RS1/2 CS – Introduction to
Religion in Contemporary
Society (AS)
Topic One: Medical & Environmental Issues
Aim
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
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explain the difference between active and passive euthanasia
understand a range of different religious viewpoints on euthanasia
explain the moral and religious arguments surrounding euthanasia
evaluate the arguments for and against legalising euthanasia
evaluate arguments surrounding the use of animals for entertainment
and medical experimentation
understand issues of hunting, blood sports and culling in the UK.
EUTHANASIA
Euthanasia is a medical procedure by which a person who may be suffering
from a very painful or terminal illness or may be seriously brain damaged and
beyond assistance is helped, perhaps by a doctor to die. ‘Euthanasia’ comes
from the Greek words ‘eu’ meaning ‘well’ or ‘good’ and ‘thanatos’ meaning
death. It literally means ‘good death.’
‘Euthanasia is the intentional killing by act or omission, of one whose life is
deemed not worth living.’ – New Dictionary of Christian Ethics.
Assisted suicide is a form of euthanasia where a terminally ill person asks a
friend or family member to help them to commit suicide – for example by
getting them drugs, poisons or by taking them to a clinic abroad where they
will be assisted to die.
There are two important differences concerning the way that euthanasia is
performed:
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Active euthanasia occurs where a person asks a doctor or other
person to take an action deliberately designed to end their life, for
instance, to give them a lethal injection. It is illegal to agree to do this in
the UK.
Passive euthanasia occurs where a person is allowed to die by
withdrawing medical treatment – for example, by turning off the lifesupport machine of someone in a coma. This is legal in the UK.
For reflection
Do you think that active and passive euthanasia should be treated the same?
Why / why not?
Euthanasia – the present legal position:
In the UK, euthanasia is illegal, apart from passive euthanasia.
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It is a crime to deliberately or recklessly bring about the death of
another person without just cause – Homicide Act 1957, and assisted
suicide is made illegal under the Suicide Act 1971.
The offence is murder or manslaughter and the offender is liable to be
imprisoned.
In 1993, the House of Lords rejected a proposal to legalise euthanasia,
saying: ‘It would be next to impossible to ensure that all acts of
euthanasia were truly voluntary’.
A number of people have signed a legal document called a ‘living will’ or
‘advance directive’ which says that, if they ever suffer serious brain damage,
they should be allowed to die and do not want to receive medical treatment.
Such documents are not valid in the UK.
However, recently there have been some amendments to the law:
Mental Capacity Act 2007:
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The patient may appoint a representative with power of attorney to
instruct doctors to stop giving treatment.
February 2010 Government guidelines:
Those who help loved ones to die (‘assisted suicide’) may not be prosecuted
if:
 the victim is in their right mind and asks for help to die
 the person helping is a close relative or friend acting out of love and
compassion. This does not include the victim’s doctor.
 they report it to police immediately.
In some European countries, notably Belgium and the Netherlands, active
euthanasia is permitted for the terminally ill who have expressed a desire to
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die and where the consent of two doctors and a panel of experts have agreed.
In the UK meanwhile, the Brunel University Survey disclosed that in 2003, 936
people died by voluntary euthanasia and 1,930 by involuntary euthanasia.
For reflection
Do you agree with the rules concerning euthanasia in the Netherlands? Why /
why not?
Voluntary Euthanasia
This is where the patient has expressed their desire to die. Though illegal in
the UK, many groups have campaigned to have the law changed to allow
euthanasia to be carried out if it is the specific request of the dying person.
One group, ‘Dignity in Dying’ offers this vision:
‘For everyone to be guaranteed choice and dignity at the end of their life… a
legal right to effective pain relief and help to ease suffering… We want a full
range of choices to be available to terminally ill people including medically
assisted dying within strict legal safeguards.’ – (www.dignityindying.org.uk)
Case Study – Diane Pretty
Diane Pretty had incurable Motor Neurone disease. Her mind was sharp but
her muscles were fading away, leaving her in a wheelchair and fed artificially.
She did not want to die from choking, so went to court to argue that it was her
human right to die and that she wanted her husband to help her to commit
suicide. The Court said that this was illegal and that she had no right to die. In
the end, she died without euthanasia in 2002.
Because such euthanasia is illegal in the UK, a number of British people have
visited a very controversial Swiss organisation called ‘Dignitas’ that has a
clinic which enables those with terminal illnesses to undergo assisted suicide.
A person who wishes to die has to meet the doctors first and they must
consent to the assisted suicide procedure. Assisted suicides are carried out
by lethal injection or drink and the person dies peacefully.
Seminar Topic
Should voluntary euthanasia be legalised? Examine the reasons for and
against.
Is ‘Dignitas’ the answer or is there a better alternative?
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Case Study – Daniel James
Daniel James, aged 23, suffered a terrible accident whilst playing rugby and
was paralysed. He was in constant pain, could not move and needed 24 hour
care. Daniel hated this and tried on three occasions to commit suicide, but
was unable to do so. Finally, he asked his parents to take him to the Dignitas
Clinic in Switzerland, where he would be able to die. They reluctantly agreed
and he died peacefully there by euthanasia. Many people criticized Daniel’s
parents for letting him die when he was so young and in his right mind. His
mother said that it was a decision made out of love and compassion.
For Reflection
Were Daniel’s parents right to act as they did?
Non-Voluntary Euthanasia
This is the killing of a person who is unable to express their own desire as to
whether they want to live or die – for example, someone in a long-term coma
or a Permanent Vegetative State. Here, the issue is ‘at what point does
someone cease to be a person?’ This is very difficult, because if they are not
a person, then killing them is not murder.
This is controversial, because with advances in medical science, the notion of
personhood and death has changed – we know now, for example, that just
because a heart stops, it doesn’t mean a person is already dead. Even ‘brain
death’ is problematic – does it mean the death of the whole brain, the higher
functions only (thoughts and feelings) or brainstem death?
Case example – Tony Bland
Tony was severely injured in the Hillsborough football tragedy of 1989, when
supporters were crushed against barriers. Tony was diagnosed as being in a
Persistent Vegetative State. He had to be fed artificially and his family wanted
his treatment to stop and for Tony to be allowed to die. However, this was not
agreed to because some believed that not feeding Tony would amount to
murder. It took a four year battle in the courts before it was agreed that the
artificial feeding could be stopped because there was no real chance of Tony
ever recovering. Tony died in 1993. Many critics expressed the view that
legalised euthanasia in this situation would have been a kinder option.
Writing Task:
‘Euthanasia should never be carried out on young people.’ Assess this view.
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Arguments for legalising euthanasia
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Personal Autonomy – A person should be allowed to make important
decisions concerning their own lives. The General Medical Council’s
‘Good Medical Practice’ Guide (2006) states that doctors should
respond to patients’ concerns and respect their rights when making
decisions about their medical treatment and care.
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‘Quality of Life’ – People are entitled to a reasonable quality of life,
which includes physical, intellectual and emotional well-being. If,
through severe illness, a person no longer has a real quality of life,
perhaps because they are bed-ridden and totally dependent upon
others, then they should be allowed to have their lives ended in a
dignified manner, if that is what they wish.
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Ending Suffering – If a person is in severe pain with no hope of a
cure, then being allowed to die will end their suffering. Some say that
this may be the most loving thing to do.
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Pressures on Society – Many elderly and terminally sick people have
no family to care for them and there are not enough places in hospices.
Also, the continued medical treatment of such people is very costly in
terms of money and hospital care. Death may be preferable – and
many people often say they would prefer to die than have dementia or
Alzheimer’s disease.
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Patient’s Family – If a person is dying very slowly, this can put great
pressure on their families and can affect the family emotionally and
psychologically. Allowing a patient to die would reduce such suffering.
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Regulation – The ‘Principle of Double Effect’ means that a doctor may
legally administer a pain-killing drug such as morphine, even though it
may have the secondary effect of hastening the patient’s death. The
doctor is not held responsible for the patient’s death in such
circumstances. However, this is confusing, and legalising euthanasia
would enable patients to be treated more consistently.
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Is there a difference? – Some argue that if passive euthanasia
(withdrawing medical treatment) is legal, then why is active euthanasia,
through say a lethal injection, illegal? Is there a difference?
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Other Countries – Euthanasia is legal in a number of other countries
and many UK citizens are forced to go abroad, perhaps to the Dignitas
Clinic, to die. This is very distressing and expensive. It would be better
to allow people to die with dignity in their own homes.
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NHS Budget – It would be a better use of limited NHS resources to
spend money on treating younger patients who are more likely to
recover.
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Seminar Topic
Which of these reasons do you think is the most convincing and why?
Are there any other more convincing reasons?
Arguments against legalising euthanasia
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Sanctity of Life – A religious argument that euthanasia is against
God’s will. All life is created by God and therefore sacred. A person has
no right to commit suicide or take the life of another. Life is created by
God for a purpose and can only be ended by God.
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Vulnerability – People who are suffering should not have pressure put
upon them to choose whether or not to die.
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Doctors – If doctors had the right to end life, then people would feel
less confident about them being able to treat and save lives.
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Mistakes – Doctors may wrongly diagnose that someone is terminally
ill – for example, people with severe brain injuries can recover.
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Motive – Can we be really sure that a person asking for euthanasia
really means it? Maybe it is just a cry for help? It can be difficult to be
certain of a person’s real intentions.
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‘Slippery Slope’ – If we allow euthanasia, then other controversial
issues will follow – infanticide, killing of the handicapped etc. Also,
euthanasia could become compulsory.
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Respects for Life – Will euthanasia make people view life as less
important? What kind of society do we want – one that kills or cares
for?
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Medical Duty – The medical ethic guidelines for doctors and the
famous Hippocratic Oath, state that doctors have a duty never to harm
a patient and to treat them to the best of their ability.
For reflection
Is there such a thing as the sanctity of life?
Seminar Topic
Which of these arguments is the most convincing and which is the least
convincing? Why?
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The Hospice Movement
A hospice is a place where terminally ill patients are cared for. There are over
a hundred in the UK. In recent years, palliative care has developed greatly –
this is care which takes away the extremes of suffering and allows people to
live out their days in peace and dignity.
The hospice movement exists to:
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control pain and give patients the best possible quality of life
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care for the terminally ill
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show the public and the medical profession an alternative to
euthanasia
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offer people in the final days of life the chance to end their days with
peace and dignity.
Patients are sometimes able to go home or to nursing homes and be cared for
by McMillan Nurses employed by the hospices.
Seminar Topic
Here are some views from people who either support or are against
euthanasia. Which are the most convincing and why?
‘It allows the patient a gentle, pain-free death.’
‘It saves on hospital and medical expenses.’
‘It is taking away the life of a human being, which is always murder.’
‘If euthanasia was legal, people would die for all kinds of trivial reasons.’
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Religious views against euthanasia:
Christianity
Some Christians believe that euthanasia and assisted suicide are wrong
because they go against the teachings of the Bible. They say:
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all people are made by God and given life by him. This is called the
sanctity of life
life is a special and holy gift from God, which only God can take away
humans are stewards of God’s creation and should use God’s gifts to
the full
St Paul said that the human body is ‘a temple of the Holy Spirit’ and
should not be destroyed
killing a person is against natural law and prevents them from reaching
their full potential
the Bible says: ‘Do not murder.’ – Exodus 20:13
humans are made in the image of God and must be treated with
dignity
Christians are required to love one another and this means caring for
the very sick, not killing them
Pope John Paul II said: ‘Euthanasia is a grave violation of the law of
God, since it is the deliberate and morally unacceptable killing of a
human person.’ – Evangelium Vitae 1995.
Islam
Many Muslims believe that euthanasia is strictly forbidden because:
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every soul is perfect
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people must trust their lives to God
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life is a gift from God and must be treated with respect
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only God can take away life
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Muslims believe that suffering is a test from God and to encourage
anyone to end their life is a grave sin
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the Qur’an requires Muslims to care for the sick and elderly
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everything has a natural purpose, given by God, and Muslims should
not go against it
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‘Do not kill yourselves, for truly God has been most merciful to you.’ –
Surah 4:29.
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Judaism
Many Jews believe that euthanasia is wrong because:
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to shorten life is against God’s will
every moment is valuable
life is a gift from God
only God, the Creator, can take life away
Jews are required by the Ten Commandments to ‘Honour your father
and mother’ (Exodus 20:12). Jews should not seek to end the lives of
their parents.
the Ten Commandments also say; ‘Do not murder’ (Exodus 20:13)
the Book of Job teaches that suffering is part of God’s plan.
Hinduism
Hindus believe in reincarnation and many oppose euthanasia because:
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all life is sacred
it is wrong to end a person’s life early through euthanasia as this will
lead to bad karma and a poor rebirth
euthanasia interferes with a person’s duty (dharma) and causes the
body and soul to split apart too early
suffering must be endured as it is caused by karma from a previous life
a person assisting someone to die would cause bad karma for
themselves
the principle of ‘ahimsa’ (non-violence) means that people must be
cared for
‘The one who tries to escape from the trials of life by committing
suicide will suffer even more in the next life.’– Yajur Veda 40-43.
Buddhism
Many Buddhists believe that euthanasia is wrong because:
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the way life ends is important and has an effect on the cycle of rebirth
and euthanasia would affect this
the ‘Ten Precepts’ include a moral requirement not to harm any living
creature
the teachings of ‘metta’ (love) and ‘karuna’ (compassion) prevent the
deliberate killing of a person
suffering is a natural part of life and dying is an opportunity for spiritual
growth that should not be interfered with
‘You shall not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed.’ – Sutta
Nipata II.14.
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Sikhism
Many Sikhs are opposed to euthanasia because they believe:
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that life is a gift from God
life and death are for God to decide
suffering may also be a test from God and part of His plan to give
people the opportunity to develop good karma
those in great pain and suffering should be properly cared for
‘God sends us and we take birth. God calls us back and we die.’ –
Guru Granth Sahib 1239.
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Seminar Topic
Here are two real-life examples of euthanasia. In each case, say whether, in
your opinion, the people involved did the right thing or the wrong thing. Give
reasons for your opinion. How would members of different faiths answer these
dilemmas?
A doctor gives a lethal injection to a terminally ill lady with her and her
family’s consent.
A grown-up daughter gives a lethal dose of tablets to her terminally ill
mother, who has begged her daughter to do so to ease her pain.
Religious arguments in favour of euthanasia:
Christianity
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Allowing someone to die with dignity may be the most loving and
compassionate thing to do.
Jesus said: ‘Love one another.’ – John 13:34
Allowing their parents to die with dignity may fulfil a Christian’s
requirement to honour their father and mother.
Euthanasia is not ‘murder’ because it is not done with the intention of
causing harm, but to end suffering.
Euthanasia is acceptable because the primary intention is to end
suffering, not to end life – the ‘Doctrine of Double effect’.
Islam
 Euthanasia may be the most compassionate thing to do.
 Euthanasia is more natural than keeping people alive with drugs.
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Judaism
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Euthanasia is more natural than being kept alive by artificial means.
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Relieving pain by drugs, even if this hastens death, is permissible.
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Euthanasia may allow Jews to respect the dying wishes of their parents
and in this way, fulfil the Commandment to honour them.
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The primary purpose of euthanasia is to relieve pain and suffering,
therefore it is not murder.
Hinduism
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Ending a person’s life of suffering can be a good deed and bring about
spiritual benefit.
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Keeping a person artificially alive may be a bad thing and contrary to
nature.
Buddhism
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Euthanasia may be morally permissible if it relieves the suffering, not
only of the patient, but of their loved ones.
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Euthanasia can be seen as a ‘karmically neutral act’, as its aim is to
relieve a person’s suffering.
Sikhism
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The quality of life is what matters, not the length.
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Ending life may be preferable to artificially prolonging it.
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Euthanasia may be permissible with medical safeguards.
Writing Task:
‘People suffering from terminal conditions should be free to choose to die by
euthanasia if they wish.’ Assess this view.
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ANIMAL RIGHTS
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that animals existed only to
serve human desires and needs. He said that animals were not able to reason
and therefore had no moral status, and consequentially, no rights. However,
more recently, people have begun to question whether in fact animals do
have feelings, and if so, also have rights – in particular, the right to decent
treatment from human beings.
For reflection
Was Aristotle right to claim that animals exist only to serve human desires and
needs?
Developments in our scientific knowledge, for example, Darwin’s theory of
evolution, have brought in new ideas which close the biological gap between
humans and animals. Research in genetics, for instance, has shown just how
close humans and animals really are – humans and apes are 96% identical in
functional genes.
At the same time, people have begun to realize that animals have feelings
too. Many mammals feel sadness, they care for others, and they mourn their
dead. Aristotle’s notion that animals have no moral status has come into
question, and with it, the way humans treat animals. Moreover, many religious
believers have campaigned for better stewardship of the planet and of its
natural resources, including animals.
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Let us consider the different viewpoints:
Animals have no moral status. If this is so, then:
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Animals are only of value in so far as they are useful to humans.
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Animals may be killed by humans for food.
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Animals are unable to act ‘morally’ – they only act by instinct.
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Animals cannot reason, so have no free will or conscience.
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Therefore animals have no moral rights.
Animals have a moral status, but are of less worth than
humans. If this is so, then:
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Animals have an intrinsic value – they are worthy in themselves.
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Animals are not equal to humans because they cannot understand
moral rights and duties.
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Animals, therefore, only have limited moral rights – for example, the
right not to be mistreated by humans.
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Humans, as the superior species, have the moral obligation to care for
other species.
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Animals can be killed for food and for other morally acceptable
reasons.
Animals have the same moral status as humans. If this is so,
then:
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Animals have an equal intrinsic value and deserve the same rights as
humans.
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Animals should not be killed for sport or medical experimentation..
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‘Speciesism’ – all species are equal and of equal value. Humans
should not discriminate against animals because they are a different
species.
Seminar Topic
Which of these arguments is the most convincing and which is the least
convincing? Why?
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Issues involving the use of animals:
Animals as food
Most animal suffering and death in the world is caused by the human need for
food and many millions of animals are killed for food in the UK. Intensive
industrialized ‘factory farming’ means that:
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farm animals are often kept in very small spaces, often with little light.
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this may lead to insanitary conditions.
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more animals can be produced for food, which means greater profit for
farmers and sellers, but at what cost to the animals?
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70% of the UK’s eggs come from hens kept in cramped conditions.
This keeps the price of eggs low, but means that the hens can hardly
move. New European Union laws may change this situation soon.
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dairy cows are often made pregnant by artificial insemination, which
increases the amount of milk they produce.
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dairy cows are kept outside in the summer, but in winter are kept in
very cramped sheds.
For reflection
Does it matter how we treat animals if we are going to kill them anyway?
As a result of this and other animal rights issues, some people choose to
become vegetarians and will not eat meat. Some may become vegans, which
means, that in addition, they will not eat or drink food derived from animals,
such as milk, cheese or eggs.
Arguments in favour of killing animals for food:
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Humans are the superior beings and may do as they like with animals.
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Humans are meat-eaters. Killing and eating animals is part of the
natural order.
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Most animals are bred to be used as food. If this were not so, they
would not exist at all.
Arguments against using animals for food:
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If animals have rights, then the most important right is the right to live.
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Humans do not need to eat meat to survive – we can live as
vegetarians.
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Many animals reared in factory farms live in poor conditions.
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Killing animals for food is often done in a brutal way.
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Research Topic
Find out about the various ways in which animals are killed for food. How is it
actually done?
Animals in medical and non-medical experimentation
Every year in the UK about 2 million experiments on animals take place. Most
are medical, whereby animals are used to test medicines and other treatments
before they are used on humans. Some animals are genetically modified in
order to test the effect of cancer and other life-threatening diseases.
Other experiments are not for medical reasons, but for purposes such as
testing new cosmetics, shampoos and other beauty products.
Most experiments are carried out on mice and rats, but sometimes larger
animals have to be used, for instance rabbits, dogs and cats. This sometimes
causes controversy and raises the question of whether these larger animals
have a greater moral status than the smaller ones. Whichever animals are
used, many do suffer pain and distress and sometimes death, as a result of
the experiments. Many believe that this puts a moral obligation on humans not
to allow such suffering to happen. In his ‘An Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and Legislation’, Jeremy Bentham said:
‘The question is not, can they reason... but can they suffer?’
Arguments in favour of animal experimentation:
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Human life is of greater value than animal life.
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Such experiments provide a wealth of useful information that could not
be found in any other way.
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Animal suffering is limited and controlled by law.
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Medicines have been developed as a result of experimentation, for
example vaccines to fight rabies and polio.
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Animal experimentation is the most effective way to test for medical
cures.
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Animal experimentation has saved many human lives and led to the
discovery of cures for many illnesses.
For reflection
Is it right to experiment on animals to test beauty products?
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Arguments against animal experimentation
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Animals have as much right to live as humans.
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Causing unnecessary suffering to animals degrades us as humans.
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Humans are under a moral and religious obligation to care for animals.
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If we deliberately cause pain and suffering to animals, we are
neglecting our power of stewardship.
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The same results could be achieved by using computer simulation,
rather than harming animals.
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Animal experiments are unreliable because the animals are under such
stress.
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Many shops (e.g. ‘The Body Shop’) will not sell beauty products tested
on animals.
For research
Find out the names of companies and businesses that have chosen not to use
animal-tested products.
Today, many scientists are trying to reduce the number of animal experiments
and to keep pain and suffering to a minimum. Also, new methods of research
are being introduced. However, scientists argue that animal experimentation
is still needed if they are to find cures for cancer, HIV and other potentially
fatal diseases.
Writing Task:
‘It is right to use animals for medical experimentation, if it means that cures for
human diseases can be found.’
Assess this view.
Animals for hunting
A ‘blood sport’ is one which involves causing suffering to animals, for instance
fox hunting and bull fighting. Many such activities have been banned by law,
yet still go on in secret, for example badger-baiting which involves badgers
being made to fight a dog – which is illegal under the Protection of Badgers
Act 1992. Most famous and controversial of all is ‘hunting with hounds’ where
people ride horses, following a pack of trained hounds, chasing a fox or a
deer which is eventually caught and killed. Such activities were banned in the
UK in 2004, but still go on.
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Arguments in favour of hunting animals:
 Hunted animals are usually those that are a nuisance to farm animals
and may cause farmers to lose stock – for instance, farmers say that
foxes threaten their poultry.
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Hunting is an ancient and traditional sport that should be preserved.
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Hunters are skilled and try to ensure that hunted animals die with the
minimum of suffering.
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Hunting is also used as a way of catching food.
Arguments against hunting:
 Hunting with hounds causes hours of suffering.
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There are more efficient and gentler ways to kill animals that are a
nuisance.
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Hunting one species disrupts the food chain.
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Just because something is ancient and traditional does not make it
right.
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Hunting to hounds damages the countryside.
Seminar Topic
Which of these arguments is the most convincing and which is the least
convincing? Why?
Culling
Culling is a method of controlling the numbers of animals in a certain area.
Animals are killed in order to reduce the number of them. For example, if
there are too many of a certain kind of animal in one place, they may cause
excessive damage to crops. In 2008, for instance, elephants were culled in
parts of South Africa because they were a danger to people, were eating too
many crops and drinking too much water.
In the UK in 2008, the Welsh Assembly authorized the culling of certain
groups of badgers in designated parts of south west Wales, to prevent the
possible spread of tuberculosis in farm cattle.
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Arguments in favour of culling:
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It can prevent the spread of disease amongst animal livestock.
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It can prevent damage to crops.
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It prevents the loss of food or water for people or other animals.
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It can remove animals that are a threat to human life.
Arguments against culling:
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Culling is sometimes done for profit – for instance, selling the meat of
culled animals.
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Humans should not interfere with the natural way of things.
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There is no need to kill unwanted animals – they can be removed in
other ways that do not involve suffering.
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Culling is often brutal.
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Culling is only a short-term solution and does not really solve the
problem.
For reflection
Is culling just a necessary evil?
Animals as pets
Animals are widely used as pets in the UK and the majority of pet owners use
their stewardship over animals to treat them very well. However, some pet
owners are cruel and neglect their pets and every year nearly 1,000 people
are convicted of cruelty under the Animal Welfare Act 2006, which puts a legal
duty on pet owners to look after their pets properly.
There are also issues about whether all animals are suitable as pets. Whilst
some, such as cats and dogs, are clearly domesticated and are well-suited to
be pets, others, such as rare species or birds, are less well-suited and maybe
should not be kept as pets.
18
Arguments in favour of keeping animals as pets:

Many animals are better looked after as pets than they would be in the
wild – for example, they get good food and a warm bed.

Having a pet helps us to understand animals better.

Having a pet helps us to learn how to act responsibly towards animals.

Having a pet allows expressions of love, companionship and fun.
Arguments against keeping animals as pets:

Humans have no right to keep animals in captivity and away from their
natural environment.

People often abandon their pets – about 10,000 per year have to be
rescued by the RSPCA.

Keeping animals at home means they live in an environment that is
unnatural to them.

Animals have the right to be free and the right to choose where they
live.
For reflection
Is it right to keep birds as pets? What about reptiles?
Animals as entertainment – circuses
Many circuses around the world use trained animals to perform tricks and to
entertain the audience. In the UK, the Animal Welfare Act 2006 prevents
animals from suffering needlessly by requiring their owners and keepers to
look after them in a responsible way. In particular, the Act requires that animal
owners must:

give their animals a suitable place to live

feed them properly

allow them to exhibit normal behaviour patterns

be protected from pain, injury, suffering and disease.
In addition, circus trainers may only train animals suitable for the circus
environment and in the UK, must register with the local authority and the
police, both of whom have the power to order a veterinary inspection of all
animals. Any circuses found guilty of neglect or cruelty can be closed down.
19
Arguments in favour of using animals in circuses:

Circuses help to preserve endangered species, such as tigers.

Circuses raise awareness about animals and people appreciate them
more and may, as a result, give money to animal charities.

As the superior species, humans should be allowed to use animals for
their own amusement.

Circus animals live in a safe environment, free from predators.
Arguments against using animals in circuses:

Animals bred in captivity, lose their natural instincts and cannot be
returned to the wild.

Humans have no right to remove animals from their natural
environment.

Animals in circuses are sometimes kept in unsuitable cages and
enclosures.

If we use animals for entertainment, people will think that animals are
an inferior species.
Seminar Topic
Is it ever right to use animals for entertainment? When?
Animals in zoos
Zoos are also places were animals are used for entertainment, though many
zoos today see it as their main function to protect and preserve endangered
species, for example pandas and elephants.
Arguments in favour of keeping animals in zoos:
- It helps to preserve endangered species and helps to produce breeding
programmes to conserve species.
- Many zoo animals are bred in captivity and could not survive in the wild
and are better off in zoos.
- Zoos can sometimes release species into the wild to re-populate the
area.
- Zoos offer good living conditions for animals.
- Zoos help people to learn more about animals and the environment.
- Zoos are leading scientific research institutes.
- Zoos help us to understand animal behaviour.
20
Arguments against animals in zoos:
- Animals should not be kept in zoos just to entertain us.
- Not all animals in zoos are from endangered species.
- It is better to observe and learn about animals in the wild, rather than in
a zoo.
- Many zoo animals still live in cramped conditions.
- It is wrong to breed animals in captivity so that they are unable to
survive in the wild.
- We do not need zoos – we can learn about animals from television and
on-line computer programmes.
Writing Task:
‘Animals should never be kept in zoos or circuses’.
Assess this view.
Religious viewpoints
Arguments in favour of the use of animals:
Christianity

Animals exist for the benefit of humans – St Thomas Aquinas (Summa
contra Gentiles).

Jesus became human, indicating that humans are the superior species.
Humans are therefore more valuable than animals – Karl Barth.

The Bible teaches that it is permissible to kill and eat animals (Acts 10:
11-15).
Judaism

Animals can be killed for food, though this must be carried out with the
minimum of suffering – this is called the Schechitah ritual.
Islam

Muhammad taught that animals could be killed for food. They should
be killed painlessly according to the halal (permissible) method.

Animals are sacrificed at the festivals such as the Eid al Adha.

Animals may be used for medical experimentation if there is no
alternative. This suggests that human life is of greater value than
animal life.
Hinduism

Hindu holy texts make reference to animal sacrifices as being
important in religious rituals.

Performing religious rituals help Hindus to attain ‘moksha’.
21

‘The animal to be sacrificed is not considered to be an animal; it is,
instead, a symbol.’ – Basant I. Lai
Buddhism

At the time of the Buddha, members of the Sangha were allowed to eat
meat.
Sikhism

Sikhs, who are not initiated into the Khalsa, may choose to eat meat.

Animals are a precious part of creation, but are secondary to humanity.
Seminar Topic
Here are two real-life examples of animal rights. In each case, say whether, in
your opinion, the people involved did the right thing or the wrong thing. Give
reasons for your opinion. How would members of different faiths answer these
dilemmas?
A farmer shoots a pet dog which is disturbing his flock of sheep.
You decide to wear a fur coat made of real animal skin.
An animal is sacrificed as part of a religious ritual.
Arguments against the use of animals:
Christianity

Humans have been given stewardship over God’s creation and must
take care of it wisely.

Many Christians have campaigned for animal rights.

The Bible says that God values animal life: ‘Are not five sparrows sold
for a penny? Yet not one of them is forgotten by God.’ – Luke16:6

All life is sacred – to harm an animal is to act against God’s creation.
Judaism

Animals are part of God’s creation and must be treated with respect.

The Jewish Bible teaches that animals must be properly looked after:
‘Do not muzzle your ox when it is treading out the corn.’ –
Deuteronomy 25:5

The Jewish Declaration on Nature says that humanity accepted
responsibility for looking after all of God’s creation.
22

Hunting and killing animals for sport goes against the Schechitah
rituals for the painless killing of animals for food.
Islam

Animals are God’s creation and humans are the guardians of creation
(Khalifa).

Hadith states: ‘Whoever is kind to the creatures of God is kind to
himself.’

The Qur’an states that God has made humans ‘custodians and
inheritors of the earth.’ – Surah 6:165

On the Day of Judgement, humans will be held accountable for the way
they have treated animals.

This means humans must not kill animals for sport or use them for
entertainment.
Hinduism

Animals are part of creation and the principle of ahimsa (non-violence)
means that they must not be harmed.

The Laws of Manu say that animals must be protected.

The Bhagavad Gita states: ‘He who hates no creature, who is friendly
and compassionate to all… he is dear to me.’

Many Hindu Gods have appeared as animals e.g. Hanuman and
Ganesh.

The cow is sacred and shows the link of care between humans and
animals.

Many Hindus choose to be vegetarians.

Animals are part of the cycle of rebirth (‘samsara’) and must be
properly treated.
Buddhism

All living creatures are interdependent upon each other – everything
depends on everything else. This includes animals and they must be
treated with respect.

Many Buddhists are vegetarian.

Members of the Sangha will not permit animals to be killed for sport or
for food.

A person who ill-treats animals will receive bad karma.
23
Sikhism

Animals are part of the reincarnation process and should be treated
with respect.

‘In so many incarnations, you were an elephant, a fish and a deer.’ –
Guru Granth Sahib.
Seminar Topic
Here are some views concerning animal rights. Which are the most
convincing and why?
‘Animals do not know right from wrong and therefore have no moral
rights.’
‘Animals bred for food do not need to be treated as well as animals
bred as pets.’
‘No animal should be used by humans to hunt another animal.’
‘Zoos and circuses should be abolished.’
24
Topic Two: Religion and Television
Aim







At the end of this topic you should be able to:
explain the religious themes in soap operas
explain issues raised in ‘Coronation Street’ and ‘Eastenders’
evaluate the arguments for and against religion in soaps
understand a range of different religious viewpoints in ‘The Simpsons’
evaluate arguments surrounding the use of religion in ‘The Simpsons’
understand issues relating to religion-specific broadcasting
RELIGIOUS THEMES IN SOAP OPERAS
Originally, soap operas were American radio serials sponsored by soap
powder companies. Today, ‘soap operas’ is the name given to television
serials, such as ‘Coronation Street’ and ‘Eastenders’ which try to reflect
everyday life and experiences. These programmes are hugely popular and
have a considerable influence on daily life, as so many people talk about the
current storylines, especially when they are particularly scandalous, involving
sex, drugs or crime.
Soap operas are usually long-running serials. They are different from a
television series (such as the ‘Vicar of Dibley’ or ‘The Simpsons’) in that the
soap storylines carry on from one episode to the next, whereas in a series,
each programme has a self-contained plot. Daniel Chandler in ‘The TV Soap
Opera Genre’ (1994) wrote:
‘Television soap operas are long-running serials concerned with everyday
life… A series is advertised as having a specific number of episodes but
serials are potentially endless.’
Merris Griffiths in ‘Why are soap operas so popular?’ (1995) observed:
‘Soap opera storylines are based largely on the problems encountered within
personal relations and family life; the content is essentially humanized. A
mundane quality is evoked, as the lifestyles of the characters on screen are
not vastly different from our own... Soaps do not claim to offer single solutions
to the problems they portray, but explore all the relevant possibilities. There
are no objective truths, no answers… this is reflective of a real life that holds
few certainties for anyone.’
25
However, soap operas rarely tackle religious issues well. Perhaps because
they are worried about offending members of different religious faiths, or by
not representing different views equally, soaps often fail to tackle religious
issues head-on. Instead, they concentrate on universal themes such as love,
forgiveness, kindness and community, which are reflected in the moral and
spiritual aspects of their characters’ lives.
For reflection
Why are soaps so popular?
NB: The two soaps dealt with here are ‘Coronation Street’ and ‘Eastenders’,
but students may draw their information from any soap opera.
Coronation Street
Coronation Street has been on television since 1960 and tells the story of the
lives of the residents of a street in the fictional town of Weatherfield which is
near Manchester. The street itself comprises of old terraced houses, a corner
shop, a nearby garage and factory and a pub called ‘The Rover’s Return’,
which is at the heart of the community and the centre for much of the action.
Coronation Street has been widely criticized for under-representing members
of different faith communities and for trivializing religion. Some have argued
that the programme makers are too scared of getting religion ‘wrong’ and
offending religious believers. Religious rituals, such as weddings and funerals
are portrayed, but on the whole, the show tends to concentrate on moral
dilemmas, rather than religious issues and recent storylines have included
murder, abuse, unwanted pregnancies and trans-sexuality. Religion is very
discreet and the religious views of characters are implied rather than explicit:

Dev & Amber may be Hindu.

Emily Nugent may be Christian but seems more moral than religious.
 In 2009, Sophie Webster claimed to have turned to religion and taken a
vow of chastity.
After a rare excursion into religion in 2009, the ITV received a large number of
complaints, because, whilst filming the traditional wedding of Tyrone and
Molly, the makers hid the Christian Cross in the church behind some flowers.
The vicar of the church, the Rev. James Milnes claimed they had hidden the
cross because of ‘political correctness’, so that people would not be offended.
He said it took away:
‘…the very thing that makes it a church’ – ‘Daily Telegraph’ (14.01.09)
An ITV spokesman admitted: ‘Covering up the cross was an error and we
apologize for any upset.’
26
Seminar Topic
Why are the makers of ‘Coronation Street’ so reluctant to address religious
issues?
Eastenders
‘Eastenders’ began in 1985 and is set in the fictional London Borough of
Walford. The action centres around Albert Square – a Victorian square that
has houses, some small businesses, a market and a pub, the ‘Queen Vic’,
which, like the ‘Rover’s Return’ in ‘Coronation Street’, is the centre of the
action. Many of the families are extended and this has allowed the producers
to include more family and moral storylines.
Unlike ‘Coronation’ Street’, ‘Eastenders’ has been prepared to engage in
religious storylines:

In 2001, Dot Cotton gave morphine tablets to her dying friend
Ethel Skinner in a case of assisted suicide. As a strict Christian,
after Ethel had died, Dot became guilt ridden and prayed: ‘I only
did it because I loved her… I am scared. I have committed a
crime, but have I committed a sin, an unforgivable sin?’ She
reported the matter to the police, but no action was taken. Overall,
it was a chance for issues surrounding euthanasia to be aired in a
fair and open way.

In 2004, there was a protracted storyline about the abusive
husband-wife relationship between Mo and Trevor Slater, which
reflected the dilemmas surrounding abuse within a family.

In 2008, adultery and promiscuity were examined through the
relationships between Max, Stacey and Bradley.

In 2008, a paedophile, Tony King, groomed teenager Whitney
Dean.

Muslim postman Masood Ahmed, secretly ate during the holy time
of Ramadan.

Pentecostal preacher Lucas Johnson, attacked his wife and
murdered a love rival. So many complaints were received from
viewers that the BBC responded by saying the matter wasn’t
religious: ‘Lucas is certainly not intended to be representative of
Christians. He is a very damaged and dangerous individual who
has created a twisted version of the Christians’ ‘faith’ in his mind
to hide behind and to convince himself that his actions are
acceptable.’

In 2009, there were a considerable number of protests at the gay
affair between Syed Masood and Christian Clarke. Gay music star
George Michael on ‘Twitter’ called the storyline: ‘Insulting to the
gay community, insulting to the Muslim community and …terrifying
every gay child that is struggling to come to terms with their
sexuality.’ (Pink News, 11.11.11)
27
Research Topic
Find out about three different religious storylines in ‘Eastenders’. How
successful and convincing were they?
The 2005 report on the BBC from the House of Lords’ select committee
concluded that ‘Eastenders’ offered a generally stereotypical and inaccurate
representation of people from different faith communities and suggested that
the BBC had a poor knowledge of religion and this was highlighted in it’s
programming. Dr Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad of the University of Lancaster
noted:
‘Soaps tend to use stereotypes… Christians are mad fundamentalists; the
Hindus are in arranged marriages.’
In a similar vein, the editor of the ‘Sikh Messenger’, Dr Indarijit Singh, accused
the BBC of an anti-religious bias:
‘Dot Cotton is an example. She quotes endlessly from the Bible and it
ridicules religion to some extent.’
However, like ‘Coronation Street’, ‘Eastenders’ does tackle a large number of
moral and ethical issues in its storylines – including murder, rape, euthanasia,
HIV and drug addiction. Usually, such issues are portrayed in such a way as
to help to raise public awareness of such problems. Indeed, sometimes a
phone helpline has been opened for viewers who have been affected in some
way by what they have seen. Many charities have praised ‘Eastenders’ for the
ways in which, through these storylines, it has helped people to gain a greater
awareness of the real-life problems raised by these issues.
It seems that large numbers of people do learn about moral and ethical
dilemmas from television rather more than any other medium. It is important,
therefore, to consider the target audience of a particular soap when evaluating
how it deals with religious and moral issues. ‘Eastenders’ and ‘Coronation
Street’ are very popular with children and young adults and soaps enable
them to understand a whole range of difficult issues. However, there are
criticisms of this – particularly that such controversial issues should not be
shown to young people. At a convention in 1987 concerned with the decline of
moral standards on television, Mary Whitehouse, the founder of the ‘Clean-up
TV’ campaign said:
‘It is at our peril and at the children’s peril too, that we allow Eastenders, with
its verbal aggression and its atmosphere of physical violence, its
homosexuals, its lies and deceits and its bad language to go unchallenged.’
For reflection
Was Mary Whitehouse right? Why / why not?
28
Writing Task
‘Soaps teach us nothing useful about religion in real life.’ Assess this view.
Religious Beliefs and Practices in ‘The Simpsons’
‘I’m gonna die! Jesus, Allah, Buddha, I love you all!’ – Homer in ‘Screaming
Yellow Honkers’.
The Simpsons is a long-running animated show set in the fictional American
town of Springfield. It is hugely popular and uses religion in many of its
storylines. Its characters include committed religious believers (Marge, Ned
Flanders and Apu), those who simply use religion to help them during hard
times (Homer, Bart and Krusty) and those who have no interest at all. Jeff
Shalda in ‘Religion in the Simpsons’ (2000) wrote:
‘The show is always kind to people of true faith, but people who build their
religion on words and not feelings are treated less kindly.’
David Landry, Roman Catholic Theologian commented:
‘The most consistent and intelligent treatment of religion on TV is on the
Simpsons’.
The creators of The Simpsons claim that they try to be fair in their treatment of
all religions and they themselves come from a number of different faiths. They
also consult faith communities in order to portray religious themes accurately.
This has prompted a number of favourable comments from faith leaders:

The Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Rowan Williams said: ‘The
Simpsons is one of the most subtle pieces of propaganda around in
the cause of sense, humility and virtue.’

Rabbi Harold Sculweis commented on one episode (‘Like Father,
Like Clown’): ‘I thought it had a Jewish resonance about it. It was
profound. I was impressed by the underlying moral seriousness.’

In L’Osservatore Romano, the Vatican newspaper, in December
2009 it praised ‘The Simpsons’ for its realistic way of dealing with
religion: ‘Homer finds in God his last refuge, even though he
sometimes gets His name sensationally wrong. But these are just
minor mistakes; after all, the two know each other well.’
But not everyone agrees and there are some religious groups who have
complained that ‘The Simpsons’ attacks or ridicules their beliefs. Pinsky, in
‘The Gospel according to the Simpsons’, remarked that some critics said the
show was ‘more like a Sunday School lesson than a sitcom.’ However, even
critics admit that the show is probably one of the most religious on television.
In ‘Simpson Ethics’, John Sohn observed:
‘While other programmes avoid the issue of religion, The Simpsons takes
religion’s place in society seriously enough to do it the honour of making fun of it.’
29
Seminar Topic
Is the praise for ‘The Simpsons’ justified?
The Simpsons – characters
Homer is the 36 year old head of the family. He has a confused view of
religion. He often misreads and misunderstands the Bible. For example, in
‘Springfield’ he tells Lisa that ‘they say it’s okay in the Bible’ and when Lisa
asks where, Homer replies ‘somewhere in the back’. Homer highlights this
confusion in other episodes:

He mistakes God for a waffle (‘Homer loves Flanders’).

He thinks that Hercules and the lion is a Bible story (‘Blood Feud’).

He is often seen having to choose God, in the form of an angel on
his shoulder, from evil, as a devil on his shoulder.

He is a sinner, but only out of weakness and he never ends up
choosing evil.

He is a little inconsistent. In ‘The Simpsons Movie’ he talks about
those in the church as: ‘these pious morons are too busy talking to
their phony-baloney God.’
Marge is Homer’s wife. She is a devoted Christian who uses God and religion
as her strength and it is her faith that keeps the family going. Sometimes, her
prayers are in the form of bargains with God, for instance, in ‘Homer Defined’
with the town facing nuclear disaster, Marge prays: ‘Dear Lord, if you spare
this town… I’ll try to be a better Christian… the next time there is a canned
food drive, I’ll give the poor something they’ll actually like.’
Bart is the ten year old rebel son. He has a religious aspect to him, though on
his own terms. He is often involved in moral dilemmas which end up with good
ultimately coming out on top. In ‘Bart sells his Soul’ he remarks: ‘Are you
there, God? It’s me, Bart Simpson’.
Lisa is the very clever 8 year old daughter. She sees religion in a very moral
way and fears that she will go to Hell if she steals (‘Lisa vs. Homer’) or cheats
(‘Lisa gets an A’). She tries her best to make the family more moral too and
eventually turns to Buddhism.
God appears several times as an elderly man in a white robe, watching and
interacting with characters, especially Homer. Jesus (whom Homer called
‘Jebus’), appears when Homer is sent to heaven. The Hindu deity Vishnu has
also been seen, sitting at the centre of the earth, controlling the world by
pulling levers.
30
Research Topic
Find out about the religious incidents that the individual characters in ‘The
Simpsons’ have been involved in. Was the religious aspect done fairly?
Worship in ‘The Simpsons’
Although places of worship, such as the local synagogue and Catholic Church
are mentioned, the main place of worship in ‘The Simpsons’ is the Springfield
Community Church, (First Church of Springfield) run by the Reverend
Lovejoy. He is a very devout Christian, but is both boring and judgemental.
According to Pinsky, Lovejoy is: ‘…hypocritical and occasionally venal, but he
is not evil or immoral, merely human… His sermons are boring and he knows
it. For the most part, the pastor provides and example of what a minister
should not be.’
Lovejoy uses the Bible a great deal in his sermons, but prefers the harshness
of the Old Testament teachings, rather than the more forgiving and
compassionate ones of the New Testament. He promotes fear of Hell and
eternal punishment which, he feels, gives him greater authority over the
congregation. However, he is not always successful and sometimes twists the
words of the scriptures to reinforce his own ideas. In the church, worship is
usually non-participatory – although the congregation do respond when
something unusual happens – for example, they sing in ‘Bart sells his soul’
and have a Toronto-style blessing experience in ‘The Simpsons Movie.’
Other Religious Traditions
Some episodes of the Simpsons have centred on other religious faith traditions:

Roman Catholicism in ‘The Father, the Son and the Holy Guest Star’,
some of the stereotypical aspects of Irish Catholicism and the nature of
guilt were explored.

Judaism: In ‘Like Father, like Clown’, there is considerable use of
Jewish prayers, practices and rituals and two characters, Krusty the
Clown and his father Rabbi Hyman Kristofski, are Orthodox Jews.

Buddhism: Lisa rejects her perceived view of Christianity as
hypocritical in favour of Buddhism. In ‘She of Little Faith’, famous film
star Buddhist Richard Gere is seen helping Lisa through Buddhist
concepts of meditation and the four noble truths.

Hinduism: Apu and his family are Hindus. He is devoted to the god
Ganesha and he keeps a shrine in his convenience store. A number of
Hindu concepts are explored, including arranged marriage,
vegetarianism and reincarnation.
31
‘The Simpsons is a mirror-reflection of the world and is one of the few
television shows that are not afraid to deal with real religious issues. In ‘God
and the Simpsons’, Gerry Bowler observed:
‘It is among the most religious programmes on television.’
Useful religious-focussed episodes include:
Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment’ – Christianity
Like Father, like Clown – Judaism
Homer the heretic – Christianity and faith
Bart sells his soul – life after death
Lisa the Skeptic – angels, judgement day
I’m goin’ to Praiseland – Christianity
She of Little Faith – Buddhism
Pray Anything – Christianity
Mypods and Boomsticks – Islam
The Greatest story ever d’ohed – Judaism, Islam, Christianity
The Father, the Son and the Holy Guest Star – Catholicism
Writing Task
To what extent are religious traditions stereotyped in ‘The Simpsons’?
‘The Simpsons’ tells us nothing useful about how religious believers practice
their faith’. Assess this view.
Religion-specific broadcasting
‘A religious programme is one which deals with matters of religion as the
central subject, or as a significant part, of the programme.’ – S.4:
Broadcasting Code.
Religion-specific broadcasting means programmes that are directly about
religion. Today, with the growth of satellite television, there are many
specialist religious channels. In addition, all the UK terrestrial channels must
offer a certain amount of religion-specific programmes. This is enforced under
the Broadcasting Code which is monitored by the Office of Communications
(Ofcom).
32
The code imposes specific requirements on terrestrial channels:

to treat religion with respect.

not to use abusive treatment towards the views of one religion over another.

not to allow religious views or beliefs to be promoted by stealth.

not to seek recruits to the faith.

to make the identity of the religion they are dealing with clear

to be aware of when children might be watching and, at those times,
not to make claims that a living person or group has special powers.
For reflection
Is the Broadcasting Code a good thing? Why / why not?
Billy Graham, the evangelist once said: ‘Television is the most powerful
communication ever devised by man.’
Today in the UK, many people watch religion-specific programmes. Often they
are elderly or infirm and may be restricted to their homes and unable to go to
places of worship and these channels provide a real link to religion for them.
Perhaps the most famous such programme is ‘Songs of Praise’, but other
programmes are made in documentary-style which try to promote a better
understanding of a range of faiths, in keeping with increasingly multi-faith
Britain. There are also very popular radio shows, including ‘Thought for the
Day’ (Radio 4) and ‘Pause for Thought’ (Radio 2).
Religion-specific programmes:

Songs of Praise – a religious service, normally Christian, interspersed
with scenic views and historical backgrounds.

The Big Questions – a debate, often involving celebrities, concerning
moral and religious questions and dilemmas.

Satellite channels – include specialized channels and programmes
aimed at specific groups, for example ‘The Sikh Channel’, ‘Islam
Channel’ and Christian evangelist channels such as the ‘God Channel,
‘Gospel Channel’ and ‘Loveworld TV’.

Documentaries – programmes such as ‘Everyman’, ‘Dispatches’ and
‘Witness’, which examine a range of religious issues from the
standpoint of a documentary – recent editions have included material
on the life of Christ, medical ethics and the Toronto Blessing.

Other channels, for example ‘The History Channel’ and ‘The Discovery
Channel’ often have documentaries involving religious and ethical
issues. There have also been a couple of religious reality programmes
such as ‘The Monastery’ and ‘Extreme Pilgrim’, where ordinary people
have lived with monks or in religious communities.
33
Seminar Work
Should satellite channels be regulated like terrestrial ones?
In recent years, religious-specific programmes on terrestrial channels, other
than ‘Songs of Praise’, have become less popular. In its 2005 report, Ofcom
highlighted three main types of religious television input that people seemed
to be asking for:

Worship-style programmes – showing religious services and
testimonies from believers.

Informative programmes – documentaries concerning issues of
religious belief, for example, world events, weddings, funerals and
religion in history.

Inclusion into mainstream programmes – in particular, for soaps to be
more willing to include real-life religious issues and to portray them in a
more accurate and relevant way.
Writing Task
‘Religion-specific broadcasting should be banned.’ Assess this view.
Religion-specific programmes in non-religion-specific broadcasts:
In recent years, programmers have been more willing to include religious
themes in everyday programmes such as ‘Teletubbies’ and ‘The Tweenies’.
Faith communities have been featured, with a small section of the main
programme being devoted to mini-documentaries on festivals and rituals.
There are also a range of documentaries which have addressed difficult
religious concerns as well as shows such as the ‘Vicar of Dibley’ and ‘Rev’,
which have examined everyday Christian religious dilemmas, whilst
‘Goodness Gracious me’ and ‘The Kumars at No. 42’ looked at religious
issues surrounding Asian faith communities.
For reflection
Is it right to include religious themes in children’s television programmes?
How much influence does television have on my life?
Writing Task
‘Programme makers in the UK do not know how to portray religion.’ Assess
this view.
34
Topic Three: Religion and Community
Aim
At the end of this topic you should be able to:









explain the meaning of ‘religion’
understand the concept of secularisation
explain the extent of religious influence in the UK
understand the reasons for decline in church attendance
understand the causes for the rise of fundamentalism
evaluate the characteristics of fundamentalism
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of fundamentalism
understand the reasons for the growth of New Religious Movements
explain and evaluate the main characteristics of New Religious
Movements.
SECULARISATION
Secular is the transformation of a society from close identification with
religious values and institutions, towards non-religious values and secular
institutions.
What is religion?
In order to understand the decline of religion, it is important to understand
what religion is. There are several alternative viewpoints:

‘Religion is a sense of dependence on a power outside ourselves,
a power of which we may speak as a spiritual or moral power.’ –
Radcliffe-Brown.

‘The feelings, acts and experiences of individuals in their solitude,
so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to
whatever they consider the divine.’ – William James

‘An all-embracing system of meaning’ – Berger & Luckman

‘A set of symbolic forms and acts which relate humanity to the
ultimate condition of existence.’ – Bellah

‘A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things… which unite into one single moral community called a
Church.’ – Durkheim
35
For reflection
Which of these definitions is the most convincing?
However, all definitions of religions encounter problems, such as:

Is belief in God or an all-powerful being, essential for something to
be a religion?

Is religion just personal experience?

Is religion simply an individual response to a set of events or beliefs?

Must a religion offer an explanation as to why we are here and why
life is as it is?

Is religion simply a set of rituals and practices?

Does a person have to be religious to be part of a religious
community?

Does being religious mean the same as ‘being good’?

Is religion just knowledge of the scriptures?

Is religion just about behaviour?
It is difficult to find a definition of religion which satisfies everyone and this is
why it is difficult to successfully measure the extent of secularisation. We
cannot, for instance, measure religious belief by attendance at services of
worship. Someone getting married in a church wedding is not necessarily
religious. Similarly, although fewer people go to church, this does not mean
that fewer people are believers. Moreover, in religious dictatorship countries,
lack of religious belief is not tolerated – so it is difficult to get a true picture.
For reflection
Do you have to believe in God to be religious?
What are the characteristics of secularisation?
There are many different aspects:

The reduction in the influence of religious institutions, doctrines and symbols.

Increasing concern with materialism.

Separation of religious values from national and political life.

The motivation for good behaviour is no longer grounded in religion.

Emphasis on humanity, nature and reason, rather than the sacred
and spiritual.

General acceptance of a change from a sacred society to a secular one.
36
Seminar Work
What makes a society a secular one?
The extent of secularisation
There are six main indicators to the development of secularisation:
1.
Decline in membership and attendance of religious institutions.
2.
Reduction of religious belief in society.
3.
Growth of rational and scientific thought.
4.
Growth of religious pluralism.
5.
Secularisation of religious institutions.
6.
Emergence of the mass media.
1. Decline in membership and attendance of religious institutions
In the UK, fewer people are attending Christian religious services. Also, there
are fewer baptisms, church weddings and clergy. In 2005, only about 6% of
the population attended church on a Sunday, compared to 20% fifty years
previously. However, are these statistics reliable?

Being baptized does not mean the person will grow up to become
an adult church-goer.

Figures for many years ago may not be reliable.

Different churches have different ways of assessing church
membership.

Just because fewer people go to church does not mean fewer
people believe in God.

In the past, people went to church out of duty or social pressure –
they were not all necessarily religious,

Not all religious believers want to go to church.
Research Topic
Is there any real evidence that membership of religious institutions is in
decline in the UK?
37
2. Reduction of religious influence in society
‘We don’t do God’ – Alistair Campbell, Senior Advisor to Prime Minister Tony Blair
Many believe that religion has much less influence on society. In the past,
religious institutions provided education, medical treatment and relief from
poverty and played a major role in politics and government. However, today,
things have changed, in that:

Links between political and religious groups have become less close.

Clergy have less status and their opinions are not always taken
seriously.

Traditional religious teaching about the sanctity of life, sex and
marriage are largely ignored.

Most people decide what is right and wrong according to the
conscience rather than to religious teaching.

There is easier divorce, widespread abortion and permitted
homosexual behaviour.
For reflection
Are religious teachings really being ignored in the UK?
However, the church still has influence:

The Queen is ‘Defender of the Faith’ and Head of the Church of
England.

Bishops play an active part in the House of Lords.

There are many religious schools and schools with religious
foundations.

Many religious groups, such as the Salvation Army, are active in social
care.
It would seem that, whilst the influence of religion may be declining in some
aspects of society, in others it still plays an important part and there has been
a renewed emphasis on spiritual concerns – religion still matters for many
people. For example, religion plays an important role in medicine, charity,
family care, funerals, counselling and chaplaincies in schools, prisons and the
armed forces.
For reflection
Should Bishops be allowed to sit in the House of Lords?
38
3. Growth of Rational & Scientific Thought
In centuries past, the Church was the main source of education – and the
Bible was seen as the absolute word of God. However, particularly in the 19 th
Century with the growth of science and rational thought, some religious truths
were seriously challenged:

There was a rational demand for truth and logic – religious teachings
were no longer accepted without question.

Science offered explanations about the origins of the universe that did
not rely on belief in an all-powerful God.

There was more emphasis on rational and scientific thought and less
on metaphysical ideas.

Human problems could be solved by science and rationalism, rather
than prayers and religious rituals.
However, rational thought and science have not convinced everyone:

Many still believe that there is more to life and death than just physical
and material existence.

People still believe that life has a spiritual as well as a physical
dimension and meaning.

Horoscopes and fringe beliefs are popular.

There are more New Religious Movements.

Many scientists and philosophers are also religious believers.
Seminar Work
To what extent have science and reason solved human problems?
4. Growth of Religious Pluralism
The UK is now home to people of many religious faiths – this is religious
pluralism. However, one effect of this is that there is no single overriding faith.
This can diminish the influence and authority of religion in a society because
there is no universally accepted set of beliefs. All religions cannot be
completely right and many may feel, consequently, that none are right.
However, religious beliefs continue to be strong, and in recent years, there
has been a growth in the UK of charismatic, evangelical and fundamentalist
religious groupings, particularly Christian and Muslim. This has prompted
some to suggest that religion in the UK is not in decline, but is changing and
transforming.
39
For reflection
Is ‘charismatic’ and ‘evangelical’ really the same thing?
5. Secularization of religious institutions
In recent years, many Christian churches have shifted their emphasis away
from spiritual concerns such as salvation and eternal life and instead are
looking at earthly matters, such as justice and social concerns. Critics argue
that the former religious teachings about, for instance, divorce, have been
modified to comply with secular views.
It also seems that some newly-formed churches and new religious
movements are being run on a much more secular basis, using business and
management techniques and measuring success, to some extent, in terms of
numbers of members or the amount of money collected each week. This has
made some people suspicious and disillusioned, whilst some traditional
believers see such issues as highlighting a decline in religious values and
standards.
However, others are less concerned. They argue that in the past, the Church
was heavily involved in politics and were responsible for a number of
important social changes, particularly in health and the tackling of poverty.
Maybe the reforming of ideas is just a sign of the Church moving with the
times.
Writing Task
‘Religious groups should move with the times and not stick with their
traditional values.’ Assess this view.
6. The emergence of the mass media
In centuries past, people relied on the Church for news and information.
Today, television, newspapers and computers give us access to a whole
range of information and opinions. We can also gain all this information from
the comfort of our homes, rather than going out to church. However, some
argue that the mass media provides us with information that often isn’t
completely true or which gives a false impression.
However, there is an interesting argument – in the past, churches were full,
but this does not mean that everyone was a believer. Many people went to
church as a family or social duty. Today, it could be said, people go to church
because they really want to. There may not be as many as before, but they
are believers. Perhaps, it could be argue that the number of true believers has
40
increased, not decreased. Certainly, despite the mass media, there has been
a growth in New Religious Movements and independent churches. There
may, in fact, be as many believers in the UK as ever.
For reflection
Is the mass media a real threat to church-going?
Writing Task
‘Secularism will lead to the end of organized religion in the UK.’ Assess this view.
41
FUNDAMENTALISM
Fundamentalism is the view that the ‘truths’ of a particular religion should be
applied fully and often literally, in all contemporary situations. It seeks to
promote and often impose this ‘truth’ on a pluralistic society. At its extreme,
fundamentalism in its militant form can lead to violence – for example, the
attack on the World Trade Centre in 2001 and the London July bombings of
2005. In his 2007 Christmas message, Dr. Barry Morgan, the Archbishop of
Wales said:
‘Any kind of fundamentalism – be it biblical, atheistic or Islamic – is dangerous
because it allows no room for disagreement, for doubt, for debate, for
discussion.’
Fundamentalism is a response by members of a religious faith, who fear that
their views are under attack – for instance:

Criticism of sacred writings.

Acceptance by society of scientific rather than religious explanations
of life.

Increasing influence of secular authority.
The term ‘fundamentalism’ arose in 1910 after the publication of a series of
pamphlets by theologians called ‘The Fundamentals: A Testimony of Truth’.
They declared the following as the essential ‘truths’ of Christianity which
everyone should accept:

The Bible has no errors.

God created the universe.

Jesus was born of a virgin.

The miracles of Jesus really happened.

The resurrection of Jesus really happened.

Jesus died to pay the price of sin (atonement).

Jesus will return in the Second Coming and judge humanity.
For reflection
Do you have to believe in all these ‘truths’ to be a Christian?
42
Causes of Fundamentalism
Criticism of Sacred Writings
Scholars have analysed the Bible in new ways and examined repetitions,
apparent inconsistencies and contradictions in the text, as well as different
writing styles in the same document. As a result, many questioned the
accuracy and authority of the sacred texts, which included challenging the
authorship and historical accuracy of the Gospels.
Many fundamentalist Christians believe that the Bible is the absolutely
accurate word of God and reject all such criticism. In other faiths, there are
similar responses to criticism of their texts – some fundamentalist Jews seek
to observe the Torah more vigorously, whilst in Islam, the text of the Qur’an is
not challenged.
For reflection
What are the advantages and disadvantages of basing religious belief on the
teachings of a sacred book?
Scientific explanations
A major threat for many Christian fundamentalists was the increasing
acceptance of the theory of evolution. This followed the publication of Charles
Darwin’s ‘The Origin of Species’ in 1859, which sparked a fierce debate on
the accuracy or otherwise of the biblical account of creation. Many
fundamentalists reject all scientific theories which they believe conflict with
biblical teachings.
For reflection
Is it right to reject scientific teaching which conflict with biblical ones?
Secular Authority
Many Christian fundamentalists are very concerned with the way that the
authority of religion in society has diminished and been replaced with rational
thinking and new political ideologies, including Marxism. They feel that society
tolerates too much irreligious behaviour and liberal attitudes. Many
fundamentalists adopt a stern line and obey religious truths to the letter, claiming
that they are God-given and therefore have the highest authority and obligation.
43
In other faiths there are similar concerns. Many fundamental Jews have
tended to want Israel to become a religious state. Similarly, many Muslim
fundamentalists have sought the establishment of shari’a law in Muslim
countries and see western modernity as undermining Islamic traditions.
For reflection
Is violence ever justified in defending or promoting a religious faith?
Characteristics of Fundamentalism
There are fundamentalists in most major religious traditions. In a survey
between 1988 and 1993, the ‘Fundamentalism Project’ at the University of
Chicago found nine characteristics that generally identified fundamentalism:

A reaction to the marginalization of religion – belief that modern society
is preoccupied with self and material possessions and rejecting
traditional religious values. Some fundamentalists respond by
withdrawing from society (e.g. the Amish), or form pressure groups to
campaign for a return to biblical values (e.g. ‘the Moral Majority’). Some
react with militancy and violence, such as the clashes between Hindus
and Muslims in India and Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka.

Selectivity – Some fundamentalists stress particular aspects of their
religion, sometimes at the expense of ignoring others. They interpret
certain moral texts literally – for example, the Westboro Baptist Church
in the USA frequently campaigns against homosexuality. In a similar
way, some fundamentalist Muslim groups have interpreted scriptural
references to ‘the sword’ as meaning that they should kill non-Muslim
enemies.

Moral Dualism – Fundamentalists often take a black-and-white view of
right and wrong. Many claim that the world is sinful and doomed and
that the only hope of being saved is to accept their viewpoint. In
particular, fundamentalists often regard other religions as inferior or just
plain wrong and even dangerous.

Absolutism – Fundamentalists view their beliefs with certainty. Their
beliefs are, they claim, completely right and unchangeable – theirs is
the only true faith. In this respect, their sacred texts are deemed to
come directly from God and scriptures should, for the most part, be
taken as the literal truth and are without error. For instance, in
Buddhism and Hinduism, the sacred teachings of Anagarika
Dharmapala and Shankayracharya of Puri are said to be inspired by
God and must be accepted without question.

Millennialism & Messianism – Many fundamentalists hold the
conviction that good will triumph over evil and that God will prevail. In
Christianity, Judaism and Islam, there are beliefs that a saviour figure,
44
such as the Messiah or the Hidden Imam, will come forward and bring
in a new age, where there will be no more wrong-doing or suffering. In
Hinduism and Sikhism, this is depicted as freedom from false or alien
influences and the concepts of the Kingdom of Ram and Khalistan.

Elect membership – Most fundamentalist groups believe they are
God’s chosen or special people (‘the elect’). They believe they are
chosen by God as witnesses to the truth or to carry out God’s will. At its
most extreme, the Islamic militants responsible for the destruction of
the World Trade Centre, belonged to the al-Qaeda movement and
believed they had been called by God to defend their true faith in this
way.

Sharp boundaries – For many fundamentalists there is a clear divide
between believers who are the saved, and non-believers who are the
unsaved. Such division may be physical, such as the Haredi Jews who
live close together and live and work in close proximity, or, in
Christianity, the Amish, who live and work in a closed community.
Alternatively, division is by actions – for example, attending special
schools where, for example, theories of evolution are not taught.

Authoritarian leadership – Some fundamentalist groups are led by a
charismatic leader who, with a few close and trust followers, make all
the important decisions, and whose orders must be obeyed without
question. Often, the leader (usually male), is set apart from the rest and
revered. This is shown, for instance, in kissing the hand of the Muslim
Jama’a emir, touching the prayer robe of the Jewish rebbe, or
repeatedly reading the writings of the leader, such as the ‘Mo Letters’
of Moses David Berg. In other cases, the leader may impose a strict
regime on the believers and require them to constantly listen to long
and frequent sermons, such as the followers of David Koresh, the
leader of the Branch Davidians.

Sometimes, fundamentalist groups have distinctive dress codes – the
Jewish Haredim wear black coats and hats and the Hindu Shakhas
wear shorts and staves. Others require strict behavioural conformity
and those who refuse, are called to account by the leader. For
instance, a number of Branch Davidians were called to account when
they questioned leader David Koresh’s alleged sexual activities with
under-age girls.
Seminar Work
Is fundamentalism dangerous?
For reflection
Why are dress codes necessary?
45
Strengths of Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is, in many respects, a protest against materialism and
selfishness and fundamentalists offer a wake-up call to people, asking them to
take the spiritual side of life more seriously. Fundamentalism highlights many
important considerations:

Strong convictions.

Unshakeable faith in the face of adversity.

Trust in what they believe to be true.

Sincerity.

Confidence in their convictions.

A strong sense of community.

A strict moral code.
There is evidence that religious fundamentalism is increasing in the UK, with
more centres of worship, and increased publication of literature and use of
television and internet to spread the message.
Weaknesses of Fundamentalism

Intolerance and arrogance.

Lack of warmth and compassion.

Often concentrates on minor issues of personal morality, rather
than global issues of injustice and poverty.

Male-orientated and role of women very limited.

Tendency to see issues in black-and-white, with no room for
discussion and compromise.

Claim that only they have access to the truth.

Often taking scriptural texts out of context.

At the most extreme, an ability to respond with violence.
The main issue is that fundamentalists from one faith cannot accept those
from another – leaving those outside with no clear idea as to who is right or
wrong. The majority of fundamentalists are peaceful and law-abiding and
fundamentalism will continue to be an important presence in the UK for many
years to come.
Written Task
‘The strengths of fundamentalism outweigh its weaknesses.’ Assess this view.
46
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS (NRMs)
New Religious Movements (NRMs) are recent groupings of religious
believers, who have come together for a number of reasons:
1.
They are disillusioned with established religion.
2.
They feel a sense of disadvantage or deprivation.
3.
They are concerned about social change.
4.
They are reacting against secular society.
5.
They are against the contemporary emphasis on self.
6.
They may be following a charismatic leader.
Some of these groups are very familiar, such as Scientologists and
Rastafarians, whilst others, like Baha’i and Meher Baba, are perhaps less well
known.
NRMs are often very different from each other; some are concerned with
promoting particular teachings, other oppose modern trends and stick to
traditional teachings, some incorporate a mix of religious ideas, whilst others
seek to find ways to gain a sense of the Divine. Yet NRMs are not a new
phenomenon – in centuries past, for instance, Methodism was an NRM.
For reflection
Why do traditional religious groups object to NRMs?
The causes of new religious movements:
1. Disillusionment with established religion – some believe that traditional,
long-established religious organisations have lost their dynamism and
energy and are too ready to compromise their beliefs to fit in with
secular society. This includes NRMs such as Scientology, Eckanker
and the Jewish Havurot Movement.
2. Sense of disadvantage – NRMs often grow up in poorer areas, where
they offer to the people an explanation as to why the people are poor
by declaring that the world is corrupt and depraved and they offer their
members a hope of salvation and of being among God’s elite people.
They offer them a new kind of value-system (a ‘theology of disprivilege’)
to help in their suffering. NRMs include Rastafarians and a number of
Black Muslim groups.
47
3. Social change – Some NRMs develop in areas where great social
change has disrupted peoples’ lives or in multi-cultural areas, as a
reaction against religious pluralism and the growth of media influence.
The Branch Davidians are a good example.
4. Reaction against secular society – some NRMs have grown up as a
reaction against a technical, scientific and impersonal society. In the
1960’s, a hippie counter-culture of soft drugs and ‘flower power’ led to
the growth of NRMs, such as the Hindu and Zen groups and the Divine
Light Mission, which attracted young people (mostly quite well-off) to a
more ascetic life-style.
5. Contemporary emphasis on self – some groups developed to enable
people to gain personal fulfilment and find their own moral values, by
allowing them to experiment with different faiths and traditions, in order
to find what is true for them.
6. Charismatic leadership – many NRMs have a charismatic leader who
has great energy and an exceptional ability for preaching and
persuasion. Groups like this include the Unification Church (Moonies)
led by Sun Myung Moon, ISKCON (Hare Krishna) led by Swami
Prabhupada and the Branch Davidians, led by David Koresh.
For reflection
Do NRMs just provide people with a false hope?
Types of NRMs
World Rejecting:
 The world and society are corrupt and need to be abandoned or
transformed.
 The world is so evil that the only way to be close to God is to live
separately from society in a religious community, which is isolated from
the world.
 Everyday life is then spent serving the movement and worshipping
God.
 Often, such movements have very strong charismatic leaders who are
often seen as God’s special messengers and who must be obeyed
without question.
 Believers must be utterly committed and follow a strict religious and
moral code.
 Such groups include: The Branch Davidians, Jesus Army and The
Family.
48
For reflection
What makes a leader ‘charismatic’?
World Affirming:
 The world and society are basically good.
 Society flourishes when people are enabled to reach their full potential.
 Emphasis on helping people to reach full potential by encouraging and
understanding happiness and relationships.
 Leaders are respected but not revered.
 Living in a community is not necessary.
 Followers lead ordinary lifestyles, but donate money to the
organisation.
 Such groups include: Scientology, Transcendental Meditation and the
Landmark Forum.
For reflection
What does it mean to reach your ‘full potential’?
World Accommodating:
 The world and society are neither good nor bad.
 Society needs to return to God.
 There needs to be a religious revival and spiritual renewal.
 Leadership is a privilege and is shared.
 Members lead ordinary lifestyles.
 Co-operation and links with other religious groups.
 Such groups include: Jehovah’s Witnesses and Mormons.
Seminar Work
Which of these groupings is the most convincing and why?
49
Characteristics of NRMs
There are a broad range of characteristics of NRMs, though not every one
applies to all such groups. The main characteristics are:
1. Protest – NRMs often campaign against the loss of dynamism in the
church or protest against society’s values.
2. NRM beliefs are often rejected by mainstream society.
3. NRMs often claim to have a monopoly on the ‘truth’ – they have the
best or most godly way of living – they are the ‘elect’ or the ‘saved’.
4. Secret knowledge – some NRMs claim to have secret knowledge given
by God to them alone. Only the innermost believers are told what this
secret knowledge actually is. It is never discussed or criticized openly.
5. Founded by a charismatic leader – who may claim a special
relationship with God.
6. No paid or professional priests.
7. Members recruited by conversion.
8. Emphasis on judgement and the Second Coming of Christ.
9. Worship is very intense and often lengthy. There are few religious
rituals.
10. Strict control over members – members are expected to be fully
committed and must conform to the rules.
11. Freedom of thought is often repressed for the sake of the community.
Seminar Work
In what ways do NRMs differ from traditional religious groups?
The future of NRMs
It seems likely that NRMs will continue to develop and grow, particularly
among the poor and deprived. They are, however, changing – in particular,
there are less world rejecting movements and those that remain, are less
hostile to the world outside. Meanwhile, world affirming movements face the
challenge of adapting with the times, or being replaced by new movements
that fit better into prevailing thinking.
Writing Task
‘NRMs are harmful to society.’ Assess this view.
50
Topic Four: Religion and the Individual
Aim
At the end of this topic you should be able to:








explain the nature of the psychology of religion
understand the debate about religion being healthy or neurotic
explain the notion of the unconscious mind as the source of religion
understand the role of dreams and religious narrative in the
unconscious mind
understand Jung’s concepts of collective unconscious and the
archetypes
evaluate Freud’s concepts of repression, projection and illusion as they
relate to religion
examine Jung’s views on myth, symbol and individuation
contrast the views of Freud and Jung concerning the role of religion in
psychological health.
FREUD
Psychology of Religion
Sigmund Freud (1858-1939) was a psychologist who sought the answer to the
question of why human beings are religious. He found that there were two
possibilities:
 ‘Reductive’ – religion is a function or product of the human mind. It
causes people to perform meaningless religious rituals, which have no
basis in reality. This is where psychological explanations derive from.
 ‘Non-reductive’ – religious belief is the result of revelation, religious
experience or enlightenment. It is real, not a product of the mind.
Freud favoured the reductive view. He believed that the human mind
contained ‘unconscious’ material which the person concerned was not aware
of. He said that this unconscious material helped to explain why human
beings are religious. For him, religion was an illusion that came from the
human mind. Freud’s research method became known as ‘psychoanalysis’.
51
Freud argued that religious belief was an illusion conjured up by the
unconscious mind and was a sign of weakness and a lack of mental maturity.
He argued that religious belief, and particularly belief in God, kept humans
from developing into full mental maturity and personal autonomy. In ‘New
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis’ he wrote:
‘Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in
with our instinctual desires.’
For reflection
Is religious belief a sign of weakness?
The ‘Unconscious Mind’
At the centre of Freud’s views is the concept of the ‘unconscious mind’, which
is something every human being has. The unconscious mind contains
repressed feelings, ideas and memories – the things that we don’t want to
remember or think about – for instance, traumatic events or inappropriate
sexual feelings. For Freud, the unconscious mind is filled with quiet, yet
powerful desires that are hidden, but always there. He explained this in a
series of ways:
 The Oedipus Complex & Primal Horde
Freud used the Greek myth of Oedipus to highlight the effect of the
unconscious mind, particularly on human males. He believed that one of the
repressed feelings in the unconscious mind was the male desire to kill his
father and have sexual relations with his mother.
According to the Greek myth:

when Oedipus was born, it was foretold that he would one day kill his
father and marry his mother.

to prevent this from happening, young Oedipus was sent away to be
killed. However, the shepherd who was supposed to murder him failed to
do so.

as a young man, Oedipus got into a fight and killed a stranger.

unknown to him, it was his father.

arriving at Thebes, Oedipus solved the riddle of the Sphinx and, as a
reward, was made king.

he was given a woman to marry – unknown to him (and her), she was
his mother.

together, they had a family of four children.

when they discovered the truth, Oedipus went mad and his mother killed
herself.
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Seminar Work
Does the Oedipus Complex sound convincing? Why / why not?
In his book ‘Totem & Taboo’, Freud illustrated the ‘reality’ of the Oedipus
Complex by claiming that primitive humans lived in groups (‘hordes’),
dominated by a powerful male, who had sexual relations with all the women in
the group and chased away all the other males. Eventually, the other men of
the horde, driven by anger and jealousy, would kill the dominant ‘father-figure’
male and get to the women themselves. Then, filled with guilt, they would put
up a symbol (‘totem’) in place of the father. Usually, the totem was an animal.
They would then make two rules:

No one may kill the totem.

No one must commit incest.
Freud said that this was the beginning of religion and explains why the secret
desires must be controlled. Freud noted that religion would have a symbolic
figure who induces fear and guilt, but who also was sacred and had to be
protected – in other words, God – who is ‘Father’ in many faiths. Freud
believed that God was simply the projected contents of the unconscious mind
– the sum total of repressed fear, guilt and human desire. This, for him, is the
basis of religion. He wrote:
‘At bottom, God is nothing more than an exalted father.’
Seminar Work
What other explanations might there be for emotional disorders that do not
involve the concept of the Unconscious Mind?
 Projection
‘Projection’ is the notion that our unconscious minds project what we expect to
see, on to the reality before us. For example, we admire certain types of
people because we see them as beautiful and fear others because they may
be ugly. Similarly, in films, the ‘baddies’ are often dressed in black and are
unattractive to look at (Darth Vader in ‘Star Wars’) because that is the
projection of what we expect them to be. Projecting is something we do every
day in a whole range of circumstances and activities. Our projection may be
based on fear, desire, or may simply be an unconscious feeling, but it affects
the way we see the world.
Projection explains many human emotional and psychological disturbances
and Freud believed that, once identified, they could be cured by talking about
them. This is 'psychoanalysis’ – what he called the ‘talking cure’.
Moreover, Freud believed that, to an extent, the human mind did this itself
through dreams – which are people and events projected by the unconscious
mind. He believed that dreams gave real clues to the contents of a person’s
unconscious mind and talking about them can help to understand what is
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behind them. In particular, for Freud, God and religion are the projection by
the human unconscious mind, of the repressed Oedipus Complex. In ‘New
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis’ he observed that religion gives to
people:
‘…information about the source and origin of the universe, it assures them of
protection and final happiness amid changing vicissitudes of life, and it guides
their thoughts and motions through a means of precepts which are backed by
the whole force of its authority.’
For reflection
Is ‘projection’ a convincing theory?
 Religion as Neurosis
‘Neurosis’ is a mental disorder brought on by hysteria, anxiety, depression or
obsessive behaviour. In ‘Oppressive Acts and Religious Practices’, Freud
called religion a ‘universal obsessional neurosis.’ He went on to develop his
theory in ‘Totem & Taboo’, where he highlighted the close resemblance
between religious activities and the actions of a neurotic person. In particular,
talking about Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), he was able to link
religious rituals, such as ritual washing, with obsessive hand washing. He
highlighted how religious activities, like neurotic ones, comprise repeated
actions which seem to have no significant meaning.
Michael Palmer in ‘Freud & Jung on Religion’ (1997) illustrated the point by
comparing repeated religious rituals, for example, in the Eucharist Service,
with obsessive repeating of tasks such as locking windows and switching
lights on and off in a neurotic way. He remarked:
‘Any deviation from these apparently trivial formalities will result in intolerable
anxiety dominated by a sense of guilt… these ceremonies have indeed
become ‘sacred acts’.
For reflection
Does this sound right?
Freud believed that there was a clear link between obsessive neurotic
behaviour and religious rituals. In both cases, the person may perform
repeated ritualistic actions that seem, to the outsider, to have no purpose or
logical basis in fact. If there is no God, then there is no purpose to the
ritualistic actions. Moreover, just as anxiety and feelings of guilt spur on the
neurotic, so fear and guilt of sin before God spur on the religious believer. For
Freud there is little difference between the two. In ‘the Future of an Illusion’ he
wrote:
‘Devout believers are safeguarded in a high degree against the risk of certain
neurotic illnesses; their acceptance of the universal neurosis spares them
from the task of constructing a personal one.’
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Freud argued that psychological health (‘maturity’) will only happen when
people stop behaving like this and face reality – to live according to logic,
reason and science, and to leave neurotic religious beliefs behind. He wrote:
‘In the long run, nothing can withstand reason and experience, and the
contradiction religion offers to both is palpable.’
Seminar Work
List some of the similarities and differences between neurotic behaviour and
the performing of religious rituals. Is Freud right or wrong about them?
 Oceanic Feeling and Wish-fulfilment
Freud was impressed by the work of Romain Rolland, who told him about a
type of religious experience, found in many faiths, in which a believer
experiences becoming one with God or the universe. Rolland called this the
‘Oceanic feeling.’
Freud saw this as evidence that religion was a kind of ‘wish-fulfilment’. He
argued that:

Humans cannot face life on their own as independent beings – the
universe is too big, isolating and lonely.

They feel that they need comforting and protecting.

The desire to be at one with God or the universe is simply the desire
which every human has, to be back, safe and warm in their mother’s
womb.

This is an act of regression, not maturity.

To have full psychological health (‘maturity’), the individual needs to
face up to, and come to terms with, the contents of their unconscious
mind.
In ‘The Future of an Illusion’ he wrote:
‘It would be very nice if there were a God who created the world and was a
benevolent providence, and if there were a moral order in the universe and an
after-life; but it is a very striking fact that all this is exactly as we are bound to
wish it to be.’
For reflection
Is religion nothing more than ‘wish-fulfilment’?
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Criticisms of Freud

Research shows that religious believers are less neurotic than others.

Religious believers are less likely to suffer from mental illness and
depression.

Religious rituals are not obsessive and are, for believers, an aid to
spiritual growth.

Religions are strongly critical of those who perform rituals unthinkingly.

There is no scientific evidence for the ‘Primal Horde Theory’.

The Oedipus Theory only fits religions which are male-dominated.
What about the many female-orientated ones?

Freud has a very male-orientated view of society and religion.

He somewhat dismisses women as suffering from ‘penis envy’.

The Oedipus Complex suggests that men would fear castration for their
sins – this was ‘fear of God’. Freud thought that young boys would see
women as castrated men. There is very little evidence to support this.

Religion may, on occasion, act as a comfort-blanket and prayers may
sometimes be wish-fulfilment. But true faith also requires believers to
face dangers and challenges. Religion, far from wish-fulfilment, looks at
facing the harsh realities of life.

To say that religion is an illusion, is not necessarily a bad thing. Illusion
can also mean imagination and creativity and helps people to expand
their minds and their horizons.

There is no evidence that society becomes more healthy when religion
is abandoned (e.g. China, Soviet Union, North Korea).

Freud’s argument is circular – he supports the atheistic view, then goes
on to prove it.

He tries to dismiss religion simply as mistaken behaviour in
psychological terms, but does not consider the nature of religion on its
own terms.
Writing task
‘Freud’s theories are flawed and unconvincing.’ Assess this view.
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JUNG
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a psychologist who, like Freud, believed that
religion came from the ‘unconscious’ aspect of the human mind. He also
followed the reductivist viewpoint, but, unlike Freud, he saw religion, not as an
illusion, but as a reality at the psychic or unconscious level of the mind and
which was vitally important for psychological maturity, which he called
‘individuation’.
Jung opposed what he saw as Freud’s negative view of religion, which he
believed, reduced all human behaviour to sexuality. For Jung, Freud was
dogmatic and irrational.
Jung believed in the notion of the ‘unconscious mind’, but unlike Freud, saw
religion as a projection from the unconscious mind. Religion was not an
illusion, but a reality of the unconscious mind.
The ‘Collective Unconscious’
Jung believed that a huge stock of material is shared by all humanity – this
vast area of the human psyche he called the ‘collective unconscious’. He said
it contained images which all humans could recognise within themselves – he
called these images ‘archetypes’.
‘A… layer of the unconscious is undoubtedly person. I call it ‘personal
unconscious’. But this personal layer rests upon a deeper layer, which does
not derive from personal experience and is not a personal acquisition but is
inborn. This deeper layer I call the ‘collective unconscious’… this part of the
unconscious is not individual but universal… it has contents and modes of
behaviour that are more or less the same everywhere and in all individuals.’ –
Jung in ‘The Archetypes & the Collective Unconscious’.
Archetypes are aspects of the human self, and influence how people relate to
each other and the world around them. Ideally, the archetypes should be
balanced in each person, but if one is dominant, then the person could suffer
neurosis. The way to maturity or individuation, was for a person to become
aware of these archetypes within themselves – thus integrating their
conscious and unconscious minds.
‘The dream is the small hidden door in the deepest and most intimate
sanctum.’ – ‘The Meaning of Psychology for Modern Man’.
For reflection
Is this convincing? Why / why not?
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This is not easy because the archetypes are:

mysterious and not directly accessible to conscious thought

a person only becomes aware of them when they are projected
outwards, usually in the form of myths and symbols

religious stories, symbolism and rituals, as well as dreams and day
dreams, are the way to identify the archetypes

they can also be projected in the way people relate towards each other
as each person projects their unconscious archetypal material on to
others, often without realising it.
The Archetypes
For Jung, there were many possible archetypes. The most well-known are:

Persona – the ‘self’ that we present to the world and which relates to
our role in life – ‘teacher’, ‘doctor’ and so on.

Shadow – the aspects of us that we cannot face and don’t want to be
revealed – the dark side of our personality. Often represented in stories
with images as the Devil or evil forces. Often revealed when we project
our own shadow on to another person whom we then intensely dislike,
because they represent the characteristics we don’t like about
ourselves. However, once our conscious mind is aware of our shadow,
it loses its secret power over us and is brought back into balance. He
noted: ‘The unconscious is not just evil by nature, it is also the source
of the highest good.’ – ‘The Practice of Psychotherapy’.

Anima & Animus – the female and male archetypes. Though men and
women share both aspects, men have to make their anima conscious
and women their animus. The anima, or feminine side, is represented
in stories by characters such as Eve in Judaism, the Virgin Mary in
Christianity and Shakti in Hinduism. The anima is often shown as a
cave or a ship. The animus is represented by an eagle or a bull and by
phallic symbols such as towers. Both anima and animus need to be in
balance and this means that the less dominant one has to be
discovered in each person. This is often done as men and women form
intimate partnerships, which enable each other to reveal the
unconscious aspects.

Wise Old Man – An archetype found in many myths and cultures – for
example, Merlin, Gandalf and Dumbledore. Represents knowledge and
guidance. They are powerful figures that often hold the psyche together
in balance.
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
The Self – The Self is the organising principle of the psyche. It was
described by Antony Stevens in ‘Jung; a very short introduction’ as
having: ‘its goal is wholeness, the complete realization of the blueprint
for human existence within the context of the life of the individual.’

The Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism has identified many
myths and rituals across cultures that support the view that the human
mind projects from a collective blueprint.
For reflection
What other archetypes might there be?
Seminar Work
Make a list of male and female symbols in religious narratives and myths.
What do they mean and how effective are they?
The Mandala
A mandala is a picture of a square with four gates, surrounded by a circle. It is
used as an aid to meditation and Jung called it ‘a representation of the
unconscious self’ and a way of helping a person to achieve wholeness of
personality.
For Jung, religion is one of the best ways to bring about individuation,
because it enables the archetypes to be revealed – and therefore religion is
vital to psychological health. Potent images are very important – for instance:

Jung said that the wholeness of a person was best shown in the image
of a ‘mandala’ which he said was the archetypal symbol of the self.

Mandalas are found in nearly every culture and religious tradition and
show an organising principle surrounding a central point.

Using mandalas in a ritual or meditative way can enable someone to
reach the centre of their being and achieve wholeness.

Jung saw the figure of Jesus Christ as the archetypal Self – he is
depicted as the hero who overcomes great trials.

He is the perfect or ideal ‘self’.

Jung did not mean that Jesus Christ necessarily existed in history.
Christ was not a figure ‘out there’ but a psychic reality inside the
deepest level of the human psyche.
For reflection
How would a Christian respond to Jung’s view of Christ?
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God: Archetype of the Collective Unconscious
For Jung, God, like Christ, was not ‘out there’ but an inner psychic truth. God
is real in the sense that he is an internal and shared psychic reality.
The God archetype lies at the deepest psychic level of all and is the most
potent of the symbols and imagery of the divine in all religions. The God
archetype cannot be known directly, but only through symbols projected from
the unconscious. God is unknowable, yet a universal aspect of the Collective
Unconscious and every human has it.
Jung noted that a number of religions and cultures symbolise God as a threefold deity – what Christians refer to as the Trinity. However, Jung said that the
fourth element, the Shadow, must also be included, to make the human
psyche whole.
Moreover, for Jung, symbols only work if they are dynamic. He believed that
many symbols in organised religion had just become objects and had
therefore lost their power and meaning. He called such symbols ‘mere signs’
because they had lost their power to actualise the God archetype. For Jung,
organised religion was a failure.
Seminar Work
How would believers of Judaism, Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism respond to
Jung’s view of God?
Criticisms of Jung

His theories cannot be verified or falsified.

Jung is very obscure and his theories and explanations lack clarity.

Jung is unscientific in his methods.

There may be other reasons why humans appear to have collective
ideas – for instance cross-cultural influences and people sharing ideas
together.

Jung said that the goal of life was individuation and integrating together
the contents of the conscious and unconscious mind and balancing the
archetypes. This is a psychotherapeutic aim. However, that is not the
same aim as religion, which is to do with salvation.

Jung’s view of God is confused – claiming on the one hand that God is
‘real’, but then qualifying this by saying that God is simply an internal
and shared psychic reality. This is a purely subjective claim. To say
that God is real but at the same time not ‘out there’ is not meaningful.
Writing Task
‘Jung’s view of religious belief is more convincing than Freud’s.’ Assess this view.
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