Chapter 5: An Unequal Home
Ⅰ、Learning objectives
By reading this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe the factors that affect the population density of different regions.
2. Understand the factors underlying migration, including the different types, stages,
and typical distances of migration.
3. Have an understanding of the global distribution of income, debt, population
density, and factors related to quality of life.
4. Understand some of the underlying causes of food shortages and debt in poorer
regions of the world.
5. Describe some of the main differences between developed and developing
countries.
6. Have an understanding of the alternate theories explaining why less-developed
countries remain so: for example, the difference between economic arguments
and world systems theory.
Ⅱ、Chapter Summary
The distribution and density of populations are affected by a variety of physical and
cultural variables, but also by migration. Some regions are more populated due to the
fact that people find living in some physical geographies more advantageous than
others. Population density is also related to cultural factors, such as how a state is
organized, or due to the outcomes of industrialization and urbanization. All of these
factors broadly relate to issues of global inequality.
Migration is the movement of people from one location to another, and has occurred
for as long as there have been humans. Migration can be driven by a variety of factors,
many of which are connected to push-pull logic—perceptions of an individual’s current
situation and the prospects of where they intend to go. Pull factors might include
perceptions of the possibility of improved economic status, a better environment, or
family relationships. Push factors might include lack of economic opportunity, political
oppression and discrimination, limited personal or family prospects, or even natural
disasters. The Ravenstein laws describe the characteristics associated with most
migration patterns.
Movements of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) are explained by
forced and mass migration associated with war, political instability, and other push
factors. Since 1973, there has been a steady rise in the number of refugees in the world.
Some countries, such as Canada, have programs to welcome refugees. However, many
countries do not support refugees, nor do they have the resources to support large
refugee populations. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)
monitors the number and situations of refugees, IDPs and asylum seekers.
Another measure associated with global equality is the stage, or level, of
development of a country. Different terms to describe the differences in development
include ‘Third World’, ‘North and South’, ‘rich’ and ‘poor’, and ‘developed’ and
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‘less-developed’. Levels of development can be measured through macroeconomic
factors, such as gross domestic product (GDP) or gross national product (GNP) per
capita, or through the measurement of progress on social factors, such as education and
maternal health, as measured in the human development index (HDI). Overall, there
have been global improvements in the HDI, even in the continent of Africa, where levels
of poverty and illness are the greatest when compared globally. One of the issues
associated with development has been continued rates of poverty in less-developed
countries. Some scholars and agencies argue that these issues would improve with
good governance. Other scholars point to the colonial legacy—world system theory and
related dependency theory describe that colonialism led to a state of dependency for
some less-developed countries in which they rely on more-developed countries for trade,
resources, or aid, and that these relationships are the cause of perpetual
underdevelopment for less-developed countries.
Factors of poverty and human development are also affected by issues of
distribution. For example, the distribution of food is associated with factors of
governance and politics, rather than with technological development, and a lack of
distribution can cause poor populations to be both under- and malnurished. Intersecting
with these issues is the burden of debt carried by less-developed countries, often due to
the rising prices of food.
Due to financial and human development factors, less-developed countries are also
more likely to be negatively impacted by natural disasters. In some cases, the
governments of less-developed countries exacerbate social conditions by not distributing
aid to their citizens fairly or at all.
In order to monitor and combat poverty, the World Bank has established the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at lowering levels of poverty.
Simultaneously, many non-governmental organizations have spearheaded the Make
Poverty History campaign to raise money and awareness in order to help alleviate Third
World debt. While these campaigns are acknowledged to have important goals, their
effectiveness is debated. There are debates about the root causes in the differences in
development and patterns of prosperity and poverty, and whether these can be better
addressed through debt relief or poverty alleviation goals.
Ⅲ the key points of the text
Distribution and Density
One of the main goals of human geographers is to investigate where people are located, and in what
numbers. This is difficult to establish because

numbers are not available for all countries

available data may not be suitable for study

data may represent inaccuracies
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Measuring Density
Population density is the total number of people per unit area. Physiological density refers to the
interrelation between population and cultivable land. In 2002, China was the most populous country,
followed by India.
Mapping World Population
The map (Figure 5.1) shows three main areas of population concentration: eastern Asia, the Indian
subcontinent, and Europe. Scattered areas of high density are seen in northeastern North America, around
large cities in Latin America, the Nile Valley, and parts of West Africa.
Explaining the Map of World Population
Physical variables
Three specific environments—monsoon areas, Mediterranean regions, and temperate forest areas—are
associated with high population densities. The desert, tundra, and polar areas are associated with low
densities. High-density areas typically experience both hot and cold temperatures that allow a growing
season and adequate water. Extremely high temperatures and rainfall do not correlate with high
population densities (for example, tropical rainforests are not an area of high density).
Cultural variables
Areas that were the centres of early civilizations are the current high-density areas (China, India, etc.).
High densities in Western Europe and northeastern North America are related to the industrial revolution
and consequent urbanization.
Migration
Migration is defined as the spatial movement of residence. It has been ongoing since humans moved from
Africa to populate other areas of the world.
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Why People Migrate
Push–pull logic
People move from one place to another because the new location seems more attractive. The unattractive
place is the ‘push’ and the attractive place is the ‘pull’. Generally, there are three reasons for push-pull
movement:

economic: people moving from low-wage areas to high-wage areas

political: political environments in home countries often trigger mass refugee movements

environmental: flooding and desertification may lead to migration
The limitations of this theory are the assumption that people behave in a hypothetical, logical manner. It
also fails to explain why some people choose to remain in an unfavourable area even when favourable
alternatives are available.
Laws of migration
Ravenstein developed 11 laws that are generalizations with varying applicability. Like the push-pull
theory, Ravenstein’s work does not explain individual differences.
The mobility transition
Zelinsky outlined five stages of temporal change in migration:

premodern traditional society: limited human mobility without movement of residence

early transitional society: significant migration; rural to urban and overseas movement

late transitional society: though significant, rural to urban movement decreases while overseas
movement is especially reduced

advanced society: rural to urban movement is further reduced; urban to urban movement is
significant

future super-advanced society: most migration is between urban areas
A behavioural explanation
This concept, introduced by Wolpert, emphasizes the need to research the spatial preferences of an
individual. It is based on ‘place utility’: the extent to which an individual is satisfied with a particular
location. These preferences are based on the individual’s mental maps and images.
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Moorings
This theory accepts migration as a personal decision. It draws upon theories of human motivation and
places greater emphasis on cultural influences. It focuses on the individual’s perception of the current
location and the values he or she places on different moorings.
The selectivity of migration
The relative attractiveness of a place is unique to an individual’s perception. Factors influencing
migration decisions are age, marital status, gender, occupation, and education.
A relationship exists between life cycle and the likelihood of individual migration. There is a marked
difference between people who want to migrate and people who are able to migrate. The reasons for this
may be economic, political, or cultural.
Types of Migration
Peterson identified four classes of migration: primitive, forced, free, and mass.
Primitive migration
Primitive migration is an example of adaptation to environment; people move from an unfavourable area
to a more favourable one. People move when resources of an area are depleted or when populations have
increased to the extent that additional land is required.
Forced migration
Slaves were forced to migrate in early civilizations. The late nineteenth century saw the forced migration
of workers from China and India to European-controlled plantations in Southeast Asia.
Impelled migration also includes instances of people fleeing tyrannical regimes. For example, the
post-1938 migration of Jewish populations from Nazi controlled areas in Germany. Contemporary
refugee movement can be considered impelled migration.
Free migration
Historically, free migration occurs as people move from densely populated areas to less densely settled
areas. The European population increased by 166 per cent by 1900, and most European countries were
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engaged in the nineteenth-century wave of migration. This migration was related to the demographic and
technological changes that began after 1650.
Free migration continues today but in a reverse direction: people are leaving less developed areas for
more developed areas.
Illegal migration
Policy changes induce illegal migration, as can be seen in the example of the West Africans who had
legally migrated to Nigeria in the 1970s. Much illegal movement is due to ‘push’ factors such as political
chaos, economic crises, or overpopulation, along with ‘pull’ factors such as better wages and job
opportunities.
A great deal of the illegal migration takes place between developed countries. This may be due to
globalization, growing interdependence between countries, and international relations.
Refugees
Refugee Movements: A Growing Problem
The first major refugee movement took place after the Second World War with the relocation of 15
million Germans. The next major refugee movement occurred in India and Pakistan and involved 16
million people. The Berlin Wall generated a migration in 1961 that continued until the unification in
1990. A large transcontinental move from Vietnam began in and continued until the 1990s. The 1980s
saw a rise in the number of refugees for political, economic, and environmental reasons. In 1992, the total
number of refugees was 17.8 million. That number fell to 12 million in 2001.
The Problem Today
Today most refugee movement is driven by civil wars and ethnic conflicts. In addition to refugees, there
are ‘persons of concern to UNHCR’—asylum seekers, internally displaced persons (IDPs), and returnees
(in the process of returning home).
In 2001 most refugees and IDPs were from Africa, Asia, and Europe. Most asylum seekers were from
Europe and North America, and most returnees were in Africa. According to UNHCR, there are 50
million people worldwide who have been forced to leave their homes.
In 2001 the country with the most refugees was Afghanistan, with an estimated total of 3 million.
Movement into adjacent countries is common. This complicates the regional pattern because that country
may both be an asylum provider and the home from where some people have fled.
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Refugee movement and its associated problems are greatest in less developed countries where the
infrastructure to cope with additional pressures is not present.
Solutions?
The UNHCR has proposed three solutions:

Voluntary repatriation: This is not possible for most people because the situation may not have
changed at home.

Local settlement: It is difficult to settle in areas that lack resources.

Resettlement: Twenty countries have been resettling refugees on a regular basis, though they are
not legally bound to do so.
Attempts to resolve the causes that initiate refugee movements have been unsuccessful.
The Less Developed World
What is the Less Developed World?
The more developed world comprises all of Europe and North America, Australia, New Zealand, and
Japan. All other countries are regarded as less developed.
Less developed countries have high rates of mortality and fertility and low rates of literacy and
industrialization. Often these countries are plagued by political problems related to ethnicity or other
rivalries.
Development: Problems of Defining and Measuring
Economic and social development have been measured by such indices as gross domestic product (GDP)
per capita or gross national product (GNP). Now these measures are indicated by the gross national
income (GNI) per capita. Many scholars think that these indicators do not take into account the spatial
distribution of economic benefits. As a result there is some debate on what the term ‘development’
signifies.
Measuring development
The World Bank uses economic criteria (e.g GNI) to categorize countries into low-income,
middle-income, and high-income, but this measure does not assess welfare or success in development.
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Measuring human development
The Human Development Report is aimed at complementing the GNI measures. It has three very
distinguishing features:

The concept of development focuses on meeting basic needs, gender inequality, and
environmental issues.

It uses a Human Development Index (HDI) based on three goals of development: LE, education,
and income.

It is concerned with how development impacts the majority of poor populations living in less
developed countries.
In 2002, Norway had the highest HDI while Sierra Leone had the lowest.
While there is a general correlation between economic prosperity and human development, there is no
direct link. Some countries are more successful than others in translating economic successes into better
lives for people.
Relations with More Developed Worlds: World Systems Theory
The plight of less developed countries is related to the state of the more developed countries. On the
global scale, colonialism has led to economic dependence in the past, and aid for development purposes
has recently enhanced this dependence. The indigenous cultures and social structures of former colonies
have been downgraded and substituted by European structures.
Wallerstein stated that capitalism gradually emerged from feudalism in the sixteenth century and
expanded to cover the world with industrial capitalism by 1900s. There have been many changes since
then, but his theory remains relevant.
The continued process divided the world into three main zones:

Core: These countries receive the surplus that is produced elsewhere.

Semiperiphery: These are partially dependent on the core.

Periphery: These are dependent on the core. The periphery zones make up the less developed
world.
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Population and Food
Undernutrition and malnutrition
Inadequate amounts of food cause undernutrition, especially during famines. Malnutrition is caused by
protein and vitamin deficient food. A few consequences of undernutrition and malnutrition are beriberi,
poor sight, and poor bone formation.
The extent of the problem
The World Bank has estimated that over a billion people are undernourished. The highest levels of
undernutrition are found in Somalia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Bangladesh, and Bolivia.
Food aid
Food supplies have not solved the problem of famine. Most aid does not reach the actual population and it
is not often distributed fairly. Additionally, aid proves to be a disincentive to growing crops.
Feeding the world
While the number of undernourished people is increasing, enough food is being produced in the world
today. Food problems are localized in specific areas and may be due to reasons that are physical, political,
economic, and cultural in nature.
Explaining the World Food Problem
Until recently, three factors were used to explain food problems: overpopulation, inadequate distribution
of available supplies, and physical or human circumstances.
Political and economic explanation
The population engaged in agriculture in the less developed world is declining in size and local
governments are encouraging commercial production of export crops rather than staple crops.
It is becoming increasingly difficult for people in the less developed world to buy food due to economic
reasons.
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The idea of entitlements
Young has attempted to explain world food problems with a multi-scale approach in relation to people’s
entitlements and their ability to command food. This approach highlights the existing inequalities.
The role of bad government
Sen argues that hunger is related to poverty and the government but not to food production.
The World Debt Problem
The less developed world’s debt level has increased from US$ 445.3 billion to 2,000 billion in 2001. The
recession in the 1980s generated high interest rates and a decline in world trade. This decline resulted in
increased debts. Often loans have not had the desired effect on the economies of the less developed world.
The Selectivity of Disasters
Certain parts of the world are more susceptible to natural disasters than others. The number of major
disasters has increased five-fold, further widening the regional inequalities between the more and the less
developed world. Complicated cultural, political, and economic reasons aggravate the risk factors in these
areas, therefore confirming the relationship between poverty and vulnerability.
The Selectivity of Diseases
Disease can also be considered an area of concern on its own, and recent trends in HIV/AIDS, malaria,
TB, avian flu and SARS point to a time when disease outbreaks can be large and move quickly from one
place to another. Some have suggested that much time and money has been wasted on policies and
programs that have had little effect to change the root causes of disease and the spatial variations and
movement of illness.
Striving for Equality
The World Bank has set eight development goals as global responsibility:

eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
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
achieve universal primary education

promote gender equality and empower women

reduce child mortality

improve maternal health

combat disease

ensure environmental sustainability

develop a global partnership for development
Ⅳ、Study Questions
1、Short Answer Questions
1. Explain the difficulties in determining population densities.
Answer: Population densities can be difficult to determine due to three main
reasons. First, it can be difficult to collect accurate data indicating the number of
people in a certain region. Second, if data is collected, it may not have been
collected for the purpose of calculating population density. Third, population
density is associated with spatial scale: as the area diminishes, accuracy of
measurement increases.
2. Explain the four waves of immigration to Canada and how they have shaped
Canada’s population as ethnically diverse.
Answer: The first wave occurred between 1901 and 1914, with many Europeans
establishing themselves in Canada. The second wave, after World War II, was
based on economic reasons—perceived need for a labour force. At that time the
Canadian government still favoured European and British immigrants but allowed
quotas from Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia. As of 1962, population growth
slowed and restrictions related to race and nationality dropped and, by 1967, a
points system, balancing education, employment qualifications, language
competence, and family ties was established. Under the point system, more
people migrated from Asia and the Caribbean. As of 1978, the fourth wave,
supporting refugees and persecuted peoples was added as an objective of
immigration policy. This succession of policies affected the number and country of
origin of immigrants, with the later policies allowing people into Canada from a
larger number of countries and world regions.
3. How is the Grameen Bank innovative in its practices and why is it successful?
Answer: The Grameen Bank is innovative in that it offers an option which allows
the poorest groups to have access to financial credit. This credit is offered as
small loans to communities of people, particularly women, and allows them to
select their own projects and build up a credit history, thereby allowing access to
more credit. Loan officers meet with these communities regularly. With a focus on
the collective responsibility of the group, this loan system builds both community
ties and economic opportunities.
4. What is the difference between undernutrition and malnutrition?
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Answer: A diet must be sufficient in both quantity and quality of food.
Undernutrition is the insufficient quantity of food and calories. Malnutrition is the
insufficient quality of food and concerns the way vitamins and minerals affect
physical development.
5. How might current global economic factors affect the attainment of Millennium
Development Goals?
Answer: The Millennium Development Goals are associated with a drastic
reduction in poverty but the global economic crisis is making these goals difficult
due to decreasing economic opportunities. In particular, food prices are rising,
adversely affecting poorer populations.
2、Research Questions
1. How do governments respond to migration? Consider situations of forced, mass,
primitive, and free migration.
2. What is the relevance of world systems theory? How is this theory typically
applied to the study of development? Give examples.
3. Good governance is associated with improved living conditions in many
less-developed countries. Should good governance be a core policy goal of
international aid? Illustrate your argument with examples.
4. Some scholars say that food shortage and famine are associated with a lack of
good governance. To what extent is this accurate? Are there other underlying
factors influencing food shortage and famine?
5. Why are developing countries vulnerable to disaster and diseases? Illustrate your
argument with examples and case studies.
3、Links of Interest
UNHCR http://www.unhcr.ca/
Make Poverty History http://www.makepovertyhistory.ca/
The World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/
The Grameen Bank http://www.grameen-info.org/
Citizenship and Immigration Canada http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/index.asp
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