General Administration
EDHE 6710
Qualifying Exams Review
Objectives of the course:
Objective 1: To become familiar with the current body of scholarly literature and
research on the administration, governance, and leadership of institutions of
higher education.
Books
● Mission of the University, Jose Ortega y Gasset
The mission of the University is to impart higher education to everyone. Higher
education is constituted of 1) transmission of culture, 2) teaching the professions,
3) scientific research and training of new scientists. Transmission of culture is
the most important of these three because it is a basic function of the university.
The university’s primary mission is a cultured people, no false pretense, realistic
goals, excellent pedagogy and high teaching standards.
● How Colleges Work The Cybernetics of Academic Organization and
Leadership, Robert Birnbaum
This is a great book on leadership and administration in higher education.
Birmbaum describes the different organizational structures of higher education.
They are: collegial, bureaucratic, political, and anarchical institutions.
Birmbaum also talks about tightly coupled verses loosely coupled organizations,
which correlate to one or more of the above cultures. Each of these cultures is
either more or less tightly or loosely coupled.
● ASHE Reader on Organization and Governance in Higher Education, Peterson
The ASHE Reader offers a host of articles written by experts in the following
areas: organization and theory models, governance and management processes
and leadership prospective.
● Management Fad in Higher Education: Where they come from, what they do
and why they fail, Birnbaum.
A book about the management fads in Higher Education: where they originate,
why they are adopted, what their consequences are for academic institutions and
educational enterprise and how they can be made more helpful. Birmbaum does
not use the term “fad” critically, but to describe the dynamic.
● The Four Cultures of the Academy, Bergquist
In a manner similar to Birnbaum, Bergquist identifies four cultures of the
academy: collegial, managerial, development and negotiating. He addresses the
1
practical questions of how to live and work in these cultures as well as how to
improve them and foster organizational change and innovation with them.
Bergquist borrows from the field of anthropology, which emphasizes the
importance of understanding a culture in order to understand its system of
meaning and how to function within it.
● A Guide for New Planners, The Society for College and University Planning
This book takes a practical approach to short-long range and strategic planning,
and how the two categories of planning interface. It provides a brief lit review of
the field of planning. Also offers a practical insight on what does and does not
work in the field of higher education in regards to planning.
● Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, John Bryson
A classic in the field of strategic planning for nonprofit organizations. Bryson
provides an understanding of the dynamics of strategic planning, identifies key
steps in using the strategy change cycle to think and act strategically, talks about
how to manage to the process of strategic planning, and provides tips on how to
get started with strategic planning.
● ASHE Reader on Finance in Higher Education- Breneman, Leslie & Anderson
This ASHE reader provides classic and contemporary articles on finance in
higher education which looks at the financial needs of institutions, the trends that
affect higher education, the issue of financing a student, state budgets and
policies, federal programs, and public attitudes. Also discusses the financial
management of higher education.
BOOKS- General Leadership & Governance Issues
● Achieving Educational Excellence- Alexander Astin
Astin’s work is a book about educational equality: what it means, how it is
measured, and how it can be improved. He does not feel our traditional beliefs
about excellence or quality in American higher education serves us well. Quality
education focuses on the development of the human talent, expanding
educational opportunities, rewarding good teaching, involving students and
developing their talents.
● How college affects Students- Pascarella & Terenzini
This book represents groundbreaking research on how college affects students.
Using multiple regression, the authors examine the affects of college on students
on the cognitive, social, psychosocial, affective, moral, educational, professional
2
and quality-of-life areas of students. The authors conclude that after confounding
affects of family background are accounted for that there are three avenues of
college life that most influence a student in the above areas: peer relationships,
student involvement, and student/ faculty interaction. Size, type and location of
institution had little to no effect on the areas under investigation.
● Higher Learning in America- Arthur Levine
A general educational account to current societal trends relative to students
entering institutions and society in general. Liberal education is less affected by
societal changes and relies on the lessons of the past
● The Meaning of General Education- Gary Miller
General education that focuses on problem solving, the acquisition of skills and
abilities, and believes it is concrete. Liberal education is abstract, focuses on
process of learning and not necessarily the content.
● Academic Duty- Donald Kennedy
An institution can operate with unclear rules and expectations about their duties.
This book focuses on the author’s life experience of teaching at research
institution for 35 years.
● North Toward Home, Willie Morris
This autobiography describes the struggles of a southern boy at the University of
Texas at Austin through his pledging a fraternity, his roommate conflicts and
becoming the editor of the school newspaper. This book was before its time
since it occurred in the 1950’s and much of the revolution on college campuses
occurred in the 60’s and 70’s. Morris stood up for his beliefs and questioned
authority.
● Scholarship Assessed: Evaluation of the Professoriate- Boyer
Argues that Higher education is to meet its full range of responsibility the concept
of scholarship must be broadened to include not only basic research but other
kinds of intellectual work in which faculty engage. Four types of scholarship are
proposed: discovery (basic research, traditional), integration (textbooks and
review of lit), application (professional service & outreach) and teaching.
● The American College & University- Fredrick Rudolph
Contains a history of higher education
● Understanding John Dewey- James Campbell
This is a summary of John Dewey’s theory of education. His ultimate goal was to
produce adults capable of sound judgments, realistic view of education with a
strong emphasis on democratic role of education
3
● Eliminating Professors: A guide to the Dismissal Process- Kenneth Westhues
Discusses elimination process for institutions to take in getting rid of unwanted
professors. Used 25 actual cases of elimination from across the nation and
wrote book while he was waiting to hear if he was being dismissed from his
position.
● The State Universities and Democracy- Allan Nevins
This book discusses the four stages of development of state and land grant
institutions.
● Higher Learning in America 1980-2000- Arthur Levine
This book examines the trends of the 1990’s in regards to Higher Education. HE
environments, types of institutions, constituencies of college and university
communities, curriculum and educational programs, critical issues facing Higher
Education today.
● Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate- E. Boyer
If Higher Ed is to meet its full range of responsibilities the concept of scholarship
must be broadened to include not only basic research but other kinds of
intellectual work which faculty engage. Four types of scholarship proposed:
scholarship of discovery, of integration, of application and of training.
● Teachers as Scholars- K. P. Cross
Teaching is one of the most challenging aspects of college faculty job. Growing
research about student learning, improvement depends on focus from character
of teacher to interaction between teaching and learning. Work on classroom
assessment and research provides tools for this kind of study.
● The American Community College- Cohen & Brawer
Discusses the government of Community Colleges, the services they offer to
business and community and the important resources they offer and receive.
● The Great Transformation in Higher Education, 1960- 1980. The uses of the
university. Troubled times for American higher education the 1990’s and beyondClark Kerr.
JOURNALS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
● Research on Higher Education- publishes articles and research from all
different aspects of higher education usually quantitative in nature.
● Journal of Higher Education- publishes journal similar to Research in Higher
Education
● Change- Examines and reports on contemporary trends, issues and challenges
facing higher education
4
● AAHE (American Association for Higher Education) Bulletin- Similar to Change,
although it focuses on classroom as well as institutional issues
● Chronicle of Higher Education- Similar to AAHE, except on a more frequent
publication time table. Newspaper of HE.
Objective 2: To identify the major management and leadership theories that
apply to organizations and relate them to institutions of higher education.
Theories of Leadership
Trait theoryIdentify specific characteristics that are believed to contribute to a person’s ability
to assume and successfully function in a leadership position.
Power and influence theoryAttempt to understand leadership in terms of the source and amount of power
available to leaders and the manner in which leaders exercise influence over
followers through either unilateral or reciprocal interactions with them.
Behavioral theoriesStudy of leadership by examining activity patterns, managerial roles, and
behavioral categories (what leaders actually does).
Contingency theoriesEmphasize the importance of situational factors such as the nature of the task or
the external environment in understanding effective leadership.
Symbolic and cultural theoriesAssume that leadership is a social attribution that permits people to cognitively
connect outcomes to causes and thereby make sense of an equivocal, fluid, and
complex world. Role of the leader may be more symbolic than real. In higher
education, administrative leadership may be in part a product of social
attributions. We have a faith in the potential if not the actual efficacy of people
identified as leaders. This allows us to simplify and make sense of complex
organizational processes that would otherwise be impossible to comprehend.
Social Exchange Theory (suited to Higher Education)There is a reciprocal relationship whereby leaders provide needed services to a
group in exchange for the group’s approval and compliance with the leader’s
demands. In this theory, leaders are as dependent on the followers as the
followers are on the leaders.
5
Types of Leaders
Transactional Leader- meets the needs of the followers and emphasizes the means.
- Effectiveness depends upon fulfilling the expectations of the followers
- Maintains status quo
Transformational Leader- emphasizes ends and taps the motivation of followers to lead them to new
and better values in the support of intended change
- effectiveness depends upon the changing the expectation of the followers*
- metamorphosis and organization
Role of Leaders
Visionary- effective leaders know how to dream. They learn from the past, adjust
to the present and anticipate the future. They have the ability to take things as
they are and envision them as they could be.
Communicator- successful leaders are able to clearly communicate. This
involves knowledge, wisdom, verbal and listening skills.
Innovator- the creative application of a vision to reality. This involves the use of
an active imagination, the ability to question, openness to new ideas and the
willingness to take risks.
Teacher- The transfer of knowledge and wisdom. Imparting truth to others out of
the overflow of a running stream.
Motivator- Good leaders encourage others to realize their fullest potential.
Modeling behaviors to emulate.
Helper- Being concerned for the welfare of others. Viewing oneself as part of
team.
Manager- Utilizing skills in decision making and problem solving and possessing
people skills
6
Decision Making
&
Governance
Bureaucratic
Collegial
Political
Assumptions about
structure
Hierarchical
bureaucracy
Community of peers
Social
Unitary, integrated by
formal system
Unitary, integrated by
peer consensus
Basic Theoretical
Foundations
Weberian
bureaucracy, classic
studies of formal
systems
“Rational” decision
making, standard
operating procedure
Problem definition:
search for
alternatives,
evaluation of
alternatives, choice
and implementation
Professionalism
literature, human
relations approach to
organization
Shared collegial
decision making:
consensus,
community
participation
As in bureaucratic
model, but also
stresses the
involvement of
professional peers in
the process
Fragmented, complex
Professional
federation
Pluralistic,
encompasses
different interests
groups with divergent
values
Conflict analysis,
interest group theory,
community power
literature
Negotiation,
bargaining, political
brokerage, external
influence
Basic leadership
image
Leadership Skills
Hero Technical
“First among equals”
Statesman Political
Problem solving skills
Interpersonal
Dynamics
Management
Expectation
“Scientific
Measurement” People
believe the heroleader can solve
problems and hero
tries to play the role
Management by
Consensus
Leader is developer of
consensus among
professionals
Strategy,
interpersonal
dynamics, coalition
management
Strategic Decision
Making Leader
marshals political
action, but is
constrained by the
counter efforts of
other groups.
View of decision
making process
Cycle of decision
making
Emergence of issues
out of social context,
interest articulation,
conflict, legislative
process,
implementation of
policy, feedback
Leadership &
Management
7
Types of Institutions
Collegial
Political
Bureaucratic
Anarchical
Characteristics
Small, liberal
arts
2 year institutions
(Military)
National universities
Faculty/
Student
Relationships
Need faculty/
student
interaction
Regional,
state
institutions
Lot of
councils
“Emerging
Universities”
Value individual
accomplishments of
faculty, staff and
students.
Stress/
Motivation
Human
Beings
Faculty
become very
involved in life
outside class
Collective
leadership
Everyone has
a voicepeople
identify with
groups
People are
replaceable. Lots of
rules and regulations.
Little interaction with
students
Little interest in
people. Rather deal
with facts and
statistics. Data driven
Trash can
management
- board of
trustees &
alumni strong
Shared power
between
faculty &
administration
- several
coalitions and
coordination
through
conflict
Diversity
Board of Trustees
Administrative Chain
of command
- formal division
of labor
- embedded in
local and state
gov.
First among
equals
Major
leadership
but
democratic
community
Multifaceted
missions.
Faculty have
deep roots in
community
Process of
becoming but
never
become
Large
number of
institutions
UT Arlington
Management
President’s
Role
Value tradition
Baylor
Loses “hero” leadernew leader has to win
over rest of followers
& consolidate power
Research- lack of
rules; star faculty,
international travel,
research, patents
creation of
knowledge
- free
expression
of ideas
- diversity
- no set
pattern
To protect and
defend from
external things
-
Standard Operating
Procedure & Very
Predictable
Big athletics
program
Task oriented with
defined goals.
Little socialization
Symbols are
important/ pomp
and circumstance/
library is center
Fewest in number
2 year institutions (but
not all the time)
Princeton
8
University
OBJECTIVE 3- To know and understand the implications of the major structural
models of institutions of higher education.
Systems of coupling
Definition- an organized whole that has two or more independent parts or
subsystems and is separated from its environment by a boundary.
Closed System- rigid and impenetrable boundaries that limit the kind of interaction that can
take place with the environment.
- Inputs are complex and may consist of people, ideas, tangible resources,
or involvement with other institutions or resources.
- Outputs return to the environment where they may again become inputs
- Dynamic and nonlinear; system parts constantly change as they interact
with themselves and the environment
- Evolves over time
Coupling- the connection between subsystems and elements within the system
Tight coupling (input = output)
- changes in one element of the system usually produce directly responsive
changes in another.
- Deterministic- future states can be accurately predicted if there is a
knowledge of the present state and the forces that will act on it.
- Likely to have many common variables that are important to the
subsystem
Loose coupling (input may = output)
- elements of the system are responsive to each other, but they preserve
their own identities and some logical separateness.
- Probabilistic- future state cannot or the consequences of decisions cannot
be predicted with certainty.
- Connections between subsystems may be infrequent, circumscribed,
weak in their mutual effects, unimportant, or slow to respond.
In general loose coupling makes the coordination of activities problematic and
makes it difficult to use administrative processes to effect change. However,
there are benefits to loose coupling: having independent and specialized
organizational elements 1) increases an institutions sensitivity to its environment
2) allows for the sealing off of ineffective components so failures remain
localized. Loose coupling, therefore can be considered as an adaptive device
essential to an open system.
Baier on loose coupling- loosely coupled organizations are looking to be stable
9
-
it is difficult to change from within loosely coupled organization
Departments attempt to create solid exterior making the organization safe
from change.
OBJECTIVE 4- To know and understand the major internal and external forces
and issues related to the administration and governance of colleges and
universities.
Problems of Organization
1. Dualism of Controls- two structures existing in parallel: 1) the conventional administrative
hierarchy, & 2) the structure through which faculty make decisions
- Neither system has consistent patterns of structure or delegation
- Mutual disagreement regarding systems of authority: 1) administrative is
based on control and coordination of activities by superiors & 2) faculty
(professional) is based on autonomy and individual knowledge
2. Mission and Management- institutions simultaneously embrace a large number of goals
- no single organizational design can optimize all legitimate organizational
interests
3. Power, compliance & control
- power is the ability to produce intended change in others
- power is essential to control and coordinate the activities of people in
organizations
- the exercise of power may cause alienation and responses by faculty and
other groups to the power exercised upon them may pose problems for
the organization and its administration
Institutional and Organizational Constraints of Academic Leaders
Environmental constraints
-
Increased federal and state control
Increased involvement of courts in academic decision making
Added layers of governance (especially in state university systems)
Decreased opportunities for growth and changes accompanying growth
Questions of importance of the missions of higher education
Decreased acceptance of authority in general
Increase/ decreased in number of student applicants
Within Institution Constraints
-
Increased faculty involvement in academic and personnel decisions
Faculty collective bargaining
10
-
Greater goal ambiguity
Fractionation of campus into interest groups, leading to a loss of
consensus and community (Decentralization)
Increased involvement of trustees in campus operations
Increased bureaucracy and specialization among campus administrators
Inflexibility and paucity of resources
Additional Constraints for Texas Institutions
-
Population demographics (young, poor, high illiteracy rate, ESL)
State budget appropriations- not decreased overall dollars, but a decrease
in total share of budget
Access- number of open-admission institutions require the development of
better workforce training and literacy programs
Economic development of the state
Relationships with ISD’s
Resistance to centralization and territorial nature of politics
Whims of legislature
Actions of coordinating board- balancing public and professional interests
in the state.
Trends in the Literature on Administration (1999-2000)
1. Management
2. Commercialization
3. Privatization
4. Determining Priorities
5. Human interaction
6. Mediation
7. Planning
8. Legal issues
9. Diversity
10. Assessment
11. Technology
12. Collaboration
A major tension is reflected in these themes- the need to reconcile corporate and
academic values. Little research has been conducted on the impact of this
tension on the university of the 21st century or on strategies of resolving it.
Dissimilar Values:
Corporate
Performance assessment
Planning
Legal issues
Academy
Human interaction
Diversity
Collaboration & Mediation
11
OBJECTIVE 5: To know and understand the functional responsibilities and
working relationships of major general administrators in colleges and universities.
Key issues for administrators in the 21st century
1. Interpreting and managing change
2. leading academic transformation
3. balancing constituencies and their opposing claims
4. finding financial resources and
5. Defending and promoting higher education by meeting growing and
inconsistent demands for accountability
Penny, Sherry H. (1996, Spring/Summer). Five challenges for academic
leaders in the 21st century. Educational Record, 77, 2-3, 19-22.
Leadership Challenges Faced by Community College Administrators
- Institutional effectiveness and assessment
- The impact of declining resources on the community college’s ability to
meet mission objectives.
- The effect the organizational structure and processes in the community
colleges on institutional effectiveness
- Styles of leadership and management in the community college
- Personnel issues with the community college
- The Institutional outcomes associated with collective bargaining within the
community college.
OBJECTIVE 6: To effectively articulate, both oral and in writing, positions
regarding issues in general administration of higher education.
Essential concepts to be studied at a college or university by a cultural
researcher. Each cultural term occurs in organizational settings, however, the
way they occur and they form may dramatically differ.
Environment- How does the organization define its environment? What is the
attitude toward the environment?
Mission- How is it defined? How is it articulated? Is it used as a basis for
decisions? How much agreement is there?
Socialization- How do new members become socialized? How is it articulated?
What do we need to know to survive/ excel in this organization?
Information- What constitutes information? Who has it? How is it disseminated?
12
Strategy- How are decisions arrived at? Which strategy is used? Who makes
the decisions? What is the penalty for bad decisions?
Leadership- What does the organization expect from its leaders? Who are the
leaders? Are there formal and informal leaders?
Source: Tierney, W.G. (1991) Organization culture in Higher Education: Defining
the essentials. In Peterson, M. W. Organization in governance in higher
education (4th edition).
Strategic Planning
What is strategic planning?
-
A process of creating and organization’s preferred future
A process that produces a results-based, action oriented plan for selfimprovement
A process that helps an organization change in predetermined ways
A systems approach of its changing environment to achieve prescribed
aims
What are the results of strategic planning?
-
Common purpose
Common sense of direction
Priorities for change
Protection against overextending
Goal- orientation
Longer term efforts
What is the desired outcome of strategic planning?
To ensure an organization is running the common purpose rather than merely
running.
A Strategic Planning Approach to Mission Development
Phase I- Mission Assessment
1. Review current mission statement
2. Determine the actual mission
3. Compare stated and actual mission
4. Determine whether to initiate mission review
Phase II- Strategic Planning
1. Consider future external factors
2. Analyze internal capacity
13
3. Assess willingness and ability to change
4. Determine future viability of current mission
Phase III- Mission Reformation
1. Reaffirm current or design new mission
2. Establish goals and objectives to achieve stated mission
14