Tapestry of the Centuries
By
Vladimir Gorsky
Interview with Vladimir Gorsky
(1953 – 2008)
By Victor Forbes, Feb 2007. For Fine Art Magazine
Vladimir Gorsky arrived in the US, an immigrant from Russia, virtually penniless yet determined
to make it as an artist here. In an interview with Fine Art conducted from his Dallas, TX studio
in February 2007, Gorsky describes his lean days on the Texas docks right up to his stature today
as an internationally recognized and acclaimed talent who has consciously and substantially
contributed to the international art scene.
“In Russia during the Soviet Union era, artists were used as instruments of propaganda assigned
to paint portraits of government leaders and political posters to decorate government plants,
factories, collective farms, movie theaters and concert halls. Imagery, for example, that showed
the working man and peasant woman working together to make a bright future. In those days,
besides painting for the government, I always had commission work to go along with my official
artistic duties. If you stepped too far from the norm, you would be jailed – so this extra work had
to be done secretly. My father left the USSR in 1974 for the United States. I tried to visit him
ten years later, applied for a visa, was turned down, and my life became a misery. The
authorities fired me from one place immediately and I was getting no more orders for my art.
They did not let me emigrate, and it became almost dangerous for me to be there. My father
tried for two years to get me out, sending letters to Senators and Congressmen in the United
States. Only one man responded – Sen. Gary Hart. He went to Russia to see Gorbachev and met
me at the American Embassy, telling me he will ‘deliver my name to Gorbachev’ and will see
me in the U.S. very soon. Two weeks later, I received a call from the authorities and finally left
my own country. It is always very hard to leave your homeland and start a new life. At that time,
on one could have predicted that the Communist Party regime would collapse one day and there
would be such freedom over there.
While my father was in the U.S., and even before, I was committed to my career as an artist. My
art teacher in Russia became my friend and told me it would be very difficult to make it as an
artist in America. As in Russia, the competition would be fierce. I promised myself I would do
everything possible to be an artist in America. When I was getting ready to finally leave, my
father advised to not take anything with me – paint, brushes, canvas – because the best quality in
available in the U.S. I gave all my equipment to fellow artists in Russia, and then found that if
you want a nice quality brush in the U.S., it is very expensive. A tube of good oil paint can be up
to $50.
My father tried to discourage my artistic ambitions. When I arrived, he showed me a “frame and
art gallery” with an original painting, including frame, for $49.95. What would be the artist’s
share of that we wondered. This was shocking news, and it was a nice painting. I said, ‘There’s
something wrong here’ and decided that I will create art in my own way and not worry about
price. I sold my first painting in Boca Raton for $4,000, and received $1,000 for myself and was
very happy about that.
When I arrived in Houston in 1987, I had no English language skills and sought any kind of job
just to make a few dollars. I finally was hired as a docker, unloading refrigerators with frozen
food – pigs, beet, whatever. I loaded trucks and delivered the goods to ship yards and loaded
boats exactly as it was done 100 or 200 years ago without any modern equipment. We had no
cranes; we were a production line. I felt like I was in an historical movie. I made my $4.50 an
hour salary and managed to pay $100 a month for an old car; managed to buy my own TV and
VCR and to rent a little apartment for $225 a month. I was proud of myself. I was making some
money and could prepare for my future career as an artist.
My next job was a little closer to art. I became a color separator in a silkscreen shop. The owner
realized I was artistic and understood color. This was my upgrade job for $5.50 an hour and I
was very happy about that. I worked there two or three months and made my first painting for
the owner who decided to make a serigraphy from my original. For this, he agreed to keep me
alive financially for a month and I made my first painting on rice paper, using a new technique
similar to that of the Chinese Hunan School with Russian enamel and stained glass influences.
Two different editions were printed, but then the shop owner went through a horrible divorce and
had to close the business. From that time on, 1988, I have been an independent artist, not
working for anyone. I just do my art. In 1989, I produced my first one-man art show in
Houston. I rented a ballroom in the Doubletree Hotel, with a pianist friend. He helped me with
his mailing list, inviting his friends and followers. It was a great success. His clients became my
clients, some became my friends, and I sold about $15,000 in art. The only way to be successful
is to show your work, no matter how much it costs. You have to go for it if you don’t want to be
a driver or something else, knowing it is a kind of gamble nonetheless.
After that I created all kinds of activities, painting for different dealers, various galleries, and
private clients and started exhibiting at the NY ArtExpo from 1989. Also during that time I
decided to do a special commission which I never did before – traditional wooden Russian Easter
eggs. I decorated them with religious subjects, fairy tales, and portraits of children with 24K
gold leaf and precious stones. I made 19 unique eggs, starting at $3,000 for one egg – a very
specific work, delicate and difficult. This was done in the same technique as icon restoration,
with egg tempera and gold leaf.
In 1995, at the Las Vegas ArtExpo, I exhibited my Russian Fairy Tale series for the final time. I
began them in 1988, and sold over 100 original paintings from that series. I then started to paint
traditional oil portraits on canvas and completed over 50 portrait commissions, including former
President Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush for The Bush Library and Senator Gary Hart, who
helped me get out of Russia. My next series, European city scenes, was created from my travels
to six European countries. I then began From Depths of Ages, a series of historical works from
the Stone Tablets to the Mona Lisa. These were historical images with different ideas. At the
same time, I started a major project Tapestry of the Centuries, (9’ x 18’) depicting 2000 years of
world history which was three years in the making. It debuted at Atlanta ArtExpo in September
1999, and has been shown from the West Coast to East Coast in the U.S. generating donations
for various charities. Miracle in the Desert (7.5’ x 12.5’), a Las Vegas history, was another big
project taking two years to paint. In 2003, I started a new series of PopArt portraits of movie
stars, rock stars, and famous icons.
Twenty years ago the United States became my new country and I am proud to be an American
and an American artist.”
First Thousand Years
1st to 5th Centuries
1. The Birth of Jesus Christ.
The impact of the birth of this Child on the history of the world has been felt ever since.
2. The Crucifixion of Christ.
According to traditional accounts Jesus died on the cross on April 3, 33 AD and was resurrected on
April 5, 33 AD.
3. The Fresco of Doura-Europus.
A fresco is a painting on moist plaster using pigments dissolved in water. This one was executed
between 230 and 240, and depicts the duties of the priesthood and symbols related to it. Aaron,
whose name is written in Greek letters, overlooks the scene.
4. Augustus, Caesar (63 BC - 14 AD).
The grand nephew of Julius Caesar, Augustus was the first Roman emperor. He halted the decline
of the country after 50 years of civil wars and established a new basis for Roman government that
was to last three centuries. With great skill, tenacity and organizational ability, he brought renewal
to every aspect of Roman life as well the Pax Romana to the early centuries of the First
Millennium.
5. Constantine I the Great (c280-337).
After defeating rival general, Maxentius, Constantine became Emperor of Rome. Since the support
of the Christians was instrumental in Constantine's achieving the throne, in 313 he issued the Edict
of Milan, which allowed Christians freedom of worship. Constantine implemented humane legal
reforms influenced by his new religious views. He rebuilt the city of Byzantium, renamed it
Constantinople and made it the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. Despite certain achievements,
Constantine's reign was still marked by despotic excesses.
6. The Arch of Constantine (312).
One of three surviving ancient Roman triumphal arches in Rome, it was built to celebrate
Constantine's victory over Maxentius at Milvian Bridge in 311. Constantine attributed the victory
to a vision of a glowing cross that he had seen and the placing of crosses on his soldiers' shields.
7. The Colosseum (75-80).
This giant amphitheater was built in Rome under the Flavian emperors and is a freestanding
structure of stone and concrete, measuring 620 by 513 feet and seating 50,000 spectators. Within
its confines took place thousands of gladiator contests as well as simulated combat engagements,
including naval battles. Constantine put an end to gladiatorial contests.
8. Fragment of the Arch of Titus (still standing at the entrance to the Roman Forum).
In AD 66, during the reign of Roman emperor Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, the Jews
revolted against Rome, which action resulted in the siege and final destruction of Jerusalem. The
climactic moment of this military action was the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70.
9. Ruler of Hatra (clOO/200?).
In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, Hatra was ruled by a dynasty of Arab princes. Excavations in Iraq
have revealed numerous sculptures from the period, including statues of the princes and their
families.
10. Destruction of Pompeii.
This vibrant Roman city on the Bay of Naples was completely buried during the eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius in AD 79. The flow of lava left in its wake entire buildings and their inhabitants as well
as artifacts from daily life preserved in volcanic ash.
11. Diocletian, Gaius Aurelius Valerius (245-316).
This Roman emperor (284-305) established political stability in Rome after decades of anarchy by
instituting a peculiar system of multiple emperors and caesars. The reign of Diocletian is also
remembered as the time of the last great persecution of the Christians.
12. Buddha.
Buddha, the "Enlightened One," also known as Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism,
originally conceived in India in the 6th century BC. Buddhism teaches achieving the middle path
between mortification and ambition with the ultimate goal of reaching a state of Nirvana, which
frees one from the cycle of birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Buddhism has been the most
important religious and philosophical creed for vast numbers of Asians since its introduction in
China in 1st century AD until present times.
13. Caesar Nerva Traianus Germanicus (53-117).
The first Roman emperor (98-117) to be born outside Italy, Germanicus spread the boundaries of
the empire to the east (Dacia, or modern day Rumania, Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia),
initiated great building projects and enhanced government assistance to the population.
14. Ts’ai Lun (c50-121).
Around AD 105, Ts'ai Lun, an official of the Imperial court of China, invented one of the first
practical varieties of paper, using mulberry fibers, discarded fishnets and rags as well as hemp
stalks.
15. Caligula (12-41).
"Caligula" ("Little Boots") was the nickname of Gaius Caesar Germanicus, Roman emperor from
AD 37 to 41. Notorious for his insanely arbitrary despotism, Caligula named his horse as Consul
and believed himself to be a god.
16. 2nd Century Roman Schools.
In the 2nd century AD in the West began the establishment of state-sponsored schools worthy of the
name. In AD 425, Roman emperor Theodosius II founded an institution of higher learning at the
Roman Empire's eastern capital of Constantinople, endowing it with 31 chairs for the teaching of
letters, rhetoric (both Greek and Latin), philosophy, and law.
17. Personal Bodyguards of the Emperor of Rome (circa 1st century AD).
18. Germanicus Caesar (15BC-19AD).
Nephew and adopted son of the Roman emperor Tiberius (AD 14-37), Germanicus was a
successful and enormously popular general who avenged the Roman army's defeat by Germanic
tribes at Teutoburg Forest, hence his sobriquet "Germanicus." He would have become emperor had
he not died at an early age in AD 19.
19. The Fresco of Zarathustra from Doura-Europus.
The prophet Zarathustra, founder of the Zoroastrian creed, was born approximately 1500 BC in
Central Asia near the Sea of Aral. Zoroastrians revere the forces of nature and maintain a dualistic
concept of ultimate good and evil. Adherents of this religion were wide spread in Rome in the 3rd
century AD, rivaling Christianity. Zoroastrianism is practiced today among the Parsee ethnic group
in India.
20. Mithra.
Mithra, the Iranian god of the sun, justice, contracts, and war in pre-Zoroastrian Iran. Mithra. or
Mithras, as this deity was widely known in the Roman Empire during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD,
was honored as the patron of loyalty to the Roman emperor.
21. Jewish-Greek Gold Medallion.
This gold medallion has an enigmatic inscription in the Greek language and contains Jewish
symbols -- the Menorah, a shofar, and a lulav (2nd & 3rd century).
22. Flavius Theodosius the Great (347-395).
Emperor of the eastern Roman Empire (379-392) and then sole emperor of both Rome and
Constantinople (392-395), Theodosius ruthlessly suppressed paganism as well as what he viewed
to be heresy (for example, Arianism). At his direction the Council of Nicaea (325) established a
universal norm for Christian orthodoxy and a second general Council at Constantinople (381) was
held to clarify finer points of theology.
23. Chariot Racing.
Chariot racing was a popular form of spectator sport early in the First Millennium, involving small,
two-wheeled vehicles drawn by two-, four-, or six-horse teams. The Circus Maximus was one of
the largest sports arenas ever built; its maximum seating capacity of possibly 250,000 has exceeded
that of any stadium built subsequently.
6th to 10th Centuries
24. Justinian 1(483-565).
The last Byzantine emperor to rule in the West, Justinian (527-565) is noted for carrying out
extensive administrative reorganization. All the same his rule was marked by great political unrest.
Justinian built the great church of Hagia Sophia and sponsored the codification of Roman laws
known as the "Codex Justinianus" (534).
25. Buddhist Rock-Cut Cave Temples and Monasteries near the Village of Ajanta, India
(c490).
This area harbors 30 caves excavated between the 1st century BC and the 7th century AD. The
fresco-type paintings found therein depict Buddhist divinities and homilies. These works are
among the most notable in all Indian art for their joyfulness and brilliance.
26. Germanic Barbarians in Rome (476 AD).
Romulus Augustulus, a mere boy and the last emperor of the West Roman Empire (Rome proper),
was deposed by Odoacer, the leader of Germanic tribes operating in Italy. Odoacer did not assume
the title of emperor for himself, but simply allowed it to lapse.
27. Venice (Venezia).
The first historical records relating to Venice date back to the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Within the
confines of the Venetian Lagoon are 118 islands upon which the traditional city center is situated.
Venice is home to more than 150 canals and 400 bridges.
28. Mayan Pyramids (800).
Mayan pyramids, some as high as 200 feet, were erected to honor their gods and rulers. The tops of
the pyramids were made flat so that the rulers could sit atop them and survey their realms.
29. Figurine of a Mayan Priest (600-900).
Priests of the highest hierarchical position in the Mayan realm were charged with serving the cult
of the national deities, while other priests engaged in divination or healing the sick.
30. Armenian Alphabet and Saint Mesrob.
Saint Mesrob and Saint Sahag invented the Armenian alphabet in 405 AD. On the left is Saint
Mesrob, on the right is an example of Armenian script.
31. Miniature from Astrological Tractate with References to Islamic Astronomy.
Between 750 and 833 the Abbasids (the dynasty of caliphs, or rulers of the Arab realm, descended
from Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed) encouraged the development of trade and industry as well as
the arts and sciences. European science would only reach a par with Arabic learning towards the
end of the 15th century.
32. Bodhisattva (600).
An Indian Buddhist known in Chinese as Kuan-yin and in Japanese as Kannon, Bodhisattva
("Buddha-to-be"), possibly the most popular of all Buddhist holy men, beloved throughout the
Buddhist world for his infinite compassion and mercy. Bodhisattva resolved to postpone his own
Buddhahood until he has helped every being on earth achieve emancipation.
33. Representation of Buddha from the Sui Dynasty of China.
The Sui dynasty (581-618) reunified China, and Buddhism enjoyed a golden age as a state religion.
34. Miniatures from the Koran and Illustrations of Events from the Life of the Prophet
Mohammed (570-632).
The Koran depicts the life of Mohammed and the history of the Arabs and has been handed down
to our age in its complete and original form since the time of Prophet himself. On the left is a stele
with an inscription of a prayer from the Koran, on the Medallion at the right is inscribed the name
of Mohammed, interwoven throughout are events from the life of the Prophet.
35. The Dome of the Rock (687).
The first masterpiece of Islamic architecture, the Dome was built half a century after the death of
the Prophet Mohammed. The Rock (inside the Dome) marks the site from where the Prophet made
his "Miraaj" or "Night Journey" into the heavens and back to Mecca.
36. Pope Leo I, Saint (c400-461).
Leo I, Pope of Rome (440-461), personally appeared to Attila the Hun and persuaded him not to
attack Rome. Three years later he persuaded the Vandals, another Germanic people, not to sack
Rome when they occupied it.
37. Pope Gregory I, Saint (c540-604).
Pope Gregory I laid the foundation for the theological, moral, and economic authority of the
papacy. Gregory's ideals became transmogrified into the European worldview of the Middle Ages.
It was Gregory who sent St. Augustine to Britain to initiate that country's conversion to
Christianity. Gregory also modified elements of the celebration of the Mass, which gave rise to the
Gregorian chant.
38. The Vikings.
Fearless seafarers from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the Vikings pursued vigorous exploration
and conquest throughout Europe and the North Atlantic. The period AD 800-1050 is widely known
as the Viking Age.
39. Rurik (c830 — c879) and Oleg (c838 —c 912).
These two Viking adventurers are shrouded in legend and mystery. However, it has been
reasonably well established that Rurik founded the Russian city-state of Novgorod and gave rise to
a dynasty of Russian princes and tsars that lasted until 1598. Rurik's kinsman Oleg the Wise, on the
other hand, is believed to have been instrumental in the founding of the grand principality of Kiev,
the cradle of nationhood of the peoples of East Slavdom- Russians, Ukrainians and Byelorussians.
40. Introduction of Christianity to Kiev by Prince Vladimir, Saint.
In 988 Vladimir, Grand Prince of Kiev, married the sister of the Byzantine emperor and began the
conversion of the Eastern Slavic peoples in his realm to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In 1988,
Russians, Ukrainians and Byelorussians of the then Soviet Union celebrated one thousand years of
Christianity in their nations.
41. Eriksson, Leif.
Leif, son of Eric the Red, was born in Iceland in about 960. Leif was reputedly the first European
to set foot in the Americas when in 1000 he was blown off course and ended up apparently
somewhere on the coast of North America.
42. Theodoric the Great (c454-526).
Theodoric was king of the Ostrogoths and conqueror of Italy. He defeated Odoacer, conqueror of
Rome and subsequently murdered him. He besieged and took Ravenna (493), and made Italy into
an Ostrogothic kingdom in 493. As a ruler in his own right, however, Theodoric displayed
moderation and fairness.
43. Battle of Pressburg (miniature of 924).
In 881 the Magyars, the ancestors of the present-day Hungarians, began incursions into Western
Europe. This led to a clash by the Magyars near Vienna. By 906 the Magyars had destroyed Great
Moravia, and in 907 at the Battle of Pressburg near modern-day Bratislava, Slovakia, the Magyars
defeated a large Bavarian army that had tried to drive them back from the lands they occupied.
44. Henry I, The Fowler (876-936).
German king and founder of the Saxon dynasty (918-1024), Henry was called "the Fowler" since
that was what he was doing when he learned he had become king. He strengthened the East
Frankish, or German army, encouraged the growth of towns, brought Lotharingia (Lorraine) back
under German control (925), and secured German borders against Magyar incursions.
45. Greek Fire.
This substance was an incendiary preparation that ignited on contact with seawater. First was
introduced by the Byzantine Greeks against the Arabs at the siege of Constantinople in 673, it had
a decisive tactical and strategic impact in the defense of the Byzantine Empire.
46. Carolingian Miniscule Script.
This clear and easy-to-use script was invented by Alcun of York between 781 and 790 for use by
English monks at the Abbey of St. Martin's at Tours, France. The use of this miniscule led to the
introduction of lower and upper case letters, a development that in turn led to the division of
written texts into sentences and paragraphs.
47. Charles Martel (c688-741).
Known in English as "Charles the Hammer," Charles Martel was Mayor of the Palace of the
Frankish Kingdom when the Ommayad Caliphate army attempted to invade Europe by way of the
Phyrenees in 731. At Poitiers in 732, Martel's heavily armored cavalry withstood the onslaught of
the Caliph's cavalry and Arab incursions into Europe. Charles lent his name to the dynasty founded
by his son Pepin, who in turn was the father of Charlemagne- the Carolingian Dynasty.
48. Charlemagne, Charles I the Great (742-814), king of the Franks (768-814), king of the
Lombards (774-814), emperor (800-814). (He is Charles I of the Holy Roman Empire,
as well as Charles I of France.)
As king of the Franks, Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy, drove back the
Saxons, and annexed Bavaria. Assuming the title of emperor in 800, Charlemagne ruled virtually
all of the Christian countries of West Europe with the exception of the Kingdom of Asturias in
Spain, southern Italy, and the British Isles.
11th to 15th Centuries
49. Illustration from Maimonides' Mishne Torah "Astronomers Observing the Stars"
(Italy 1450).
50. Magna Carta (1215).
King John granted this charter of English liberties in 1215 under threat of armed insurrection by the
English nobility. It was amended in 1216, 1217, and 1225. The Magna Charter soon became a
symbol of personal liberty in defiance of absolutist monarchy.
51. Innocent III (1160/61-1216).
Innocent III was pope from 1198 to 1216; under him the medieval papacy reached the height of its
power and influence. He called for the Fourth Crusade and the Albigensian Crusade (against
French heretics).
52. Joan of Arc (1412-1431).
Joan of Arc, in French, Jeanne d'Arc, also called the Maid of Orleans, a patron saint of France and
a national heroine, was inspired by a vision to lead the resistance of the French against the English
invasion of their country in the Hundred Years War.
53. Matthias Corvinus (1443-1490), king of Hungary (1458-1490).
The last native monarch to reign over all Hungary, Mathias battled against Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick III as well as the Turks. Matthias was a truly renaissance patron of the arts and learning
and made his capital Buda into a showpiece of culture in Central Europe.
54. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321).
Italian poet, prose writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher, and political thinker, Dante is
considered to be the greatest figure of Italian letters chiefly because of the "Divine Comedy," a
long poem in 100 cantos (more than 14,000 lines). The poem is remarkable in that it was written in
vernacular Italian when the majority of lyrical works at that time were written in Latin.
55. Medieval Anglo-Saxon Art.
A masterpiece of medieval (eleventh century) Anglo-Saxon art is the Benedictional of St.
Aethelwold (British Museum), in which heavy borders, creating a low-relief ornamental effect,
dominate the page designs. This type page ornamentation was characteristic of the artistic
expression of the Anglo-Saxons.
56. Early Japanese Brush Calligraphy (10-16th century).
Japanese picture-graphs or "kanji" are Chinese in origin, but have been adapted for use to express
written Japanese, although the two languages are totally different in grammatical structure. The
Japanese and Chinese both appreciate the subtleties that can be expressed in an artist's rendition of
individual characters.
57. Black Death in Europe (1348).
In 1348 a ship arriving from the Crimea reached the port of Genoa, its crew barely alive as a result
of being infected with Bubonic Plage (Yersinia pestis). In just two years one third to one half of
Europe's population was destroyed. The Black Death is the greatest mass catastrophe to have
afflicted humanity.
58. Medieval Menora from Spain (Cervera Bible, 14th century).
The Menorah is one of the oldest symbols of the Jewish faith. It is a symbol of the nation of Israel
and its mission to be "a light unto the nations." (Isaiah 42:6). Thus, since light is an uplifting, not
violent, force, Israel is to accomplish its mission by setting an example, not by using force. In the
Middle Ages large communities of Jews lived in Spain and Portugal (Sephardic Jews). They kept
the ancient faith and its symbols alive in Europe.
59. First Crusade.
The First Crusade was proclaimed in 1096 by Pope Urban II after an appeal for help from
Byzantine emperor Alexius I. The Pope hoped to channel the fighting energy of the various feudal
barons to continue to drive the Muslims from Europe and to attack them in Africa and Eurasia.
60. Holy Trinity by Andrei Rublev (1411).
Andrei Rublev, (c1360-c1430), the most illustrious Russian icon painter, is also famous for his icon
The Old Testament Trinity of circa 1420. However, little is known of the biographical details of his
life.
61. Genghis Khan (c1167-1227).
Mongol conqueror and ruler of one of the greatest empires ever known, Genghis Khan, who was
originally known as Temu-jin, began his path of major conquest by attacking (1213) the Chin
Empire of North China. By 1215 he had occupied most of the rest of China. From 1218 to 1224 he
conquered Turkistan, Transoxania, and Afghanistan and raided Persia and East Europe up to the
Dniepr River.
62. William the Conqueror (c1027-1087).
William, Duke of Normandy, became King William I of England after defeating King Harold II at
the Battle of Hastings on October 16, 1066. The conquest of England by this Norman duke paved
the way for the introduction of numerous French words into the English language.
63. Rabban Gamaliel and his Pupils in Miniature from "Passorer Haggadah (1350-1360).
These scholars are depicted studying the Torah (the first five books of the Bible, or "Pentateuch").
64. Omar Khayyam (unknown- cl123).
Patronized by Malik Shah, the greatest of the Seljuk Turk rulers, Omar Khayyam was a Persian
poet, mathematician and astronomer. His fame chiefly rests on his "Rubaiyat", epigrammatic verse
quatrains.
65. Assassination of Sultan Murad I (1319-1389).
At the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, a Serbian noble gained access to the tent of Sultan Murad I and
assassinated him. The Battle of Kosovo was a decisive Turkish victory over the forces of Serbia,
Bosnia, and Albania. The ruler of Serbia perished and Serbia came under Turkish domination
which was to last for centuries.
66. Conquest of Walachia by the Ottoman army (1415).
By recognizing the suzerainty of the sultan and by paying him annual tribute, Rumania avoided
direct incorporation into the Ottoman Empire.
67. The Great Wall of China.
The Great Wall of China, at one time, extended for 4,250 miles across the border between China
and the Hun territories to the north. The Wall assumed its present form during the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644).
68. Mehmed 11 (1432-1481).
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1444-1446, 1451-1481), Mehmed the Conqueror extended Ottoman
control to the Danube and the Euphrates. He conquered Byzantine Constantinople in 1453 and
rebuilt it as the Ottoman capital of Istanbul.
69. Osman 1(1259-1326).
Osman was founder of the dynasty that established and ruled the Ottoman Empire. In 1290 he
proclaimed his independence from his overlords, the Seljuk Turks, with the help of Muslim
warriors, he expanded his state in northwestern Asia Minor at the expense of the resident Christian
lords.
70. Vasco da Gama (1490 - 1524).
Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who was the first European to sail around the southern
tip of Africa to reach India. He engaged in ruthless struggle with Muslim merchants in the area and
carved out a large trading sphere where Portugal was dominant.
71. Nataraja, Dancing Shiva, Indian Bronze Image, 12th-13th century.
Shiva, one of the main deities of Hinduism, is worshiped as the paramount lord. Shiva is one of the
most complex gods of India, embodying seemingly contradictory qualities. He is both the destroyer
and the restorer, the great ascetic and the symbol of sensuality, the benevolent herdsman of souls
and the wrathful avenger.
72. Invention of Typography.
Johannes Gutenberg is credited with having combined die, matrix, and lead in the manufacture of
multiples of identical durable typefaces, which led to the creation of the printing press itself,
between 1434 and 1439.
73. Rights of University Students.
In 1158, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, granted university students
and professors privileges which are now widely considered to be basic human rights: protection
against unjust arrest, a trial before a jury of peers, the right to strike and to petition the government
with grievances and the right to "dwell in security."
74. The Inquisition.
Pope Gregory IX instituted this papal inquisition in 1231 for the apprehension and trial of heretics.
The institution was permanently abolished only in 1834.
75. Columbus, Christopher (1451-1506).
Columbus was the Italian explorer who first crossed the Atlantic Ocean and was the first European
to see the Bahamas, Hispaniola, Cuba and other Caribbean islands. Columbus is universally
acclaimed as the man who opened up the Americas to the rest of the world.
76. New World Sighted at 2:00 a.m. by Rodrigo de Triana (10/12/1492).
Today, at Long Bay on the Bahamian island of San Salvador, the site is marked by a white cross
and a plaque that reads: "On or near this spot Christopher Columbus landed on 12 October 1492."
77. Magellan, Ferdinand (1480-1521).
Magellan initiated and led of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, in 1519-22. He died
during the voyage on the Island of Mactan in the Philippines in a skirmish with the local
inhabitants.
78. Polo, Marco (1254-1324).
Marco Polo spent more than sixteen years in China and was the first European to cross the entire
continent of Asia. His lively accounts of his travels have inspired many explorers.
79. First Terrestrial Globe.
The earliest surviving terrestrial globe was made by Martin Behaim (1459-1506) in 1492.
80. Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512).
While voyaging to Central and South America between 1497 and 1504, for Spain and Portugal, this
Italian explorer deduced that these lands were a "New World," and not part of India. Thus, the two
continents of America were named for him.
81. Mayan Hieroglyphic Writing (13th Century).
The Mayan civilization of Meso-America developed a writing system which was in use from the
3rd century AD until about the end of the 17th century. The texts written in this literary medium
deal with astronomical calculations, divination, and ritual.
82. Henry The Navigator (1394-1460).
This Portuguese prince was noted for his patronage of voyages of discovery to the Madeira Islands
and along the western coast of Africa. Prince Henry sponsored the development of the sailing
vessel known as the Portuguese caravel, the improvement of cartography and navigational
instruments, and the encouragement of overseas trade.
16th Century
83. Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473-1543).
Copernicus was a Polish clergyman (his real name is Mikolaj Kopernik) and astronomer who
radically altered Europeans' conception of the universe by developing and mathematically
substantiating a heliocentric theory (the Earth revolves around the Sun, not vice-versa) of planetary
movement. Copernicus was hesitant to publish his work for fear of offending both Catholic and
Protestant authorities. Finally the work was printed in 1543 and Copernicus supposedly received a
copy on his deathbed.
84. Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642).
Often persecuted by church officials for his scientific work (and his obstreperous disposition),
Galileo developed the law of uniformly accelerated motion towards the Earth and the parabolic
path of projectiles. He also pioneered the use of the telescope, observing sunspots, the phases of
Venus and the moons of Jupiter.
85. Desiderius, Erasmus (c1466-1536).
Eramus was a Dutch humanist whose satire on church corruption ("In Praise of Folly" 1509) led to
ferment within the Catholic Church and eventually to the Reformation. He corresponded with
Thomas More, John Colet, Henry VIII of England and other prominent figures in philosophy and
politics in his day.. His work included creating a Latin edition of the New Testament, based on the
original Greek text, as well as editions of Greek and Latin classics.
86. Nostradamus (1503-1566).
The French astrologer and physician, whose real name was Michel de Nostredame, Nostradamus
supposedly worked remarkable cures during the plague in South France. His prophecies in rhyme
entitled "Centuries" (1555) brought him notability at the French court. The predictions have been
subject to much controversy due to their vagueness and symbolism.
87. Cartier, Jacques (1491-1557).
French navigator, first explorer of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and discoverer of the St. Lawrence
River, he also discovered the Magdalen Islands and Prince Edward Island.
88. Pinzón, Vicente Yanez (c1460-c1523).
Vicente Pinzón commanded the "Nina" during Columbus expeditions from 1492 to 1509. When the
"Santa Maria" was wrecked off the coast of Hispaniola, Vicente Pinzon took Columbus aboard and
they finished the voyage together.
89. Isabella 1(1451-1504), Queen of Castile and Leon (1474-1504).
Isabella and her husband King Ferdinand were known as the "Catholic Monarchs" of Spain. Their
marriage brought Castile and Aragon together into a united Spain. Eager to assert the presence of
the new nation, they financed Columbus' voyages in search of trade routes to India. The result, of
course, was the discovery by the Europeans of America.
90. Henry VIII (1491-1547), King of England (1509-1547).
Henry asserted the central authority of the Crown over the feudal lords of England. He also
initiated the growth of the English navy, which would eventually become the world's most
powerful. His obsessive desire for a male heir, however, made him repeatedly seek new wives, the
predecessors being divorced or beheaded, or both. To gain church sanction for this behavior, Henry
had the Act of Supremacy passed in Parliament. This Act renounced the authority of the papacy
and established the Church of England.
91. The Conquest of Mexico.
The Spaniard Hernando Cortez (1485-1547) was both explorer (Yucatan, Honduras, California)
and conqueror, the archetypal Conquistador. He is most remembered for bringing down the Aztec
Empire as a result of his assault on the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán and the execution of
Montezuma during an uprising against the Spaniards.
92. Elizabeth 1(1533-1603), Queen of England (1558-1603).
Given Henry VIII's obsessive quest for a male heir (he had one in Edward VI, but the sickly young
king died of consumption while still a minor), it is indeed ironic that it was his daughter, Elizabeth
(by Anne Boleyn, whom Henry had beheaded!) who gave England one of the greatest reigns of its
history. It was under Elizabeth that England overcame the mortal threat of the Spanish Armada and
became an international power. Elizabethan England made bounding strides in commerce and
industry and produced one of the greatest golden ages of literature ever seen in the world.
93. Drake Sir Francis (c1542-1596).
Denoted a pirate by many (especially the Spanish) and a great naval hero by his own countrymen
(he co-commanded the fleet that dispersed the Spanish Armada with the help of a storm at sea),
Francis Drake was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. His ship, the Golden Hind,
carried out a dual mission of exploration of the far reaches of the globe and preying on Spanish
vessels and settlements it found along the way.
94. Calvin, John (1509-1564).
A dour, but determined French Protestant theologian of the Reformation, Calvin's religious
doctrines eventually led to the formation of the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches.
95. Mogul Domination of North India (miniature "Babur Inspecting the Garden").
After the failure of his final assault (1512) on Samarkand, Babur, a descendant of the Mongol
conqueror Genghis Khan 1483-1530, began raiding into India. In 1525 he attempted to overthrow
the sultan of Delhi. Although his force was small, he managed to conquer nearly all of North India,
thus inaugurating the Mogul Empire.
96. Charles V (1500-1558), Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1558), also Charles I, King of
Spain (1516-1556).
Charles V, according to his own account, was the first ruler over whose realm "the sun never sets."
This supremely active monarch expanded Spain's possessions in the America's, while
simultaneously warring with the French and the Turks. Disillusioned with the Reformation of the
Catholic Church of which he felt himself the true defender, Charles abdicated in 1556 in favor of
his son Phillip.
97. Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duque de (1507-1582).
A Spanish general entrusted with the pacification of the Netherlands, Alba engaged in mindless
slaughter of the Dutch resistance fighters, but in the end had to admit his own defeat. Phillip II
reassigned Alba to Portugal where the general achieved that nation's subjugation.
98. Suleyman I (The Magnificent) (c1495-1566), Ottoman Sultan (1520-1566).
During the rule of Suleyman, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) attained the apex of its power and
influence. He continued successful Turkish exploits in the Balkans and the Mediterranean,
capturing Belgrade in 1521, expelling the Knights Hospitalers from Rhodes in 1522 (from where
they went to Malta, becoming the Knights of Malta), and inflicting an overwhelming defeat on the
Hungarians at Monacs in 1526. However, Suleyman could not take Vienna and coffee beans were
found in the abandoned Turkish tents outside the city, thus making that city famous in Europe for
the new beverage.
99. Catherine De Medicis (1519-1589), Queen of France (1557-1559), and Regent (15601574).
Catherine was the wife of Henry II of France and mother of Charles IX over whom she was regent.
Worried about Huguenot (French Protestant) influence over her son, Catherine planned his
assassination. When the plot failed, she helped bring about the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacres
of thousands of Huguenots beginning August 24, 1572.
100. Montaigne, Michel Eyquem, Seigneur de (1533-1592).
French Lawyer, traveler, soldier, diplomat and statesman, Montaigne was the originator of the
personal essay. His essays explore wide-reaching intellectual topics from a position of skepticism
and self-inquiry.
101. Gregorian Calendar.
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar in current use in the Western world. Instituted by Pope
Gregory XIII in 1582, the calendar has 365 days with an extra day every four years (the leap year)
except in years divisible by 100 but not divisible by 400. Thus, the calendar year has an average
length of 365.2422 days.
102. Ivan IV Vasilievich (1530-1584), Grand Duke of Moscow (1533-1584).
Ivan the Terrible was the first Russian ruler to assume formally the title of tsar in 1546. Ivan was a
contemporary of Elizabeth of England and even proposed marriage to her. The Tsar conquered
Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) and inaugurated the conquest of Siberia (1581-1583). To deal
with the unruly Russian nobility, known as "boyars," Ivan unleashed the "Oprichnina," a reign of
indiscriminant terror, foreshadowing much later periods of mass repression in Russia. In his reign,
according a contemporary chronicle, he had more than 60,000 people killed, including his own son,
Tsarevich Ivan.
103. Gustavus 1(1496-1560), King of Sweden (1523-1560).
Gustavus I founded both the Vasa Dynasty and the modern Swedish state. Gustavus won freedom
for his country from Denmark and insured that Lutherism would become the dominant religion.
104. First page of the "Great Surgery Book " by Phillipus, Paracelsus (1493?-1541).
Auroleus Phillipus Theostratus Bombastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus) was a Swiss physician and
alchemist who used alchemy to try to find cures for various ailments. He wrote numerous medical
and occult works, for example, "On Diseases of Miners," the first study devoted to an occupational
disease.
105. Luther, Martin (1483-1546), German Leader of the Protestant Reformation.
In Wittenburg, Saxony in 1517 Luther nailed his historic 95 theses on the door of the castle church.
He protested vehemently against the worldliness, as he saw it, of the Catholic Church and
established an evangelical doctrine that spread throughout the Western world, marking the first
break in the unity of Christendom.
106. Beginning of Industrial Mining in Europe.
The German scholar Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) described one of the most complete early
treatments of mining methods in Europe. He described detailed methods of driving shafts and
tunnels.
107. Palladio, Andrea (1508-1580).
Palladio was an Italian architect of the Renaissance who created the highly influential Palladian
style stressing harmonic proportions and symmetry. Among his famous houses are the Villa
Rotonda, the Chiericati Palace the Valmarana Palace, and the Villa Barbaro.
108. Buonarotti, Michelangelo (1475-1564).
Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet, Michelangelo is best known for painting the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel. During the same period he designed the Capitoline Square in Rome.
109. Santi, Raphael (1483-1520).
A splendid Italian painter of the High Renaissance, Raphael's work embodies integral harmony and
balance. He decorated the rooms of the Vatican and produced the Sistine Chapel tapestries.
110. Da Vinci, Leonardo (1452-1519).
Italian painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, and scientist, Leonardo is the paragon of
Renaissance genius. In his drawings are depicted with the utmost precision and artistry objects
ranging from flying machines, to anatomical subjects, to animals and to human faces, even
caricatures. His notebooks reveal one of the greatest minds of all time.
17th Century
111. Rubens, Sir Peter Paul (1577-1640).
The Flemish painter Rubens held sway over a whole school of first-rate artists in Antwerp. Rubens
achieved magnificent success in landscape, portrait, genre, and animal painting as well as religious
and allegorical works. The output of Rubens' work is colossal with more than 2,000 paintings
having been attributed to his studio.
112. Shakespeare, William (1564-1616).
Many consider this English dramatist and poet as the greatest writer in any language. Shakespeare
wrote over thirty plays dealing with such diverse topics as Roman, English and Scottish history,
ancient mythology, relations between the sexes, anti-Semitism, the supernatural and law.
113. Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva (1599-1660).
The most influential and celebrated painter of the Spanish school, Velasquez chose subjects as
varied as drunkards, dwarfs, or kings, to even Christ on the cross, all of which were depicted with a
sense of dignity and individual worth. Velasquez may have had a greater influence on European art
than any other painter.
114. Louis XIV (1638-1715), King of France (1643-1715).
Louis was the king under whom absolute monarchy, based on the theory of divine right, reached its
height. Because of the brilliance of his court, Louis was called "Le Roi Soleil" (the Sun King) and
"Le Grand Monarque."
115. Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal (1602-1661).
First minister of France after Cardinal de Richelieu's death in 1642, Mazarin finished the work
begun by Richelieu of establishing France's primacy over the nations of Europe and removing
opposition to the power of the monarchy at home.
116. Spinoza, Benedict (1632-1677).
A Dutch-Jewish philosopher, Spinoza felt that God and nature were one and the same, or, in
essence, all that is. For Spinoza there was no dichotomy of mind and matter, these are equal
attributes of one being- God. Spinoza arrives at these Pantheistic (ie. finding God in all things)
views, however, by purely rational thought.
117. Pascal, Blaise (1623-1662).
French philosopher Blaise Pascal led a dual career as a scientist and religious thinker. He
contributed greatly to the fields of hydraulics and fluid mechanics and helped develop the modern
theory of probability. As a religious philosopher, Pascal preferred to put aside "cold" logic for the
sake of the "reasons of the heart."
118. Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (1599-1641).
Van Dyck, a student of Rubens, was a Flemish portrait and religious painter and etcher. Van Dyck's
patrician portrayals of English aristocracy mightily influenced English portrait painting in the years
to come and King Charles I knighted the painter in recognition of his fame. Van Dyck produced a
fine series of etched portraits known as the "Iconography."
119. Romanov, Mikhael (1596-1645), Tsar of Russia (1613-1645).
The turmoil that resulted in Russia after the death of Ivan IV in 1584 did not resolve itself for
almost two decades (the "Time of Troubles"). During this time various False Dmitry's (pretenders
claiming to be Dmitry, son of Ivan IV) and foreign invaders beset the land. At one point in 1612, a
Polish army occupied the Kremlin in Moscow. A popular insurrection led by the merchant Minin
and the boyar Pozharsky broke out however, and a national assembly of boyars elected Mikhael
Romanov to be tsar and to establish a new dynasty, which would bear his name.
120. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669).
Dutch painter, etcher, and draftsman, Rembrandt is considered by many to be not only a master of
Dutch painting, but one of the greatest geniuses in the history of all painting. His appeal transcends
cultural boundaries and moves with its profound humanity. The master was unsurpassed in the
handling of light. He made more than 600 paintings, around 300 etchings, and nearly 2000
drawings.
121. Descartes, Rene (1596-1650).
A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist of universal acclaim, Descartes thought process
reflects the transition from medieval philosophy to the modem scientific method. Descartes
questioned everything; the first certainty that he was able to discover he formulated in his
aphorism: "cogito, ergo sum," "I think, therefore I am."
122. Monteverdi, Claudio (1567-1643).
An Italian composer, considered to be first great figure of modern opera, Monteverdi successfully
used the tremolo and pizzicato effects with strings. Monteverdi's operas were large-scale affairs for
the times, using large orchestras, whose members were combined in various ways to create
individual portrayals of the characters on stage. His work "Orfeo" is felt to be the first modern
opera.
123. Gustavus II Adolphus (1594-1632), King of Sweden (1611-32).
Gustavus Adolphus was ahead of his time in military organization and strategy. The Swedish king
raised a standing national army in an era of mercenaries and introduced discipline, mobility and
superior weaponry into the ranks. Gustavus Adolphus waged successful campaigns in Denmark,
Germany, Russia, and Poland, but perished during the first Protestant victory at Lutzen in the
Thirty Years War.
124. Ricci, Matteo (1552-1610).
Matteo Ricci was a Jesuit missionary who was first dispatched to the Indies, where he worked at
Goa and Cochin until 1582, when he was called to Macao to enter China. In 1601 he was allowed
entrance into the capital, Beijing, where he became a court mathematician and astronomer. Ricci
was among the first to establish a channel of communication between Europe and China.
125. Siege of Vienna, (July 17-Sept. 12, 1683).
Turkish hopes for a foothold in the heart of Europe were dashed when the sultan's army was routed
by a fearsome charge of Polish wing-helmeted hussars led by their king, Jan III Sobieski.
126. Shah Jahan (1592-1666), Mogul Emperor of India (1628-1658).
The full name of this emperor was Khurram Shihab-ud-din Muhammad. He was descended from
the original Mogul ruler Babur, who entered India from Afganistan. Shah Jahan restored Islam as
the state religion of India and temporarily recovered Kandahar from the Persians. His reign is
considered the golden age of Mogul art and architecture, producing such masterpieces as the Taj
Mahal and the Pearl Mosque.
127. Taj Mahal.
Considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world, Shah Jahan ordered this mausoleum in
North India, on the Jumna River to be built after the death (1629) of his favorite wife, Mumtaz
Mahal. The architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori designed the building, which was completed between
1632 and 1638.
128. Akbar (1542-1605), Third Mogul Emperor of India (1556-1605).
The greatest of the Mogul emperors, Akbar reestablished their power in India. At the time of
Akbar's death (1605), the empire occupied a vast territory from Afghanistan to the Deccan Plateau.
Although illiterate himself, Akbar made his court a center of arts and letters.
129. Harvey, William, (1578-1657).
This English physician helped lay the foundation of modern medicine by demonstrating the
function of the heart and the complete circulation of the blood. He also contributed greatly to the
advance of comparative anatomy and embryology.
130. Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658).
The Puritan military leader Cromwell rose to prominence during the English Civil War between
supporters of Parliament (the "Roundheads") and of King Charles I (the "Cavaliers"). After
defeating the King in a series of battles, Cromwell had him executed in 1649. Cromwell refused the
crown himself, however, and became Lord Protector of England. It was a time of Puritan austerity
in England and after Cromwell died in 1658 the monarchy was soon restored.
131. Brahe, Tycho (1546-1601).
Danish Astronomer Tycho Brahe designed and built new telescopes, calibrated them, and from the
world's most advanced star observatory on the Danish island of Hven, engaged in nightly
observations. The first astronomer to allow corrections for atmospheric refraction, Tycho Brahe
observed a supernova, showed that comets lay beyond the moon and prepared the most accurate
star map of the time.
132. Pocahontas (c1595-1617).
According to the famous story, this Native American woman intervened to save the life of English
colonist Captain John Smith (c1580-1631) just as he was about to have his head smashed at the
direction of her father, Wahunsonacock (d. 1618) chief of the Powhatan tribe in Virginia.
133. Mayflower Compact (Nov. 21 [Nov. 11, Old Style], 1620).
The Mayflower Compact was signed by 41 of the male passengers on the "Mayflower" prior to
their landing at Plymouth, Massachusetts. It stipulated that the undersigned would form a
government in the new colony and that they would honor its laws. As such, it is the first written
constitution in North America.
134. Penn, William (1644-1718).
An activist for religious toleration, English Quaker William Penn was often imprisoned for his
views. Repaying a debt that he owed to William Penn's father, English King Charles II, granted
Penn a large tract of land in North America, which eventually became home to thousands of
religious emigrants. In 1682 Penn himself came to this land, which came to be known as the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
135. Grotius, Hugo (1583-1645).
This Dutch jurist and humanist was one of the first enunciators of a principle of international law.
His treatise "De jure belli ac pacis" ("On the Law of War and Peace") maintained that it was a
crime to wage war except for certain causes. Grotius sought to make the conditions of warfare
more humane by inducing respect for private persons and their property.
136. Newton, Sir Isaac (1643-1727).
Perhaps the single greatest scientist in history, Newton made towering contributions in the fields of
physics, astronomy, and mathematics. His book "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica"
("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy") published in 1687, set forth the laws of motion
and universal gravitation.
137. Astronomical Map of the 17th century.
In 1647 Johannes Hevelius (1611-1687) compiled a catalog of 1,564 different stars, the most
comprehensive of its time, and a celestial atlas in which several constellations were shown for the
first time.
138. Bruno, Giordano (1548-1600).
Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno challenged all dogmatism. He was an adherent of the
Copernican heliocentric theory of planetary motion and believed that the universe was infinite and
that other planets were inhabited. He was accused of heresy by Inquisition and was burned at the
stake, a martyr to scientific enquiry.
139. Kepler, Johannes (1571-1630).
Kepler, an Austrian astronomer who was the student of Tycho Brahe, formulated three laws of
planetary motion that showed that the planets moved in ellipses, instead of circles. As such, the
laws were a vast improvement over the Copernican of the orbits of the planets. Kepler's model of
the planetary system is current even today.
18th Century
140. The Montgolfier Brothers' Balloon.
Heated air, when collected inside a large lightweight paper or fabric bag, caused the bag to rise into
the air. The Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier (1745-1799) and Joseph-Michel Montgolfier (1740-1810)
made the first public demonstration of this discovery on June 4, 1783, at the marketplace in
Annonay, France.
141. Cook, James (1728-1779).
James Cook was a British naval captain, navigator, and explorer of exceptional accomplishments.
He explored the seaways and coasts of Canada (1759, 1763-67) and conducted three expeditions to
the Pacific Ocean (1768-1771; 1772-1775; 1776-1779), ranging from the Antarctic ice fields to the
Bering Strait and from the coasts of North America to Australia and New Zealand.
142. Park, Mungo (1771-1806).
A Scottish explorer of the Niger and Gambia Rivers in Africa, Park was one of the first Europeans
to penetrate the African continent. He ascended the Gambia River for 200 miles to Pisania (now
Karantaba, The Gambia), then crossed into unknown territory at the upper Sénégal River basin. He
reached Ségou (now in Mali) on the Niger, which he followed downstream for 80 miles to Silla.
His written account of his adventures inspired other explorers.
143. Frederick II The Great (1712-1768), King of Prussia (1740-1786).
Sickly as a youth, more given to poetry and flute playing than mustering soldiers, Frederick
nevertheless contributed more than any German to the creation of the Prussian military state.
Frederick was a master campaigner who, in a series of diplomatic stratagems and wars against
Austria and other powers, greatly enlarged Prussia's territories. However, his testament reads: "I
have lived as a philosopher, and shall be buried as such, without pomp, without splendor."
144. Paine, Thomas (1737-1809).
In December 1776, Paine, an Anglo-American essayist and pamphleteer, wrote the first of a series
of 16 pamphlets called "The Crisis" (1776-83). These essays were widely distributed and did much
to encourage Americans to seek independence from Great Britain.
145. Jefferson, Thomas (1743 - 1826). Third President of the United States (1800-1804).
As a delegate to the Second Continental Congress (1775-1777), Jefferson was the principal drafter
of the Declaration of Independence. In 1796 Jefferson was elected vice-president and four years
later president of the United States. One of the most gifted men of his time, Jefferson was an
accomplished scientist, musician, planter, inventor and philosopher.
146. Declaration of Independence.
The infant legislative body of the American Colonies, the Continental Congress, approved this
document on July 4, 1776. Composed for the most part by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration
announced the separation of thirteen North American colonies from Great Britain. It stated that "all
men are created equal", that they are "endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,"
and that among these are "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."
147. Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790).
Another extraordinarily gifted individual intimately involved in the creation of the United States of
America, Franklin helped develop newspapers, libraries, fire stations and the natural sciences in the
American colonies. Sent to France after the outbreak of the American Revolution, Franklin was
instrumental in obtaining French support against the might of Great Britain.
148. Washington, George (1732 - 1799), First President of the United States (1789 - 1797).
George Washington was a Virginian planter trained as a surveyor. Washington acquired military
experience during the French and Indian War (1754-63) which resulted in his being chosen to lead
the Continental Army against the British in the American Revolution (1775-1783). As first
president of the new United States of America, Washington's supremely balanced patience and
dignity helped weld competing political factions into a unified state under the Constitution.
149. Steuben, Frederich Wilhelm, Baron von (1730-1794).
George Washington chose this Prussian army officer to muster the motley, undisciplined farmersoldiers of the Continental Army. He had served in the Seven Years War against Austria under
Frederick the Great and was court chamberlain for the Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. Steuben
served faithfully alongside Washington all the way through to Yorktown, the campaign that drew
the Revolutionary War to a successful end for the new United States.
150. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775).
At the very beginning of the American Revolutionary War, British general William Howe sought
to drive the American colonials from the heights surrounding Boston. The operation resulted in the
Battle of Bunker Hill, technically a British victory, but one which cost them staggering losses and
which proved to the colonials that they could hold their own in battle with regular British troops.
151. Marlborough, John Churchill, 1st Duke of (1650-1722).
In 1701, Louis XIV of France hoped to place a fellow Bourbon on the throne of Spain. This aim
was opposed by England and Austria and a large-scale continental war known as the War of
Spanish Succession began. Working in brilliant coordination with his Austrian counterpart, Eugene
of Savoy, the Duke of Marlborough led the English army in a string of battles across northwest
Europe, driving the armies of the Sun King to the border of France.
152. Louis XVI (1754-1793), King of France (1774-1792).
The desperate state of the French lower classes and the example of the American Revolution
emboldened the French people to press for a limited monarchy, a written constitution and other
sweeping changes. Unhappy with this state of affairs, Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette,
attempted to flee the country in June 1791 and were captured at the French border. The monarchy
was abolished on Sept. 21, 1792 and the royal couple was tried for treason. They were guillotined
on Jan. 21, 1793.
153. The Fall of the Bastille.
The opening act of the French Revolution, a Parisian mob, instigated by the journalist Camille
Desmoulins, attacked and overwhelmed the government prison known as the Bastille on July 14,
1789. The Bastille was in the eyes of the populace the absolute symbol of royal despotism and
oppression.
154. Robespierre, Maximilien-Francois-Marie-Isodore de (1758-1794).
Robespierre was a radical Jacobin leader during the French Revolution, who in 1793 came to
dominate the Committee of Public Safety, the principal organ during the Reign of Terror. The
Reign of Terror was instituted in September 1792 with the idea of whipping the French people into
a frenzy in order to stop the invasion of France by the Prussians, who had come to overthrow the
Revolution. Robespierre made so many enemies during the Terror that he himself was guillotined
in 1794.
155. Marat, Jean-Paul (1743-1793).
Marat was a former doctor and radical journalist who came to be the leader of the Montagnard
faction during the French Revolution. He was the chief instigator of the September 1792 massacres
that launched the Reign of Terror. He was assassinated by Charlotte Corday while taking his bath.
156. Danton, George-Jacquse (1759-1794).
This leader and spokesman of the French Revolution, is often credited as the initiator of the
overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic. His increasing
moderation and eventual opposition to the Reign of Terror led to his own death at the guillotine.
157. "La Marseillaise"
The French national anthem, was written and composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle on the
night of Apr. 24, 1792. It became the great rallying call of the French Revolution and was given its
current name after it was sung on the streets of Paris by troops from Marseille. "La Marseillaise" is
an internationally respected symbol of freedom and human rights.
158. Lafayette, Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch-Gilbert du Motier, marquis de (1757-1834).
Lafayette was a French aristocrat who fought alongside the American colonists against the British
in the American Revolution. Later, by allying himself with revolutionary-minded members of the
middle classes, he became one of the most powerful men in France during the first few years of the
French Revolution.
159. Wallstonecraft, Mary (1759-1797).
Mary Wallstonecraft was an English author and feminist who was an early proponent of
intellectual equality between men and women. Her "Vindication of the Rights of Women" (1792)
was the first great feminist document.
160. Arkwright, Sir Richard (1732-1792).
Arkwright was a pioneer in the development of the factory system of production. With several
partners, he opened cotton-spinning factories at Nottingham and Cromford.
161. In 1779, British inventor Samuel Crompton (1753-1827)
Invented a machine that simultaneously drew out and gave the final twisting to the cotton fibers fed
into it. This cotton spinner permitted large-scale manufacture of high-quality thread and yarn and
signaled the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
162. Senefelder Aloys (1771-1834).
In 1796 this German inventor developed the process of lithography, one of the methods of printing
currently in use today.
163. Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria (1717-1780), Queen of Bohemia and Hungary
(1740-1780).
Her ascension to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire (Austria) to become the only woman ruler
in the 650 history of the Hapsburg dynasty brought about the War of the Austrian Succession.
Maria Theresa defended her realm against such formidable adversaries as Friederick the Great.
Maria Theresa also carried out a series of agrarian reforms and centralized the administration of her
lands. During her reign Vienna increased its reputation as a center of the arts and music.
164. Linne, Carolus (1707-1778).
Carl Linne (Linnáeus) invented the system for giving Latin names to organisms for the purpose of
ranking and classifying them that is still in wide use today. His ideas on classification have
influenced generations of biologists during and after his own lifetime.
165. Battle of Poltava, (June 27 [July 8, New Style], 1709).
This battle fought in the Ukraine between Russia and Sweden marked the climax of the Great
Northern War. Charles XII, the youthful King of Sweden, desired to carve out a hegemony for his
kingdom that far exceeded Sweden's economic and manpower capacity. Nevertheless, by unusual
military prowess, Charles XII almost succeeded. Russia's Tsar Peter I (the Great) a man of near
superhuman energy, suffered several years of defeats at the hands of the Swedes before crushing
them at Poltava. Captured Swedish officers were welcomed by Peter as "my teachers."
166. Charles XII (1682-1718), king of Sweden (1697-1718).
The boy-king of Sweden was an absolute monarch who drove his country forward for 18 years
during the Great Northern War. Although a supremely talented military commander, his launching
of the disastrous invasion of Russia (1707-1709), resulting in the complete collapse of the Swedish
armies and the loss of Sweden's status as a great power.
167. Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685-1750).
The most celebrated composer of the Baroque era, Bach was actually most admired by his
contemporaries as an outstanding harpsichordist, organist, and expert on organ building. He was
the creator of the "Brandenburg Concertos", "The Well-Tempered Clavier", the "Mass in B Minor",
and numerous other masterpieces of church and instrumental music.
168. Peter I, The Great (1672-1725), Tsar of Russia (1696-1725).
A giant in stature, intellectual curiosity and energy for action, Peter set about single-handedly
modernizing his vast, backward realm and placing it on a par with the major powers of Europe. In
1721 he was proclaimed emperor (imperator) of Russia. He was one of his country's greatest
statesmen, organizers, and reformers, but at a cruel cost to his countrymen. Russia was almost
continuously at war during Peter's reign.
169. Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilyevich (1711-1765).
Of peasant origin from the province of Arkhangelsk in the Russian Far North, Mikhael Lomonosov
was a self-made phenomenon who became proficient in chemistry, physics, mining, history and
philology. He was also a poet of considerable gifts and carried out important reforms in the Russian
language. Lomonosov founded the University of Moscow, which bears his name. Using only the
most ordinary optical instruments, Lomonosov was the first to establish that the planet Venus had
an atmosphere.
170. Shiller, (Johan Christoph) Friedrich von (1759-1805).
A leading German dramatist, poet, and literary theorist, Shiller is best remembered for such dramas
as "Die Räuber" (1781; The Robbers), the "Wallenstein Trilogy" (1800-1801), "Maria Stuart"
(1801), and "Wilhelm Tell" (1804). Schiller's works are striking in their modernity and startling
relevance to the life of the 20th century.
171. Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736), prince of the house of Savoy.
The chief Austrian general in the service of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, Eugene fought
against the Ottoman Turks in the relief of Vienna and then in Hungary. He was the principal
Austrian commander in the War of the Spanish Succession and campaigned together with the Duke
of Marlborough on the Rhine against the French.
172. Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van (1632-1723).
This Dutch biologist was the first to use a microscope to observe bacteria and protozoa, which he
called "animalcules." His researches on lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous
generation (the belief that vermin spontaneously arise rotting meat), and his observations helped
lay the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology.
173. Coal Mines.
This industry was the first to utilize James Watt's steam engine and from that point onward the
steam engine underwent almost continuous improvements for more than a century.
174. Locke, John (1632-1704).
This English philosopher was an initiator of the Enlightenment in England and France. His political
ideas inspired the American Constitution nearly a century later. Locke authored, among other
works, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", his account of human knowledge, including
the modern science of his day.
175. Montesquieu, Charles- Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brede et de (1689-1755).
Montesquieu was a French jurist and political philosopher whose greatest work, "The Spirit of
Laws", is a comparative study of three types of government—republic, monarchy, and despotism.
"The Spirit of Laws" possesses true brilliance of style and it had great influence on the formation of
the American Constitution.
176. Diderot, Denis (1713-1784).
French man of letters and philosopher, Diderot from 1745 to 1772, served as chief editor of the
"Encyclopédie". The "Encyclopédie" was to bring out the essential principles and applications of
every art and science. The underlying philosophy was rationalism and a qualified faith in the
progress of the human mind.
177. Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804).
Kant was the German philosopher whose comprehensive and systematic work in the theory of
knowledge, ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy. His work dealt with
discerning the properties and limitations of reason.
178. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712-1778).
The original Romantic, French philosopher Rousseau sought to open the eyes of humanity to the
beauties of nature and exalted in the "Noble Savage," the embodiment of the natural human being,
unencumbered by social convention. Rousseau favored the expression of emotion rather than polite
restraint in friendship and love.
179. Voltaire, pseudonyme of Francois Marie Arouet, (1694-1778).
Perhaps the greatest French writer, Voltaire is best known for "Candide," a merciless satire of the
philosophy that nature has an ordered purpose and the belief that this world was "the best of all
possible worlds." Voltaire was a champion of the Enlightenment and corresponded with many of
the rulers of his day, including Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great of Russia.
180. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756-1791).
Mozart is widely considered to be the greatest composer of Western music. A child prodigy,
Mozart quickly acquired and mastered all the musical genres of his day. His works number more
than 600, including over 20 operas and 50 symphonies. Mozart is particularly beloved for his
gaiety and spontaneity of style and tone.
19th Century
181. Cézanne, Paul (1839-1906).
One of the greatest of the French Postimpressionists, whose works were noted for their lyrical and
vibrantly colorful nature, Cezanne's ideas influenced the aesthetic development of many 20thcentury artists and art movements, especially Cubism.
182. Chopin, Frédéric (Francois) (1810-1849).
A Polish-French composer and pianist of the Romantic period, Chopin is admired throughout the
world for his solo pieces for piano and his piano concerti. Chopin is considered as one of the
piano's greatest tone poets because of the painstaking craftsmanship and exquisite musical
invention.
183. Balzac, Honoré de (1799-1850).
While his personal affairs were always in wild disarray, French writer Balzac managed to produce
a vast collection of masterful novels and short stories called La Comédic Humaine (The Human
Comedy). He made a grand contribution to the genre of the novel, as we know it today and was one
of the first great writers concerned with social vision.
184. Paganini, Niccolὸ (1782-1840).
The great Paganini was the unexcelled violin virtuoso of the 19th century. His technique was to
make extensive use of harmonics and pizzicato (plucking) effects. He also developed new methods
of fingering and tuning the instrument. In performance he was a matchless improviser; often during
a concert the passion of his playing would result in the severing of strings on his violin.
Unperturbed, Paganini would continue playing on the remaining strings.
185. Schumann, Robert Alexander (1810-1856).
This German Romantic composer wrote in many genres of orchestral music, but it his piano works,
especially the "Lieder" or, "Songs" that establish his particular renown. He wrote these works for a
famous pianist, Clara Wieck, the woman who would become his wife.
186. Nightingale, Florence (1820-1910).
The life of Florence Nightingale was dedicated to caring for the sick and those wounded in war.
She was the initiator of that branch of medicine, which has become modem nursing. Florence
Nightingale was the first woman to be awarded the British Order of Merit (1907). After her death,
the Crimean Monument at Waterloo Place, London, was erected in her honor in 1915, and in 1934
the Florence Nightingale International Foundation was inaugurated.
187. Strauss, Richard Georg (1864-1949).
Richard Strauss was the last of the great German Romantic composers of the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Strauss devoted himself to symphonic poems of the 1890s, whereas after 1900 he
concentrated on operas and other vocal works. The compositions of Richard Strauss remain an
indispensable feature of the standard repertoire of 20th century orchestras.
188. Eiffel Tower.
Originally intended to be a temporary structure and spared only because it was useful as an
antenna, the Eiffel Tower turned into the very symbol of Paris. A technological marvel of the
highest order, the 984-foot Tower was built almost entirely of open-lattice wrought iron.
189. Eiffel, Gustave (1832-1923).
A highly original French engineer/architect, Gustave Eiffel designed the movable dome of the
observatory at Nice and the framework of the Statue of Liberty. His lasting fame, however, rests
with the tower in Paris that bears his name.
190. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1770-1831).
German philosopher Hegel was the originator of an absolute idealism that furnished a sort of
mechanics whereby concepts are created and multiply: a "world-soul" develops through the logic
of the "dialectic," that is, a new concept (thesis) must generate its opposite (antithesis), and the
interaction of these two leads to yet another new concept (synthesis).
191. Volta, Alessandro Guiseppe Antonio Anastasio, Conte (1745-1827).
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta was the inventor of the chemical battery and produced the first
continuous electrical current. Volta demonstrated that electricity was not a peculiar "animal
property" as some scientists believed, but could even occur when a moist substance was placed
between two metals. The volt, a unit of electrical potential, was named for him.
192. Engels, Friedrich (1820-1895).
Engels was the scion of a wealthy German family who was managing a factory in England when he
became a socialist. His collaboration with Karl Marx was very fruitful and resulted in several
works, notably the "Communist Manifesto" (1848).
193. Marx, Karl (1818-1883).
Hunched over desks at various libraries around London, Paris and Brussels, this German-Jewish
social philosopher produced perhaps the most powerful theory of economics the world has yet
seen, at least judging from the percentage of the world population that has at one time or another
been subjected to it. It is reported that Marx' wife said that she wished her husband had been more
devoted to making capital, rather than writing about it.
194. Bolivar, Simón (1783-1830).
Born in Venezuela and educated in Europe, Bolivar had been profoundly influenced by Rousseau
when he decided to participate in revolutions against Spanish rule in South America. His native
Venezuela broke away with Gran Granada and Ecuador to form the state of Gran Colombia of
which Bolivar was president. Bolivar was also instrumental in liberating Peru and was president of
that country. "El Libertador" envisioned a united South America and was sorely disappointed when
the various nations went their own way.
195. Diesel, Rudolf (Christian Karl) (1858-1913).
This German thermal engineer invented the internal-combustion engine using the fuel that that
bears his name. Although diesel engines tend to run less smoothly than gasoline-burning engines,
they make use of a cheaper fuel more efficiently. Besides his engineering interests, Herr Diesel was
an ardent art expert, a linguist, and a social theorist.
196. The Suez Canal.
The Suez Canal is a waterway over 100 miles long that extends from Port Said to Port Tawfiq (near
Suez). It links the Mediterranean Sea with the Gulf of Suez and thereafter with the Red Sea. The
design and construction (1859-1869) of the Canal was the work of French engineer Ferdinand de
Lesseps, (1805-1894).
197. Watt, James (1736-1819).
When asked to repair a model of Thomas Newcomen's steam engine, Scottish inventor James Watt
added a separate compression chamber, air pump and other components to the design and thus
developed a totally new and more efficient type of engine (patented 1769). Watt also designed a
rotary engine and coined the term horsepower. It is his name that was used for the watt, a unit of
electrical power.
198. Curie, Marie (1867-1934).
Madame Curie was born in Poland and her maiden name was Marj a Sklodowska. Together with
her French husband, Pierre, she studied the effects of radioactivity found in the element radium.
The Curies shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for physics. After her husband's death Madame Curie went
on to study the chemical properties of radium and received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1911.
Sadly, her work with radium almost certainly resulted in her contracting fatal leukemia.
199. Faraday, Michael (1791-1867).
The great British scientist of the Industrial Age, Michael Faraday worked out the process whereby
mechanical energy could be converted into a continuous electrical current. This meant that
electricity could be constantly produced using various sources of energy, such as fuels or
waterpower. Electricity would now be available for the use of society in large, reliable quantities.
200. Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich (1834-1907).
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev introduced the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements, a
cornerstone of modem chemistry. The table arranges the elements in order of increasing atomic
weight, thus separating them into distinct groupings with similar qualities. In this way it was
possible for Mendeleev to predict not only that certain new elements would be discovered but what
the properties of these elements would be.
201. Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849-1936).
Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov and his dog were pioneers in experimental psychology. The resultant
work in the physiology of the digestive glands resulted in his being awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize
in Medicine. Through experimentation on the nervous stimulation of gastric secretions he
discovered the conditioned reflex, an important phenomenon in neurology and psychology.
202. Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich (1840-1893).
The beloved creator of Swan Lake, the Nutcracker Suite and numerous other ballets, symphonies,
operas, concertos and songs, Pyotr Tchaikovsky is the most romantic of the Russian composers.
203. Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich (1799-1837).
Considered by his countrymen to be the greatest Russian poet, Aleksandr Pushkin virtually singlehandedly invented the modern Russian literary medium. It is impossible to find a Russian who does
not know at least a few lines from his poetic works Evgeny Onegin, the Bronze Horseman, Ruslan
and Lyudmila and many others.
204. Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhaylovich (1821-1881).
Widely considered to be the most penetrating and masterful of psychological novelists, Fyodor
Dostoyevsky labored mightily against severe personal and economic hardship. The author of such
world-renowned masterpieces as "Crime and Punishment" and "The Brothers Karamazov,"
Dostoyevsky has had a colossal influence on 20th century fiction.
205. Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827).
The story of Ludwig van Beethoven is an immensely moving one of hope in the face of the deepest
despair. Despite his progressing deafness, which became total when he was in his late forties,
Beethoven wrote music that would stand for the ages. Thus, the exultant cascades of the "Ode to
Joy" were conceived, nurtured and brought to life in absolute silence.
206. Wagner, (Wilhelm) Richard (1813-1883).
Whether one finds his music exhilarating or repellant, few can deny the raw power of this German
arch-Romantic composer's music. Among his major works are: "The Flying Dutchman,"
"Tannhauser," "Lohengrin," "Tristan and Isolde," "Parsifal," and the tetralogy, "The Ring of the
Nibelung."
207. Pasteur, Louis (1822-1895).
This French physician made the single most significant contribution to modern medicine: the
discovery of the role of germs in causing disease. The first important upshot of this discovery was
the realization of the importance of sterilizing medical equipment, a development in itself that
saved countless lives. Using "germ theory," Pasteur went on to develop vaccines against anthrax
and rabies which was previously incurable and always fatal. Appropriately enough for a
Frenchman, Pasteur also developed pasteurization, a process to keep wine and beer from spoiling.
208. Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad (1845-1923).
The discovery of the x-rays by this German physicist, for which he received the first Nobel Prize in
Physics (1901), has tended to overshadow the other valuable research he did in thermology,
mechanics, and electricity.
209. Oersted, Hans Christian, Dan (1777-1851).
Hans Oersted was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that a magnetic needle is
deflected by an electric current passing a wire. This observation established the relationship
between magnetism and electricity and the science of electromagnetism was born. Oersted was the
first chemist to isolate aluminum and a unit of magnetic field strength is named for him.
210. The Industrial Revolution.
New technical and technological achievements lead to The Industrial Revolution of the 18th —19th
century. It first occurred in Britain and its effects gradually spread to continental Europe and North
America.
211. Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf (1857-1894).
German physicist Heinrich Hertz demonstrated that radio waves are long, transverse waves that
travel at the speed of light and can be reflected, refracted, and polarized like light. Hertz thus
became the first person to broadcast and receive radio waves. The radio frequency unit known as
the hertz was named in his honor.
212. Garibaldi, Giuseppe (1807-1882).
Garibaldi led the life of an underground guerilla in Brazil and Uruguay and endured political exile
in the U.S. before returning to his native Italy to take part in the Risorgimento, the Italian
unification movement. The lands liberated by Garibaldi and his Red Shirts were turned over to
King Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. The amassing of Italian lands under the king created the
moderm state of Italy.
213. Pedro 1(1798-1834), first emperor of Brazil (1822-1831).
During the Napoleonic Wars, King John VI was driven out of Portugal into exile in Brazil, taking
his family with him. When the King returned to Portugal in 1821, his son Pedro stayed behind and
declared the independence of Brazil from his father's realm! Pedro had to abdicate in 1831, but not
before declaring himself Emperor of Brazil.
214. Mendelssohn, Felix (1809-1847).
Mendelssohn was a German-Jewish composer who helped initiate the Romantic period in music.
He was also a conductor of note who revived interest in Bach's music. Among his own most
famous works are "Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream" (written when he was
seventeen),"Italian Symphony," two piano concerti, the oratorio "Elijah," and several pieces of
chamber music.
215. Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904).
The anti-Semitic reaction to the Dreyfus affair in France rocked Europe and convinced this
Hungarian Jewish writer that Jewish assimilation in Europe was impossible. Thus, Theodor Herzl
founded the Zionist movement that would eventually lead to the founding of the new State of
Israel.
216. Nelson, Horatio Nelson, Viscount (1758-1805).
This greatest of British admirals entered the Royal Navy at age 12 and became a captain by age 20.
Nelson's service extended from the West Indies, to Denmark and the Baltic, to Aboukir, to off the
coast of Canada. Nelson's most illustrious victory, however, was against the French and Spanish
fleets at Trafalgar (1805). Nelson was killed aboard his flagship, the HMS "Victory," true to the
flag signal he sent out at the commencement of the battle: "England expects that every man will do
his duty."
217. Muhammad `Ali (1769-1849), viceroy and pasha of Egypt (1805-1849).
After the departure of Napoleon and his army from Egypt, Muhammad `Ali, newly appointed
pasha, massacred the Mamluks, a non-Turkish caste of the Ottoman army that had been ruling
Egypt for five centuries. Through economic and administrative reforms Muhammad was
attempting some semblance of modernization of Egypt after the country's centuries-long decline.
218. Nobel, Alfred Bernhard (1833-1896).
After an explosion in a nitroglycerine factory killed his brother, the Swedish industrialist invented
dynamite as a way to handle the substance more safely. However, when dynamite began to be used
for military purposes, Nobel, a lifelong pacifist, protested vehemently. One of the ways he used his
fortune to foster world peace was to establish the Nobel Peace Prizes.
219. Dickens, Charles John Huffam (1812-1870).
Charles Dickens was the quintessential Victorian English author. The English public would avidly
follow the weekly installments of "David Copperfield," "Bleak House," "A Tale of Two Cities,"
"Great Expectations" and other serial novels, the published editions of which filled large volumes.
220. Duarte, Juan Pablo (1813-1876).
Studious and gentle, but possessed of a single vision to see the Spanish-speaking people of
Hispaniola united in their own nation, Juan Pablo Duarte is known by the people of the Dominican
Republic as "Cristo de la Libertad," "The Christ of Liberty." However, Duarte was driven from his
country after the struggle for independence succeeded and spent the end of his life in exile.
221. Liberty Leading the People.
Fragment of painting "Liberty Leading the People," by French painter Eugѐne Delacroix (17981863) symbolizing the second French revolution.
222. Napoleon I Bonaparte (1769-1821), Emperor of France (1804-1814/15).
Napoleon was born in Corsica and thus was of Italian lineage. He became, however, France's most
acclaimed military leader, eventually its emperor, and finally one of that nation's most enduring
symbols. Although his wars of conquest ravaged not only Europe, but touched on the shores of
Egypt and the Caribbean, the figure of Napoleon still possesses a unique mystique in the countries
of the West.
223. Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815).
In this Belgian village nine miles from Brussels, the conclusive defeat of Napoleon took place.
Thus ended 23 years of warfare, at times embroiling the whole of the continent of Europe, between
France and various coalitions of powers formed to oppose her.
224. Bismarck, Otto von (1815-1898).
The Iron Chancellor forged the first unified German State with Prussia and its capital Berlin at its
center. To achieve this goal, Bismarck first provoked, then defeated Austria; then in 1870, he
similarly drew Napoleon III's French Second Empire (the First being that of his uncle, Napoleon I)
into a disastrous war which resulted in the French Emperor's capture on the battlefield and the
crowning of the Emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors of Versailles.
225. Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel (1753-1811).
On September 16, 1810, this Mexican priest and revolutionary, uttered his "grito de Dolores," a call
for freedom for Mexico from Spanish domination. To this day, the anniversary of the "grito" is
celebrated in Mexico as Independence Day.
226. Rockefeller, John Davison (1839-1937).
Rockefeller joined the oil industry when it was in its infancy. In time he assembled the Standard
Oil Company, the dominant industrial enterprise in the United States. Later in life, Rockefeller took
up philanthropy and established the Rockefeller Foundation.
227. Semper, Gottfried (1803-1879).
This architect and art critic was one of the major adherents of the Neo-Renaissance style in
Germany and Austria. Semper mixed styles and epochs and effected engineering solutions to
architectural goals. Semper built the Opera House (Dresden), the Zurich Polytechnikum, the
Burgtheater, and the two imperial museums, all in Vienna.
228. First Postage Stamps.
England is the homeland of the first postage stamps issued in 1840. They were the idea of Rowland
Hill who introduced the concept in 1837 in his pamphlet "Post Office Reform."
229. Lee, Robert E (1807-1870).
As General of the Army of Northern Virginia, Robert E. Lee carried out some of the most brilliant
generalship in the Western Hemisphere. Opposed to slavery and the secession of the Southern
states, Lee nevertheless accepted high command in the Confederate Army when his home state of
Virginia seceded.
230. Grant, Ulysses S (1822-1885), 18th President of the United States (1869-1877).
Grant was a West Point graduate who served as a second lieutenant in the Mexican War. After he
resigned from the army, Grant spent several years at various dead-end jobs. With the Civil War,
however, Grant soon became a general in the Union Armies fighting in Tennessee and Mississippi.
His successes ensured his appointment over all of the Union Armies. Eventually he wore down
Robert E. Lee's forces and the Civil War was ended by the surrender of Lee at Appomattox.
231. Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865), 16th President of the United States (1861-1865).
Born in a log cabin in Kentucky, a rail-splitter and self-taught trial lawyer in Springfield, Illinois,
Abraham Lincoln personifies American democracy like no other president. Determined to preserve
the United States at the cost of war, Lincoln held the country together and drafted the document
that started the process to free millions - the Emancipation Proclamation.
232. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882).
With long poems such as "Evangeline" and "The Song of Hiawatha," Longfellow formed an
original literature of romantic American legends. He was also the most popular poet of his times in
the U.S.
233. Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (1859-1930).
The creator of detective Sherlock Holmes, that great embodiment of cold, inexorable logic and
British aplomb, British writer Arthur Conan Doyle achieved a universal acclaim experienced by
few writers.
234. Darwin, Charles Robert (1809-1882).
As a young man, the originator of the theory of evolution sailed round the world as the ship
naturalist on the HMS "Beagle." Examining and comparing a multitude of species of plants and
wildlife on several continents, Darwin had ample raw material with which to consider the origin of
all those species. The book "Origin of the Species," however, did not appear until twenty years
later, prompted by A.R.Wallace's announcement of his own view of evolution. His 1871 book
dealing with the evolution of humans, "The Descent of Man," was based entirely on scientific
speculation without any fossil or other physical evidence. Later discoveries and excavations would
nevertheless serve to confirm his findings.
235. Morton, William Thomas Green (1819-1868).
Morton was an American dentist who first demonstrated in public (September 30, 1846) the use of
ether in eliminating pain during dental surgery. He also successfully administered ether to a patient
undergoing a tumor operation. Although Morton did not recognize the contributions of earlier
pioneers of using ether, notably C.W. Long, Morton did much to promote the medical world's
acceptance of surgical anesthesia.
236. Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mandѐ (1789-1851) and the first photographic picture.
In 1839, this French painter and physicist worked out the first process for making photographs by
treating a silver-coated copper plate with iodine vapor.
237. Maxwell, James Clerk (1831-1879).
James Maxwell was a Scottish physicist who revolutionized the fields of thermal dynamics and
electromagnetism and formulated the kinetic theory of gases. Maxwell's Equations are four linked
differential equations that elegantly and succinctly explain the behavior of electric and magnetic
fields and their interrelated nature.
238. Bell, Alexander Graham (1847-1922).
Born in Scotland, Bell came to America where he began working on a device he hoped would
enable deaf people to hear speech transmitted by electric waves. The result was the telephone, first
tested March 10, 1876, and then demonstrated before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
in Boston on May 10, 1876. The Bell Telephone Company was formed soon afterward in July
1877.
239. Edison, Thomas Alva (1847-193 1).
Unquestionably the world's most famous inventor, Edison was also incredibly prolific, having
received or shared 1,093 patents. His inventions include the phonograph, the incandescent lamp,
the first commercial electric light and power system, an experimental electric railroad, and crucial
components of a movie-making apparatus.
240. Otto, Nikolaus August (1832-1891).
Although, the French engineer Alphonse Beau De Rochas (1815-1893) patented a four-stroke cycle
gasoline-powered engine in 1862, German engineer Nikolaus Otto was the first to actually build an
engine of this type. Thus, it is commonly known as the Otto cycle.
241. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (1791-1872).
American artist and inventor of the telegraph, Samuel Morse demonstrated his invention to the U.S.
Congress in 1844 by transmitting in Morse code the message "What hath God wrought" over a wire
from Washington to Baltimore.
242. Lilienthal, Otto (1848-1896).
The gliders of this German aviation pioneer incorporated a crucial design innovation that
eventually made powered flight possible- the curved wing. Hurling himself off of a man-made hill
near Lichterfelde, Germany, Lilienthalhe tested single-wing and biplane gliders in over 2000
flights. He perished while testing a glider at Stӧlln near Rhinow, Germany.
20th Century (first half right) plane
243. First Airplane.
At about 10:35 on the morning of Dec. 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, a pair of bicycle
mechanics from Ohio carried off the world's first powered airplane flight. The Wright Brothers
flipped a coin to see who would go first. It was Orville and he took the Flyer up for a distance of
120 feet in 12 seconds. Then Wilbur took a 12-second spin, but covered 175 feet. The brothers
congratulated themselves with a handshake.
244. Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948).
These confirmed bachelors always lived in the same house until the death of Wilbur in 1912. They
were entirely self-taught and made their basic living at their bicycle shop in Dayton, Ohio. When
after the four flights at Kitty Hill a gust of wind destroyed the Flyer, they shipped the remnants
back in barrels to that same bicycle shop.
245. Lindbergh, Charles A. (1902-1974).
The "Lone Eagle," was not the first aviator to cross the Atlantic, but on May 20-21, 1927, he was
the first to fly non-stop from New York to Paris while taking part in a competition against the most
skilled and well-equipped pilots in the world. "Lucky Lindy' s" feat captured the imagination of the
public on the continents of Europe and America the way no man had before.
246. Goddard, Robert Hutchings (1882-1945).
America's first rockets were launched from this man's Massachusetts backyard. In 1926 Goddard
built and fired the first liquid fuel rocket. At one point The New York Times ridiculed Goddard's
assertion that a rocket could move in a vacuum. Only many years after his death did the paper
retract the editorial.
247. Einstein, Albert (1879-1955).
As a clerk in the Swiss patent office, this young German-Jewish graduate student set about
reordering humanity's concept of space and time. Einstein's relativity theories showed, among other
things, that the speed of light is a sort of natural speed limit in the universe. Although he
encouraged President Roosevelt to develop the atomic bomb in the face of the threat of Nazi
Germany, Einstein became one of the great pacifists of our time- the absent-minded, kindly old
scholar whose name will always be synonymous with genius.
248. Empire State Building.
Built in central Manhattan during 1930-1931 at the very threshold of the Great Depression, the
Empire State Building became the tallest building in the world and demonstrated that America had
not stopped chasing dreams. Although long surpassed in height by other buildings, from on top of
its 102 stories one can still enjoy a view of nearly 200 miles around.
249. Earhart, Amelia (1897-disappeared July 2, 1937).
America's "Girl Next Door" was suddenly hopping oceans in an airplane; Amelia Earhart was not
only the first woman to cross the Atlantic alone, she was the first human being to make the solo
jaunt from Hawaii to California. In 1937 Amelia disappeared over the Pacific while attempting a
round-the-world flight; her fate remains a mystery, but her heroism is undeniable.
250. Wright, Frank Lloyd (1867-1959).
Frank Lloyd Wright means moderrn American architecture . Wright was at home on the prairie, in
the heart of industry, in the profiles of America's great urban constructs and in its most sublime
monuments to culture. Among his prominent creations are the Robie House, the Johnson's Wax
Building, the Larkin Building and the Guggenheim Museum.
251. Fleming, Sir Alexander (1881-1955).
More than a few of us are alive today as the direct result of the discovery of this Scottish
bacteriologist: penicillin (1928). Fleming also discovered (in 1922) the enzyme lysozome. This
bacteria-destroying substance led the way to the development of antibiotics. Fleming received a
Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1945.
252. Shaw, George Bernard (1856-1950).
Wizened and wiry, almost gnome-like, this Irish playwright and critic turned the staid, vapid
Victorian theater on its ear. The witty and provocative dialogs of "Major Barbara," "Pygmalion" or
"Caesar and Cleopatra" were crafted not merely for urbanity's sake, but frame real social and
philosophical concerns of the writer. In 1925 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
253. Armstrong, Louis Daniel (1900-1971).
"Satchmo" was born in New Orleans in 1900 and moved to Chicago in 1922. Known as the greatest
improviser on the jazz trumpet, Armstrong achieved truly international acclaim during the 1930's.
Jazz as we know it today would not have been the same without him.
254. Gershwin, George (1898-1937).
Whereas European composers took the folk songs and ancient melodies of their peoples to create
their symphonic idiom, George Gershwin wove blues and the tunes of Tin Pan Alley into some of
the most moving and distinctly American orchestral works in the modern repertoire. "Porgie and
Bess" remains the original American opera.
255. Hemingway, Ernest (1899-1961).
He would challenge his friends to boxing matches in a sweltering steam bath, he delighted in biggame safaris and bullfights; America's premier twentieth-century novelist and short-story writer
was obsessed with the cult of macho. Hemingway was nevertheless capable of great tenderness and
sympathy as in his works "A Farewell to Arms" and "The Old Man and the Sea." He was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954.
256. Mark Twain, pseudonym. of Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910).
This Missouri-born humorist created the perennial boy, Tom Sawyer, who would be recognizable
as one's own in any land, in any time, but really could only be from a small town on the banks of
the Mississippi. With Mark Twain American humor emerged fully mature in world literature, ready
to hold forth on any subject with that blend of wry irreverence, hardy cheerfulness, and mockery of
bombast that define the best features of the men and women of the great new democracy.
257. Chaplin, Charlie (Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin), (1889-1977).
England and America claim both him as their own. Charlie Chaplin, born in England, came to
Hollywood during the infancy of the movie industry and as film actor, director, writer and
producer, was instrumental in developing the genre of the American comedy motion picture. His
"Little Tramp" was the Everyman of the early twentieth century, beleaguered by but mirthfully
contemptuous of industrial dehumanization and oppressive new forms of authority. Compelled by
the anticommunist witch hunts to move to Switzerland, Chaplin was given a Special Academy
Award in 1973 and knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1975.
258. Ford. Henry (1863-1947).
Although, Henry Ford dismissed history as "bunk," it would be difficult to imagine a complete
historical survey of the twentieth century without him. More than anyone else, Ford motorized
America. His Detroit Automobile Company was established in 1899. Ford's innovations in costcutting, the assembly line and the conveyor belt eventually made the Ford Motor Company into the
largest car manufacturer in the world. On the right is the Ford Model T, the most popular American
automobile in the 1920's.
259. Stock Market Crash of 1929.
On "Black Friday," October 29, 1929, the U.S. stock market crashed and brought with it virtually
all of the other significant economies in the world. Its causes were and still are disputed: easy
credit, uncontrolled stock speculation, domestic overproduction with little foreign trade, but its
effects were plain: massive unemployment, bank failures and a ten-year slump in economies
throughout the industrialized world.
260. Peary, Robert Edwin (1856-1920).
This career Arctic explorer from the U.S. was credited with being the first to reach the North Pole
on April 6, 1909. Alongside Peary in his expedition were Matthew Henson, an Afro-American
explorer, and four Eskimo sleigh drivers. Peary also did considerable exploration of Greenland,
discovering their Independence Fjord as well as evidence of Greenland's being an island.
261. Titanic, (bottom).
Designed to be as unsinkable as humanly possible, a superhuman force in the form of an iceberg all
the same sent this Britiluxury passenger liner to the bottom on April 14-15, 1912 during its maiden
voyage. The Titanic sank with a loss of almost 1,500 lives at a point in the North Atlantic
approximately 400 miles south of Newfoundland.
20th Century (first half) left plane
262. Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich (1857-1935).
An obscure provincial schoolteacher in the Russian town of Kaluga, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
quietly went about working out the theoretical problems of rockets hurtling through outer space
and the use of wind tunnels in aerodynamic experiments. His vision was eventually embodied in
Russia's space program- the world's first.
263. Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939).
Whether one accepts or not the teachings of psychoanalysis, the curative methodology developed
by this Austrian-Jewish psychologist, Freud certainly gave a multitude of new words and concepts
to layman speech: ego, id, libido, neurosis, psychosis, subconscious, Oedipus complex, dream
analysis, free association and others. Without these terms it is hard to describe completely the selfimage of twentieth-century humanity.
264. Heisenberg, Werner Karl (1901-1976).
Whenever one mentions Heisenberg, one almost immediately afterward adds "Uncertainty
Principle," a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. Notoriously arcane and really only relevant at the
near atomic level, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty maintains that both the speed of a particle and its
position cannot be precisely determined, one of them remains uncertain.
265. Benz, Karl (Friedrich) (1844-1929).
Although a far cry from today's Mercedes-Benz, to which this German mechanical engineer lent his
name, the tricycle motorized carriages he designed in 1885 represented the world's first practical
automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. In 1926 Benz merged his company
with Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft to form Daimler-Benz, the modern-day maker of the
Mercedes-Benz automobiles.
266. Marconi, Guglielmo (1874-1937).
Winner, along with K.F.Braun, of the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics, Italian-born Guglielmo
Marconi developed progressively longer-range short-wave wireless communication. On December
12, 1901 he sent the first transatlantic radio signal from Cornwall, England to St. John's,
Newfoundland.
267. Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm (1844- 1900).
What Wagner was for German music, Nietzsche was for German philosophy. He condemned
Christianity in the most violent terms and exulted in the Superman, a human being knowing no
artificial restrains of convention or moral weakness. Unfortunately, while Nietzsche spoke in moral
absolutes of the "will to power," the Nazis appropriated the Superman as the embodiment of Aryan
racial superiority.
268. World War 1(1914-1918).
This immensely mindless conflagration first put in sharp relief the paradox of the modem Western
man: his unbelievable readiness to engage in mass self-sacrifice and his diabolical inventiveness in
finding more and more ways to bring about the destruction of his fellows. Along with the enormity
of its human cost, 8.4 million perished, the war vastly altered the political map of world: three
European empires as well as the Ottoman Empire were toppled. Although the conflict was focused
on two fronts in East and West Europe, engagements took place as far afield as Africa, Turkey, and
the Far East.
269. Rasputin, Grigori Yefimovich (1872-1916).
Tsarevich (son of the Tsar) Alexis, son of Nicholas II and heir to the throne of Russia, was a
hemophiliac. A wandering Russian mystic who called himself "Rasputin," or "the Dissolute One,"
seemed to be the only one could relieve the Tsarevich's suffering. Thus, he gained great influence
at the court of Nicholas II. However, Rasputin's fantastically scandalous behavior and his penchant
for meddling in affairs of state undermined the effectiveness of the Russian government on the eve
of the Russian Revolution.
270. Nicholas II (Romanov Nikolai Aleksandrovich) (1868-1918).
Kindly and unassuming, greatly devoted to his Empress Alexandra and their children, the last Tsar
of All Russia was nevertheless completely ill suited to face the internal and external events that
convulsed Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. On March 15, 1917, Tsar Nicholas
abdicated and the opening act of the Russian Revolution had begun. After the Bolsheviks seized
power in November 1917, Nicholas and his entire family were confined and then executed at
Yekaterinburg in 1918.
271. Tolstoy, Lev Nikolaevich (1828-1910).
As Lenin once said, "Until that Count came along, there was no place for the peasant in Russian
literature." The same could be said for emperors, too. Perhaps the world's greatest novelist, Lev
Tolstoy produced "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina" and "Resurrection" among a host of other
novels, short stories, philosophical treatises and essays. Although a valiant soldier in his youth,
Tolstoy advocated non-violence and ascetic simplicity. His views influenced, among others,
Mahatma Gandhi.
Russian Revolution of 1917
272. Bolshevik Propaganda Pamphlet.
Two revolutions rocked Russia in 1917, the first in February (March, according to the Western
calendar), overthrew the imperial government and the second, in October (November), placed the
Bolsheviks in power.
273. Ulyanov (Lenin), Vladimir Ilich (1870-1924).
His word was considered infallible in the Soviet Union for over seventy years. Born in the Volga
town of Simbirsk, the future revolutionary was first a trial lawyer, then a political prisoner (his
adopted name comes from the Lena River in Siberia), then an émigré exile in various countries in
Europe. Sent back to Russia by the Germans in 1917, Lenin eventually became master of the
disorder assailing the country and founded the Soviet State. The human consequence of the
imposition of Bolshevism in Russia will never be known. The State founded by Lenin is almost
certainly the most destructive ever inflicted on a nation. The hammer and sickle and the swastika
stand as grim, austere symbols of the two most oppressive forms of totalitarianism in the twentieth
century.
274. Dzierzynski, Feliks Edmundovich (1877-1926).
A renegade Pole, "Iron Feliks" could recite pages and pages of Polish romantic poetry. However,
he cast his lot with the new Soviet Union and headed the Cheka, first Soviet secret police
organization. With Lenin's full support, Dzierzynski's activities quickly led to the formation of the
GULAG, the vast system of Soviet concentration camps. The toppling of Dzierzynski's statue in
front of the Lyublyanka in Moscow was the signal of the beginning of the end of the USSR.
275. Bronstein (Trotsky), Lev Davidovich (1879-1940).
Brilliant revolutionary organizer and agitator, it is not an exaggeration to call Trotsky the "Father
of the Red Army." All the same, after his falling out with Stalin and his exile from the USSR,
Trotsky's name became anathema in the Soviet passion play up until the times of Perestroika.
Continuing a barrage of anti-Stalinist agitation from abroad, Trotsky was silenced by a ice pick
thrust in his brain by a Soviet agent operating in Mexico.
276. Kerensky, Aleksandr Fyodorovich (1881-1970).
After the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas, Aleksandr Kerensky headed up a coalition of various
moderate and democratic-leaning factions known as the Provisional Government. The Provisional
Government continued Russia's participation in World War I and grew so unpopular by November,
1917 that the Bolsheviks overthrew it by firing blank shells from a light cruiser and launching an
assault on a women's brigade holed up in a former finishing school for girls of noble birth.
20th Century (first half) left plane-continuation
277. Pavlova, Anna Matveyevna (1881-1931).
Her unique portrayal of "The Dying Swan" choreographed for her by Mikhael Fokin, was the
centerpiece of the Ballets Russes, a spectacular tour de force of Russian music, ballet and art
assembled by Serge Diaghiliev, one of the great impresarios of all time. Pavlova first established
Russia's dominance, undisputed to this day, of the ballet genre.
278. Pasternak, Boris Leonidovich (1890-1960).
Proclaimed in the West most of all as the author of "Doctor Zhivago," an epic novel of the Russian
Revolution and Civil War, Boris Pasternak in his own country is considered one of the greatest
poets in Russian of the twentieth century and as a master translator of Shakespeare. Pasternak was
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958, but was pressured by the Soviet Government to
refuse to accept it.
279. Picasso, Pablo (1881-1973).
Picasso was a Spanish artist living in France, who excelled as a painter, sculptor, graphic artist, and
ceramist. He is generally considered to be the greatest artist of the twentieth century. On the left -his painting "Guernica," which portrays the bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War,
became a symbol of protest against fascist brutality.
280. Rachmaninoff, Sergei Vasilyevich (1873-1943).
Rachmaninoff was a Russian virtuoso pianist and an extremely popular composer of piano music in
his own right. He left Russia after the Revolution and eventually settled in the United States. His
best-known works are the Second Piano Concertos, and the "Prelude in C Sharp Minor," for piano.
281. Dvorák, Antonin (Leopold) (1841-1904).
A Czech composer, who attained worldwide recognition with his "New World Symphony," utilized
in that work American Indian melodies and rhythms. Dvorak also made use of his native Bohemian
folk tunes in rich music of the 19th century Romantic tradition.
282. Shostakovich, Dmitry Dmitriyevich (1906-1975).
After Stalin walked out of his opera "Lady MacBeth of Mzensk" in 1934, Dmitry Shostakovich
kept a little black bag of belongings to take with him after his arrest, which he expected at any
time. The great Soviet composer was spared, however, and went on to produce 15 symphonies,
numerous chamber works, and concerti, some with a depth and grandeur unknown since
Beethoven. The Seventh or "Leningrad" Symphony was written during breaks in Shostakovich's
duties at an anti-aircraft battery in besieged Leningrad.
283. Amundsen, Roald (1872-1928?).
This Norwegian explorer won the race to be the first to reach the South Pole on December 14,
1911. Amundsen was also active at the other Pole, navigating the Northwest Passage and being one
of the first to cross the Arctic by air. He disappeared while searching for fellow Arctic explorer,
Umberto Nobile, in 1928.
World War II (left plane)
This conflict involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939-45. The principal
belligerents were the Axis powers--Germany, Italy, and Japan--and the Allies--France, Great
Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. It is believed that 40-50 million perished during
World War II.
284. Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich (1879-1953).
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin may have exercised
greater political power than any other figure in history. The Great Purges of the 1930's, which
along with Collectivization led to the destruction of tens of millions of lives, also decimated the
ranks of the Red Army and seriously impaired the Soviet Union's preparedness on the eve of war.
Adolf Hitler had also fooled Stalin into believing that Nazi Germany would not violate, at least for
the near future, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. In the first years after Hitler invaded Russia
in June 1941, the Red Army was rolled back with incalculable loss. Despite his responsibility for
the near disaster of his country, the point where the Red Army finally broke the back of the
German invasion machine and began its drive towards victory bears his name- Stalingrad.
285. Russian Poster "Call of the Motherland" (1941).
286. Hitler, Adolf —Face of a Murderer.
287. Nazi Newspaper "Volkischer Beobachter."
288. NaziSoldier.
289. Russian Placard-Cartoon "Death to Hitler" 1941.
290. Victory Flag Over Berlin 1945.
World War II (right plane)
291. U.S. Flag Over Iwo Jima.
U.S. marines raising the American flag over Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima, in February 1945.
292. Pearl Harbor Attack.
On Sunday morning, December 7, 1941 the new radar system set on the approaches to the U.S.
naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, suddenly showed immense swarms of flying objects coming in
from the sea. The servicemen manning the station were told to ignore the blotches on the screenthe new equipment probably still had "bugs" in it. Thus, the Japanese assault on Pearl Harbor,
undertaken while Rising Sun peace emissaries made a show of earnestly conferring with their U.S.
counterparts, was the perfect surprise attack.
293. Hirohito, Michinomiya (1901-1989), Emperor of Japan (1926-1989).
This gentle and retiring man, reportedly more at home with his marine biology specimens than the
subjects he ruled, was the longest-reigning monarch in Japan's history. Although revered as being
of divine origin, the Emperor of Japan was constantly sidestepped by his ministers and generals
who actually conducted the war. His 1945 radio broadcast announcing Japan's unconditional
surrender to the Allies was the first time ordinary Japanese heard their Emperor speak. Hirohito
retained his throne during and after the U.S. occupation of Japan.
294. Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882-1945), 32nd president of the United States (1933-1945).
H.G.Wells said that of all the American presidents only Franklin D. Roosevelt can be said to have
had a "reign." Patrician and jauntily self-confident, America's only president to be confined to a
wheelchair was its greatest leader in this century. FDR steered the country through the ordeals of
the Great Depression and World War II, becoming the only president to have been elected four
times. One of the "Big Three" Allied leaders of the war, Roosevelt died less than one month before
the surrender of Nazi Germany. Mourning him, his friend Winston Churchill said simply, but
movingly, "We got on well."
295. Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer (1874-1965).
In the time of Britain's gravest crisis, Winston Churchill's oratory, among the most stirring
utterances ever made in the English language, rallied his nation to withstand the Nazi onslaught in
the Battle of Britain in 1940. During those dismal days for Britons after the defeat of France and
before U.S. and USSR involvement, the full brunt of Nazi might was concentrated against their
country; "England stands alone," as Churchill himself stated.
296. First Atomic Bomb Attack.
On Aug. 6, 1945, Hiroshima, Japan became the first city in the world to be subjected to an atomic
attack.
297. Yamamoto Isoroku (1884-1943).
At one time a guest student in the United States, Admiral Yamamoto developed and executed the
aircraft carrier based attack plan for Pearl Harbor. An audacious, supremely skilled naval officer,
Yamamoto once chastised a junior officer for not being gambler- taking risks was an essential
qualification for a commander.
298. De Gaulle, Charles (1890-1970) Président of France (1959-1969).
Frenchmen such as Charles De Gaulle helped keep alive in the people the will to resist the Nazi
occupation. He became head of liberated France in 1944 and first president of the Fifth Republic
after the war. The post-war period was fraught with crisis for France, however, and from Vietnam
to Algeria, De Gaulle was faced with the erosion of France's colonial realm.
299. Patton, George Smith, Jr. (1885-1945).
"Old Blood and Guts" graduated from West Point in 1909 and commanded a tank brigade in World
War I. During World War II, Patton commanded the 3rd U.S. Army, which entered France at
Normandy and swept through Brittany and North France. In December 1944, the 3rd Army
relieved Bastogne and in March 1945 crossed the Rhine into southern Germany and eventually
Czechoslovakia.
300. Yalta Conference (February 4-11, 1945).
This conference of the "Big Three" (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) took place in the southern part
of the Soviet Union in the Crimean resort town of Yalta. On the agenda were the fate of Germany
after the war, the establishment of a new Polish state, the creation of the United Nations and the
prosecution of war criminals.
301. Russian Cartoon "Allies choking Hitler."
302. Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945).
The son of an Austrian customs official, the future Fuehrer served in World War I as a foot soldier
and for a time was an impoverished painter of postcards in Vienna. Seething with resentment at the
defeat of Germany in the war, Hitler placed the principle blame for this state of affairs on the Jews.
His treatise "Mein Kampf' ("My Struggle") outlines his plans to achieve the supremacy of the
Aryan race in Germany and then the world. Unfortunately, Hitler was a politician of genius and
drove his country to amass an empire greater than that of Napoleon. Hitler's belated invasion of the
USSR resulted in a two-front war that the German army was not able to maintain in the end. The
ashes of Hitler and his mistress were found by Soviet troops when they took Berlin in April 1945.
303. The Holocaust.
The Holocaust was the systematic mass extermination of Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, political opponents,
and other "Untermenschen" ("Inferiors") felt to be undesirable by the Nazi regime. Perhaps as
many as 6,000,000 Jews were put to death in the extermination camps of Auschwitz, Majdanek,
Treblinka, Chelmno, Sobibor, Belzec, and in the other concentration camps. The yellow Star of
David used by Nazis to mark Jewish people and their homes and businesses.
304. Western Wall.
The Western Wall, also called the "Wailing Wall" is the remnant of the Second Temple in the Old
City of Jerusalem. It is a place of prayer and pilgrimage sacred to the Jewish people.
20th Century (second half) right plane
305. King, Martin Luther, Jr. (1929-1968).
This American clergyman and civil rights leader was the person most responsible for the change in
racial attitudes in the United States in the 1960's. In 1963 he organized the March on Washington,
which united over 200,000 people. In 1964 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, but on April 4,
1968, he was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. His birthday is an American national holiday,
celebrated on the third Monday in January.
306. Kennedy, John Fitzgerald (1917-1963), 35th President of the United States (19611963).
His exuberance and humanity inspired the world. The Kennedy administration undertook daring
new initiatives (the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the decision to go to the moon) and successfully
maneuvered though perilous crises (the Cuban Missile Crisis and Berlin). He was assassinated
while riding in a motorcade in Dallas.
307. Castro, Fidel (b. 1926)
Cuban revolutionary, premier of Cuba (1959-76), president of the Council of State and Council of
Ministers (1976—), Fidel Castro remains a symbol of social justice and revolutionary progress for
some Cubans, while representing communist tyranny and repression for others.
308. Vietnam War (1955-1975).
For the Vietnamese of the North it was a war of national liberation and unification, for the United
States and its Vietnamese allies of the South it was a war to prevent Communist infiltration and
aggression.
309. Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969), President of the North Vietnam (1945-1969).
Educated in France, this Vietnamese Communist leader quoted Thomas Jefferson in his inaugural
speech as President of North Vietnam. Nevertheless, his Marxist political philosophy aroused the
deep mistrust and eventually led to the armed hostility of the United States.
310. Age of Technology.
With the invention of radio, the telephone and later television and most importantly computers,
technology globalizes the world of communication.
311. Hussein, Saddam (b. April 28, 1937).
Saddam Hussein At-Tikriti has been President of Iraq since 1979. His repressions and foreign
adventures have proved immensely costly for his own subjects and neighboring countries.
312. Bush, George (b. June 12, 1924), 41st President of the United States (1989-1993).
George Bush has had a most distinguished career in the service of his country. During World War
II he was the youngest aviator officer in the US Navy and flew 58 combat missions. After the war,
he went to Texas and became a prominent oil businessman. Richard Nixon made him Ambassador
to the UN in 1971 and in 1974 he became America's first liaison officer in the People's Republic of
China. He has been CIA Director and Vice President. As President of the United States he
skillfully built up a coalition of western European and Arab states against Iraqi aggression and
restored Kuwait to independence.
20th Century (second half) left plane
313. Sakharov, Andrei Dmitriyevich (1921-1989).
Andrei Sakharov was instrumental to the creation of the Soviet Union's hydrogen bomb in 1953.
However, Sakharov made public his opposition to the abuses of the Soviet regime and he became
one of its most famous and outspoken dissidents. In 1975 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Peace. From 1981 to 1986, Sakharov was exiled to the city of Gorky. After returning to Moscow,
he became a People's Deputy and highly respected spokesman for human rights.
314. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isayevich (b. December 11, 1918).
Nikita Khrushchev purportedly wept when Solzhenitsyn's first novel, "One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovich," was read to him. Solzhenitsyn's literary works revealed to the world the hideous
excesses of the Soviet GULAG concentration camp system. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Literature. Exiled by the Soviet government in 1974, Solzhenitsyn has since returned to
his homeland to share the perils of Russia's transformation from Communism.
315. Yeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich (1931-2007) President of Russia 1991-1999.
Boris Yeltsin is the first popularly elected leader in Russian history. As President of the Russian
Federation, Yeltsin faced a dismaying array of social and economic problems. Nevertheless, he was
reelected in 1996.
316. Gorbachev, Mikhail (1931) President of USSR 1989-1991
Soon after this South Russian politician became General Secretary of the Communist Party, he
initiated the policies of "Glasnost") ("Openness") and "Perestroika" ("Restructuring") that led not to
the deep reform of the Soviet system, but to its complete dismantling. Gorbachev was awarded the
Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990.
317. The Berlin Wall.
This 27-mile long wall of concrete, steel and barbed wire suddenly sprang into being in August
1961. Ostensibly built by the East Germans and Soviets to prevent infiltration of some sort of
Western influences, the Berlin Wall, until its destruction in 1990, could only serve as the most
graphic evidence of the imprisonment of peoples by a political system.
318. Brezhnev, Leonid Ilich (1906-1982).
Brezhnev's 18-year tenure as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union is
remembered in Russia today as a gray period of "zastoy," or "stagnation," but also as a relatively
mild regime without the economic convulsions and social disorder of the post-Communist era.
319. Afghan War (1978-1992).
In December 1979, the Brezhnev regime sent a contingent of Soviet troops that eventually
numbered over 100,000 to prop up a Marxist-led government in Afghanistan. The Soviets
controlled the cities, large towns, and major garrisons, while the guerilla "mujahidin" forces held
free rein over the countryside. In 1988 the United States, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Soviet
Union signed an agreement for the withdrawal of Soviet forces.
320. Le Corbusier, pseudonym of Charles-Edoaurd Jeanneret (1887-1965).
This strikingly original Swiss architect and city planner brought together modern functionalism and
sculptural expressionism in order to make a house "a machine to live in.". One of the first adherents
of the so-called International Style school of architecture, Le Corbusier promoted his esthetics in
numerous writings.
321. Melnikov, Konstantin Stepanovich (1890-1974)
Behind the portrait of this Russian architect is his residence on Krivoarbatskaia street in Moscow, a
variegated synthesis of all kinds of experiments of the international avant-garde.
322. Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich (1894-1971), Premier of the USSR (1958-64).
The ultimate victor in the power struggle after the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev
denounced the worst excesses of Stalinism and presided over a period easing of political and
cultural repression in the Soviet Union known as the "Thaw." Keenly aware of his country's
vulnerabilities, Khrushchev sometimes resorted to bluffs and swaggering to gain respect for the
Soviet position. All the same, the Khrushchev regime was a constructive period of rapprochement
with the West and liberalizing of the political climate at home.
323. Mao Zedong (1893-1976).
The founder of the People's Republic of China set his ancient country on the path of rapid
modernization. Mao's vision of Communism for China was distinctly different from that being
practiced in the Soviet Union. Many of Mao's methods, however, were Stalinist in nature and
enormously destructive of human life. Towards the end of his life, Mao helped bring about a
rapprochement with the United States.
20ts Century (second half) bottom
324. Thatcher Margaret (b. Oct. 13, 1925).
At the time of her resignation in 1990, Britain's first woman Prime Minister was also Britain's
longest-serving Prime Minister since 1827. Thatcher's free-market policies initially brought
hardship to industrial workers in the north of England, but in towards the end of the 1980's real
progress had been made in lowering unemployment and strengthening the British economy.
325. Mandela, Nelson Rolihlahla (b. July 18, 1918).
The first president of South Africa elected after the end of apartheid, Nelson Mandela spent almost
thirty years in prison on charges of conspiracy and sabotage. Mandela has done a great deal to
improve the international image of post-apartheid South Africa and to foster an improvement in
race relations in the country.
326. Arafat, Yasir (b. Aug. 24, 1929).
President (since 1996) of the Palestinian Authority, Chairman (since 1968) of the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO), and leader of Fatah, the largest of the constituent PLO groups,
Yasir Arafat in 1993 signed a peace agreement with the Israeli government on behalf of the PLO.
Thus, Arafat along with Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres of Israel were jointly awarded the Nobel
Prize for Peace in 1994.
327. Ataturk, Kemal (1881-1938).
Kemal Ataturk was a soldier, statesman, and reformer who founded of the Republic of Turkey and
became its first president. Desiring to reach a par with the dominant European states, Ataturk
reformed Turkey's legal and educational systems and adapted the Turkish language to the Latin
alphabet. He also introduced Western-style modes of dress and other customs.
328. Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889-1964).
One of the main leaders of India's independence movement and first prime minister of independent
India (1947-1964), Nehru established parliamentary government in India and vigorously pursued a
"neutralist" foreign policy.
329. Gandhi, Indira (1917-1984).
Indira Gandhi was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1966, she became India's first woman
prime minister. Her years in power were marked by great internal, political and ethnic strife as well
as war with Pakistan.
330. Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869-1948).
Mohandas Gandhi, known as "Mahatma" (Sanskrit for "Great One"), lead the Indian nationalist
movement against British rule and established a universally admired doctrine of nonviolent protest
to achieve political and social progress.
331. Sadat, Anwar el- (1918-1981).
As president of Egypt (1970-1981), he initiated serious peace negotiations with Israel and thus
shared the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize with Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin (1913-1992).
Under the leadership of these two men, Egypt and Israel achieved a peace agreement in 1979.
332. Meir, Golda (1898-1978).
The fourth prime minister of Israel (1969-1974), Golda Meir was among the founders of the State
of Israel. This poster by Keren Kayemet in Hebrew, Polish, and Yiddish, invites setters to the
Valley of Jezreel in Palestine (1930).
333. Dayan, Moshe (1915-1981).
As Israel's chief of staff (1953-1958) Moshe Dayan established a reputation as a brilliant military
strategist during the 1956 Sinai campaign against Egypt. Appointed minister of defense in 1967, he
was chiefly responsible for Israel's success in the Six-Day War (1967).
334. Khomeini, Ruhollah (c1900-1989).
The Iranian Shi’ite cleric who led the revolution that overthrew Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi in
1979, Khomeini remained Iran's ultimate political and religious authority for the next 10 years.
Exploration of Space (left plane)
335. Space Station "Mir" (Feb. 20, 1986).
The Soviet Union took the lead in making space a permanent place for humans to live when it
launched the core module of the Mir space station. Designed to endure in space for 5 years only,
Mir has remained operational for 15 years.
336. First Spacewalk.
On March 18, 1965, Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei A. Leonov (b. May 30, 1934) took the first
spacewalk of 12 minutes in duration during his flight with Pavel I. Belyayev aboard Voskshod 2.
337. Korolyov, Sergey Pavlovich (1907-1966).
A Russian rocket genius who designed some of his first boosters while a prisoner in Stalinist
camps, Korolyov went on to become the Chief Constructor of the Soviet Union's guided missiles,
rockets, and spacecraft.
338. Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968).
On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth. The flight lasted 108
minutes.
339. Launch of Soyuz Spacecraft.
More than one hundred Soyuz-type space vehicles were launched between 1966 and 1999. The
booster is based on the original rocket designed by Chief Constructor Sergey Korolyov in1956.
340. Sputnik.
The Soviet Union launched the first successful artificial satellite on October 4, 1957. Sputnik 1 was
an aluminum sphere 58 centimeters in diameter and weighing 83 kilograms.
341. Valentina Tereshkova (b. March 6, 1937).
On June 16, 1963,Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union became the first woman in space
when she rocketed aloft in a Vostok rocket. Ms. Tereshkova spent three days in space.
342. Svetlana Savitskaya (b. Aug. 8, 1948).
Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to walk in space during her second
flight aboard the Salyut 7 space station in 1984.
343. Apollo-Soyuz (July 17, 1975).
A Soviet Soyuz capsule and an American Apollo capsule execute the first international docking in
space as the two spacecraft pass over Metz, France.
Exploration of Space (right plane)
344. Stealth Bomber.
The existence of the aircraft was officially acknowledged in 1988, and production ended in 1990.
345. Apollo 7.
The first manned flight of the Apollo spacecraft commenced on October 11, 1968; on board were
crew members Walter Schirra, Donn Eisele, and R. Walter Cunningham.
346. Space Shuttle.
The U.S. space program entered a new era on April 12, 1981, with the initial launch of the Space
Shuttle "Columbia", the first manned spacecraft designed for reuse.
347. Neil Armstrong (b. Aug. 5, 1930), American flag on the Moon.
On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human being to set foot on the lunar surface.
Armstrong described the event to the millions who saw and heard him on Earth as "one small step
for man—one giant leap for mankind." Over the next 2 1/2 hours Apollo 11 astronauts Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. remained on the lunar surface, taking color photographs and
collecting soil and rock samples. Michael Collins at the same time orbited the moon in the
command module.
348. Hubble, Edwin Powell (1889-1953).
American astronomer who is considered the founder of extra-galactic astronomy and who provided
the first evidence of the expansion of the universe.
349. STS-41B Shuttle Mission (Feb. 1984).
This mission featured the first untethered spacewalks, which were performed by astronauts
McCandless and Stewart using Manned Maneuvering Units (MMU).
350. Landing of an American Space Shuttle.
At the end of its first mission, the Space Shuttle Columbia, piloted by John Young and Robert
Crippen, streaked back through the Earth's atmosphere and landed on the runway like an airplane.