US—1887, US given exclusive access to Pearl Harbor which was coveted by naval strategists; McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 ended HA’s special status and hurt its economy, king died, US sends 150 marines into HA—Queen Liliuokalani surrendered—finally, US
HA annexed by US in 1898 by Pres McKinley giving US naval and commercial base in mid-Pacific (hotly debated in US from 1893-1898—in favor of—HA’s strategic location and other powers (Japan) wanted it, need to Christianize HA’s pop ; against—US would have colonial problems (like GB had with 13 colonies), mongrel population of area not destined for statehood); US also targeted Samoan Islands for sea-lanes to South Pacific— leads to 1899 agreement—US/Ger split Samoan Islands and pay GB with lands elsewhere in Pacific.
The New Navy
US navy in poor shape through 1870s; US changed naval policy during 1880s due to new officers with new ideas wanted larger fleet to protect economic and other interests in Caribbean and Pacific—also, due to increasing navies of GB, Fr, Ger, etc; also due to
Alfred T. Mahan’s
The Influence of Sea Power on History,
1660-1783 and The Interest of America in Sea Power (1897)—Mahan pushed for larger US navy b/c of 1.
Surpluses in agriculture manufacturing leads to need for new markets 2. Protect shipping lanes 3.
Refueling/repair stations 4. Bases would be markets, themselves 5. Stepping-stones to other markets in Latin
America and Asia; Mahan’s ideas influenced a generation of US policymakers (two-fleet navy, especially).

War with Spain
War left lingering strain of isolationism and antiwar feeling that affected WWI policy—also, left US with empire in Caribbean and deep into Pacific; effects of war 1. established US as dominant force for the 20 th century 2. Strengthened presidency 3. Confirmed idea that new world was stronger than old world.
A War for Principle
Once large Spanish empire in New World was down to islands in Caribbean, many of which rebelled against
Spanish rule unsuccessfully—Cuba’s economy wrecked due to Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 (raised duties on Cuban sugar 40%)—revolt in Cuba against Spain again in Feb 1895; insurgents raised $ in America and encouraged “scorched earth” policy against Spanish rule—Spain responded by sending
General Valeriano
Weyler and he instituted a “ reconcentration
” policy to put native population into camps so they can’t aid rebels—leads to deaths of thousands in these camps; sympathy for rebels due to yellow journalism
— sensationalist reporting centered in NYC to increase sale, not necessarily cause a war; Pres Cleveland offered to mediate the conflict, but Spain refused; Pres McKinley urged neutrality, but also favored the insurgents— improvements in conflict due to new gov’t in Spain (some self-rule offered to Cuba and amnesty for political prisoners)—conditions improved until officer led riots in Havana in January 1898 against new autonomy policy;
McKinley sends USS Maine to Havana to protect US interests in Cuba (Americans/sugar cane plantations) and de Lome letter published (called McKinley “weak”)—damages US-Spanish relations; Feb 15, explosion about
USS Maine kills 266 Americans—“ Remember the Maine; to Hell with Spain!
”; Spain refused McKinley’s conditions to avoid war (armistice, end reconcentration, and Cuban independence)— Teller Amendment
—US promises not to annex Cuba—Spain didn’t give McKinley everything—April 25, 1898, Congress passed a declaration of war against Spain.
“A Splendid Little War”
Ten week war from April to August; US unprepared militarily at outset, especially non-modernized army which was accustomed to fighting Indian uprisings and had only 28,000 officers and troops; MANY Americans volunteered to fight (Teddy Roosevelt who was Asst Sec of Navy, Cordell Hull later Sec of State, etc)—troops equipped with black-powdered rifles that gave away troop positions, Spain better equipped, problems with food and sickness; problems w/i US military due to units coming from same towns; no censorship of press in Sp-
Amer War, like there was with later wars.
“Smoked Yankees”
¼ of US troops in war were black; many blacks not allowed at start of war until Pres McKinley intervened and
10,000 black troops were in volunteer army by end of the war; blacks hailed as heroes leaving for war but couldn’t eat in segregated restaurants; problems w/i US due to segregation and blacks fighting (desegregated rail cars, cut down trees used for lynching, etc); troops segregated on some troopships (blacks kept below the deck); black troops earned respect during war for fighting/leadership, especially during the Cuban campaign
(helped Rough Riders win San Juan Hill)—won 26 Certificates of Merit and 5 Congressional Medals of Honor.
The Course of the War
Strategy for possible war against Spain in works since 1895— Naval Strategy : 1. Destroy Sp fleet, damage
Spain’s merchant marine, harass colonies/coast of Sp (using 2-fleet navy to do so);
Army strategy (more difficult): 1. Defend the US 2. Invade Cuba and probably Puerto Rico 3. Action in far-flung places like
Philippines and possibly Spain; strategy at start of war was to: blockade Cuba, arm Cuban insurgents, use army to annoy Spanish; war changes strategy—US attack Spain in Philippines at Manila Bay led by
Commodore George Dewey (launched from Hong Kong)—sinks 8 Spanish warships, but had no troops to invade—Spain surrenders Philippines on August 13, 1898; US captures Guantanamo Bay in south Cuba, attack
Santiago after San Juan Hill victory by Rough Riders and Smoked Yankees, and later Kettle Hill (led by Teddy
Roosevelt)—Santiago surrendered in mid-July; army then occupies Puerto Rico with little resistance—results of war—113 days long, 5,500 US deaths (5,100 from accidents and diseases)—379 deaths from battle.
Acquisition of Empire
US acquires Puerto Rico and Guam and there was a debate about Philippines ; McKinley finally decides on annexation temporarily (keep them away from Euro industrial powers) with an eye towards future of independence; interim will allow US to “Christianize” them—US business interests saw them as a key to the
China market—some Amers viewed Philippines as spoils of war—US demands Philippines—Spain demands
$20 million and sign Treaty of Paris , Dec 10 th
, 1898.

The Treaty of Paris Debate
Treaty of Paris, 1898 was hotly debated issue in the US— anti-imperialists argued that annexation would violate US principles of independence and self-determination—labor leaders like Gompers were against it b/c it would under-cut wages and hurt union movement—others argued against it b/c of different race of Filipinos— others against it b/c it would lead to large armies, gov’t, and debts—Booker T. Washington was against b/c of more pressing problems at home (including treatment of Inds and blacks)—Carnegie against b/c it would distract from industrial development to foreign adventure; Anti-Imperialist League formed to fight against peace treaty; pressure to ratify Treaty of Paris increased due to Filipino insurgents fighting against US rule—
Senate quickly ratified treaty on Feb 6, 1899—US becomes colonial empire.
Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines
Philippine-American War
1.
1898-1902 (over 3 years longer than Sp-Amer War
2.
First time Americans fought men of different color in Asian guerrilla war
3.
4,300 American dead (4x more American soldiers fought in Phil-Amer War than Sp-Amer War)
4.
b/t 50,000-200,000 Filipinos dead
5.
Caused by Filipino desire for independence from US during treaty negotiations and after annexation
6.
Leader of Filipinos was Emilio Aguinaldo (29 when war began)
7.
Guerrilla warfare used by Aguinaldo after initial American victories—terrible atrocities on both sides—Americans adopted Weyler-like tactics (the Butcher) and herded Filipinos into “zones”—
Americans seized all food outside of the zones and starved the guerrillas into submission
8.
Aguinaldo was captured and William Howard Taft was sent to help establish provisional gov’t in
Philippines—Aguinaldo urged the guerrillas to stop fighting and they did after a year
9.
Provisional gov’t established schools/vocational training, built roads/bridges, reformed courts, restructured tax system, and introduced sanitation and vaccination programs, local gov’ts established, and Filipinos participated in gov’t
10.
Philippines granted independence on July 4, 1946.
Governing the Empire
Several questions concerning the rights of people in these territories—given some Constitutional rights, but not all of them— Hawaii (1900), Alaska (1912)—both territories— Guam and Samoa put under control of naval officers— Puerto Rico happy with outcome of Sp-Amer War— Foraker Act of 1900 established civil gov’t in
Puerto Rico, territory status, residents citizens of Puerto Rico (US citizens in 1917), and levels of gov’t established; Cuba was much trickier—General Leonard Wood put in charge of overseeing Cuba’s transition to self-gov’t until ready for independence—Cuban constitutional convention writes constitution much like US
Constitution—adopts Platt Amendment which says Cuba can make no other treaties with other nations, acquire no debts it couldn’t pay, and lease naval bases like Guantanamo Bay to US, and US can intervene to maintain orderly gov’t.
The Open Door
Sec of State John Hay issues the Open Door Policy in Sept 1899—hoping to end Euro “spheres of influence” policy of dividing up China concerning trade and allow all nations to trade with all parts of China—some agreed/others didn’t—Hay says all nations did agree to the Open Door policy; Boxer Rebellion in June 1900 in
Peking (now Beijing)—nationalists in China tried to drive out foreign influence and failed—Hay issues another round of Open Door notes with two objectives
—1. Equal commercial opportunity in China 2. Need to preserve
China’s independence; leads to US involvement in Asia and later problems with Japan.

Chapter 24 The Nation at War
A New World Power
US presidents dominated foreign affairs from 1901-1920 (American people, Congress, and courts paid little attention)— foreign policy from 1901-1920 was aggressive and nationalistic
—intervened in Europe, the Far
East, Latin America, and dominated the Caribbean; colonial empire from Sp-Amer war required large navy for protection and involvement in international affairs; US investment overseas increased from $445 million to $2.5 billion from 1898-1914—forced US to pay more attention to events in foreign lands.
“I Took the Canal Zone”
Theodore Roosevelt (TR) spent his presidency preparing US for its role as a world power; TR did so by 1.
Modernizing the army (established the Army War College, stiff tests for officer promotions, and general staff to oversee military planning and mobilization) 2. Doubled the size of the US Navy; TR also wanted canal through isthmus in Central America—TR had agreement with Colombia to dig it through Panama section of Colombia but Colombian Senate refused to ratify treaty—TR made it known that he would support a Panamanian revolution and in 1903, one happened—TR sent USS Nashville to support Panamanians and in Hay-Bunau-
Varilla Treaty
, US can dig Panama Canal (US guarantees Panama’s independence and pays $10 million fee and $250,000 yearly rent)—PC completed in August 1914 and cost $375 million; strains relations with
Colombia, but those resolved in 1921 under President Wilson for $25 million and preferential treatment in using the canal.
The Roosevelt Corollary
US takes a more active role in Caribbean due to Puerto Rico, Cuba, and canal—buys Virgin Islands in 1917 to prevent Germany from doing so; US concerns of European influence in Latin America increases due to these nations often owing debts to European countries and banks that they couldn’t repay (Venezuela & Dominican
Republic both defaulted) and US had to intervene—TR announces Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine in 1904—warned Latin American nations to keep affairs in order or US would intervene (Dominican
Republic)—also warned foreign corporations not to purchase harbors or other sites of military importance to
US—Roosevelt Corollary was official US policy towards Latin America until replaced by FDR’s Good
Neighbor Policy of 1930s.
Ventures in the Far East
US interest in Far East due to Open Door Policy and acquisition of the Philippines—US under TR mediates
Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 (Jap winning battles but financially drained)—Treaty signed in Portsmouth,
NH and recognizes Japan as dominant force in Far East—also, Taft-Katsura Agreement of 1905 b/t US and
Jap—Japan promises not to invade Philippines; US gives Japan Korea;
Gentlemen’s Agreement
of 1907 b/t
US and Japan for US to stop segregating Japanese in California School and Japan agrees to severely limit
Japanese immigration into the US—TR also sends 16 new battleships around the world (Tokyo included) to illustrate American strength abroad. Japan aids Allied Powers in WWI, but begins eyeing US possessions in
Pacific.
Taft and Dollar Diplomacy
President Taft’s diplomacy was dollar diplomacy to promote US financial and business interests abroad—
Dollar Diplomacy was to substitute economic ties for military alliances to bring American influence overseas and to ensure peace; Taft wanted supremacy in Caribbean like TR did, but had different methods—Taft wanted to replace Euro loans to Latin American nations with American loans to tie them financially to US—did so in
Nicaragua; Taft hoped to do the same in Far East—wanted to build RRs in Manchuria (Northern China)— violated TR’s promise to Japan to stay out of area—Taft wanted Euro nations involved, but they turned him down—causes problems with Japan over broken promise—causes problems with China due to distrust over broken promise of RRs.
Foreign Policy under Wilson
Wilson was a Princeton professor before entering politics and wasn’t interested in foreign affairs, except as they pertained to domestic ones; handled foreign policy personally w/o the input of his various secretaries of state;
Wilson believed in a principled, ethical world and rejected militarism, colonialism, and war—Wilson pursued moral diplomacy —designed to bring right to the world, preserve peace, and extend to other peoples the blessings of democracy.
Conducting Moral Diplomacy

Wilson appointed William Jennings Bryan (Cross of Gold—Dem/Pop candidate for Pres in 1896 & 1900) as his
Sec of State—WJB was a pacifist who signed 30 “cooling off” treaties with various nations (couldn’t declare war or increase armaments w/o approval of a permanent commission of investigators)—naïve and ineffective; in Latin America, Wilson said he rejected TR/Taft’s approach, but ended up intervening in Latin America more than either one; Nicaragua
—rights to build canal and lease naval base sites.
Haiti
—marines sent in to quell a revolution. Dominican Republic established as US protectorate as well as Cuba .
Troubles Across the Border
US problems with Mexico starting with the overthrow of President Diaz in 1911—replaced by Madero , who was ineffective, overthrown, and murdered; Madero replaced by General Huerta who Wilson called a
“ butcher
;” US/Mexico close to war over US troop arrests and US marines taking Veracruz, which outraged
Mexicans; Huerta resigned and replaced by Venustiano Carranza (associate of Madero’s)— Pancho Villa hoped to get US involved in Mexico so he could take power and he raided US border town which injured US citizens and murdered 17 Americans on a train in Mexico, and killed 16 Americans in Columbia, NM and burned the town; Wilson sent Gen John J. Pershing
—Pershing pursued Villa deep into Mexican territory unsuccessfully—events of WWI distracted Wilson and he ordered Pershing home.
Toward War
Two pre-war secret alliance systems— Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, & Italy—book says
Turkey—was Ottoman Empire at that point)— Triple Entente (GB, Fr, and Rus); Imperialism
—Germany’s
Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted overseas empire to match GB’s, Fr’s—colonization of Africa ; also militarism of all
Euro powers; assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, Serbia; Pres Wilson immediately proclaimed US neutrality .
The Neutrality Policy
Most Americans supported neutrality for reasons such as 1. Just another Euro war 2. Progressives thought silly to spend so much energy making factory work safer only to have soldiers killed in large numbers, aid munitions manufacturers, stockbrokers, and bond dealers.
Immigrants supported one side or the other—immigrants from British Isle supported Allies; Irish/German supported Central Powers; attempts by both groups to sway public opinion towards their chosen side.
Freedom of the Seas
GB goes to great lengths to blockade Ger’s ability to import war materials by blockading North Sea—causes tensions b/t US and GB—GB forbid shipments of war materials, foodstuffs, seized and censored mail, and blacklisted American companies, and stopped/confiscated certain American cargoes (wouldn’t allow cotton sales to Ger but GB agreed to buy it themselves); No constraints put on US trade with Allies and US economy benefited greatly by selling war supplies, grain, cotton, and clothing; US also loaned Allies $2 billion, but only
$27 million to Ger; Economic boom drew US closer to Allies—US didn’t like England’s maritime policy, but that only cost US money, Ger’s u-boat policy cost American lives.
The U-Boat Threat
U-boats ( unterseeboot ) were new weapons in Great War—easy targets when they surfaced—Ger promised not to sink US ships (lasted until 1917); Americans died aboard Falaba , Arabic , and Lusitania (May 1915)—all torpedoed by Ger u-boats (Sec of State William Jennings Bryan resigned over disagreement over these issues— replaced by pro-Allied Power Robert Lansing); Ger agrees to Sussex pledge in May 1916 to not shoot neutral countries’ ships, only enemy ships—short period of friendly relations b/t US and Ger
“He Kept Us Out of War”
“Preparedness” issue caused tension b/t antiwar groups and those who wanted to prepare for war; TR urged preparedness—Wilson allowed War Dept to conduct training exercises but cut military spending in 1915; later in 1915, Wilson changed course and began following the preparedness cause and instructed the War Dept to do so, also;
Election of 1916— Wilson (Dem) EV—277 PV 9.1 million Wilson’s motto “ He kept us out of the war ”
Charles Hughes (Rep) EV—254 PV 8.5 million
Wilson barely wins CA, NM, and ND to give him a close electoral victory—women broke for Wilson in the first election they could in for 12 states.
The Final Months of Peace

Wilson still hoping for peace and give speech in Senate calling for “peace without victory,” wanting respect for all nations, freedom of the seas, arms limitations, and League of Nations to keep peace; January 31, 1917,
Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare (any ship) to try and end war quickly to get land in eastern
Europe, Africa, Belgium, and France; Zimmermann Note intercepted by GB on Feb 25 and US close to war;
Ger sinks 5 American ships in March and US declares war on April 6, 1917
Over There
US enters at tough time for Allies—Ger sinking huge amounts of supplies with sub warfare, mutinies in Fr army, stalled offensive in Flanders by GB, Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin seized power in Russia and withdrew, Italians routed in southern Europe.
Mobilization
US very unprepared for war—small army, poorly equipped, no advanced planning, couldn’t even catch Pancho
Villa;
John J. “Black Jack” Pershing
chosen to lead American Expeditionary Force (AEF); Wilson used conscription—May 1917 Congress passed Selective Service Act —registration of all men b/t 21 & 30 (later 18-
45)—24 million registered and 2.8 million drafted into army—blacks and whites drafted and served.
War in the Trenches
WWI was terribly destructive (9 million soldier deaths, 5 million civilians)—describe trench warfare—new weapons included artillery, poison gas, hand grenades, machine guns, etc—disease and shell shock were major problems; describe Admiral Sims convoy system (destroyers escorting merchant vessels across the ocean—cut shipping loses in half); Americans helped block Ger offensive outside of Paris in July of 1918 near the Marne
River; In Sept, 896,000 Americans attacked Ger near the Argonne Forest to cut RR supply line for Ger in
West—broke through in Nov and drove Gers back; by October, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Ottoman
Empire were out of war; Nov 11, 1918 11AM, Ger armistice went into effect; US lost 48,909 dead, 230,000 wounded, and 112,000 dead to disease and battle deaths; US contribution small, but vital.
Over Here
Wilson had to mobilize at home for war production and distribution and to sway public opinion and focus their attention on their efforts to help the soldiers on the battlefield.
The Conquest of Convictions
Wilson got George Creel to head up the Committee on Public Information (CPI); used posters, advertising, films, speeches; starting in 1918, it was VERY anti-German using films like “The Prussian Cur” and “The
Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin” and got labor leaders to rally behind war effort; various efforts to suppress German culture (language, sauerkraut became “liberty cabbage”, Salisbury steak became “liberty steak”, no playing
Beethoven, Bach, Brahms, German-Americans harassed and sometimes violently; leads to passage of
Espionage Act 1917 —prison for up to 20 years for aiding enemy, obstructing draft, or encouraging disloyalty;
Sedition Act 1918
—harsh penalties for anyone using disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language
(obvious violation of first amendment b/c of no clear and present danger); Americans used this to harass socialist in the country— Big Big Haywood
, IWW’s best known member fled;
Eugene V. Debs (Socialist party leader) denounced capitalism and the war and was convicted under the Espionage Act
—runs for Pres in 1920 and won almost a million votes; Red Scare in US begins in 1919 as a result of Lenin and Bolshevik s’ takeover of Russia and subsequent withdrawal from WWI—Americans feared Lenin’s anti-capitalist program and his abandoning war effort against Ger; Wilson sends 15,000 US troops to Russia to help protect Allied supplies and rescue Czech troops, but really to help aid anti-Bolshevik insurgents, establishes blockade of Russia, and refuses to allow Russia to peace negotiations.
A Bureaucratic War
WWI would be terribly expensive--$32 billion—gov’t raised money by 1. Sale of $23 billion in Liberty Bonds
2. 16 th Amendment
—taxing income on people and corporations brought another $10 billion; Wilson established centralized planning agencies to run war effort—two important ones included: 1. War Industries
Board (WIB) —oversaw factory production, determined priorities, allocated raw materials, and fixed prices 2.
Food Administration
—run by
Herbert Hoover to supply army—conserve food by observing “ meatless
” and
“ wheatless
” days, encouraged victory gardens ; others included Fuel Administration
—introduced Daylight
Savings time, rationed coal and oil, and gasless days when no driving allowed; RR Administration oversaw
RRs; gov’t also stopped strikes from happening and gov’t took over those businesses.
Labor in the War

Labor leaders like Samuel Gompers formed alliance with gov’t to unify business, labor, and gov’t—leading to growth of union membership; War Labor Board ( WLB ) formed to standardize wages and hours, protected the right of labor to organize and collectively bargain, discouraged strikes, equal pay for women; labor shortage due to no immigration during war and drafting of men—filled by women, Afr-Amers, and Mex-Amers; women filled jobs previously open to only men—pay and expectations increased; southern blacks moved up north to fill jobs (450,000 for industrial cities) and to greater freedom but to work in factories which was very unlike farm work—increased racial tensions due to competition for jobs and housing (race riots in several northern cities— lynchings, etc); Mex-Amers came into SW and N due to lessening immigration restrictions and lived in their own ghettos w/i these cities.
The Treaty of Versailles
Wilson’s plan for peace called Fourteen Points (see page 713); GB and Fr disliked his idealism and wanted to cripple Ger; only gave in when Wilson threatened a separate peace with Germany.
A Peace at Paris
Big Four at Paris were
US Pres Wilson, Fr’s Clemenceau (the Tiger), GB’s PM David Lloyd George, &
Italian PM Vittorio Orlando
; Wilson’s major goals were self-determination , reduction in tensions and arms, and League of Nations to enforce the peace; Treaty of Versailles included Poland and Czechoslovakia, divided up Ger’s Asian/African possessions, war guilt clause, reparations of $33 billion, and a League of Nations
(nothing on freedom of trade/seas/or disarmament); Treaty of Versailles signed on June 28, 1919.
Rejection in the Senate
“Irreconcilables” in Senate were against the League in any form; Wilson toured the nation to draw support for the Treaty as it was written, struck by a stroke that severely weakened him; Congress issued 14 Reservations concerning the Treaty—especially Article X—Congress insisted that Congressional approval be necessary for any American intervention abroad (power to declare war); None of the versions of the treaty were ratified by
Senate; Wilson considered running for a 3 rd
term, but Dem party rejected it; US technically still at war until
July, 1921 (2.5 years after last shot was fired).
The Election of 1920
Warren G. Harding (Rep)—404 (16 million)
James Cox (Dem)—127 (9 million)
Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)—0 (913,664)