Franchisees’ Websites and Concept Uniformity: A New Challenge for Franchisors Rozenn PERRIGOT1 Guy BASSET2 Danièle BRIAND-MELEDO3 Gérard CLIQUET4 1 Graduate School of Management - University of Rennes 1, & ESC Rennes, Center for Research in Economics and Management (CREM UMR CNRS 6211) & Institute for Business Law, Estate and Torts (CDA-PR UPRES EA 3195). Address: 11 rue Jean Macé, CS 70803, 35708 Rennes Cedex 7, France; rozenn.perrigot@univrennes1.fr. 2 Graduate School of Management - University of Rennes 1, Center for Research in Economics and Management (CREM UMR CNRS 6211). Address: 11 rue Jean Macé, CS 70803, 35708 Rennes Cedex 7, France; guy.basset@univ-rennes1.fr. 3 Faculty of Law and Political Science - University of Rennes 1, Institute for Business Law, Estate and Torts (CDA-PR UPRES EA 3195). Address: 9 rue Jean Macé, CS 54203, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France; & Lawyer, daniele.meledo@univ-rennes1.fr & brianddaniele@gmail.com. 4 Graduate School of Management - University of Rennes 1, Center for Research in Economics and Management (CREM UMR CNRS 6211). Address: 11 rue Jean Macé, CS 70803, 35708 Rennes Cedex 7, France; gerard.cliquet@univ-rennes1.fr. This research was supported by France’s National Research Agency (reference: ANR-08-BLAN-0020-01) and Human Sciences Institute in Brittany (reference: MSHB-RECOMAD). The authors sincerely thank the ANR and the MSHB for their support, and Kelly PRIOUX for her valuable assistance for the case study. Franchisees’ Websites and Concept Uniformity: A New Challenge for Franchisors Abstract Online sales and franchising are continuing their parallel development whatever the country: developed markets and transitional ones, and whatever the industry: retailing and services. The development of online selling in the specific context of franchising is not without raising some issues. Adopting a managerial approach with some legal insights, this paper aims to explore the impact of the set up of franchisees’ websites on network uniformity that is a key element of franchising. A case study illustrates the different aspects of franchisees’ websites that can damage the concept uniformity. It deals with Intercaves, a French franchise network in the wine and alcohol sector. Maintaining network uniformity when there are various websites set up and run by franchisees entails challenges that are presented in this paper within a managerial perspective linked to technical and organizational know-how. The legal perspective in link with Intellectual and Industrial Property Law, Competition Law and International Law is also discussed. Keywords Franchising, Internet, Franchisees’ websites, Uniformity, Business and Law approach 1 INTRODUCTION The uncertain legal framework in Europe regarding online selling within retail networks was raised for the first time by the set of guidelines specific to vertical restraints (2000/C291/01), adopted in application of the European Commission ruling no. 2790/1999 issued on December 22nd, 1999 concerning certain categories of vertical agreements. The principle stated in these guidelines was explicit and gave every distributor the right to use Internet to advertise or sell its products, though a number of limited exceptions had been outlined (see Paragraph 51). The enactment of a rule (no. 330/2010) pronounced by the European Commission on April 20th, 2010 along with new guidelines on vertical restraints (2010/C130/01) opened a new era. This regulation that took effect on June 1st, 2010 will remain applicable through 2022. Let’s recall herein that these guidelines, as opposed to the regulation itself, actually stipulate the set of rules to be respected when engaging in online transactions. Despite carrying no legal enforcement, these guidelines help interpret the law and are still invoked by judges and competition regulators to better assess the kinds of situations encountered (Cesarini et al., 2010; Gast, 2011; Vilmart, 2011). In their most recent version, these guidelines recognize on the one hand that the Internet is a very powerful tool to sell products which should stay free to be used, and on the other hand, that a supplier may control the quality of websites used by its distributors (see Paragraphs 52 and 54). In this paper, we focus on a specific case of vertical restraints that is franchising, i.e., “a contractual agreement between two legally independent firms in which one firm, the franchisee, pays the other firm, the franchisor, for the right to sell the franchisor’s 2 product and/or the right to use its trademarks and business format in a given location for a specified period of time” (Blair and Lafontaine, 2005, p. 3). A more detailed definition of franchising is also given by the European Franchise Federation, “franchising is a system of marketing goods and/or services and/or technology, which is based upon a close and ongoing collaboration between legally and financially separate and independent undertakings, the Franchisor and its individual Franchisees, whereby the Franchisor grants its individual Franchisee the right, and imposes the obligation, to conduct a business in accordance with the Franchisor’s concept. The right entitles and compels the individual Franchisee, in exchange for a direct or indirect financial consideration, to use the Franchisor’s trade name, and/or trade mark and /or service mark, know-how, business and technical methods, procedural system, and other industrial and /or intellectual property rights, supported by continuing provision of commercial and technical assistance, within the framework and for the term of a written franchise agreement, concluded between parties for this purpose.” Franchise networks, whatever the industry: retailing and services, are present in many countries, developed ones such as Australia (1,000 franchise networks), Canada (1,200 franchise networks), the United Kingdom (842 franchise networks), the United States (2,200 franchise networks), etc., and transitional ones such as Brazil (1,643 franchise networks), China (4,000 franchise networks), India (1,800 franchise networks), Russia (420 franchise networks), etc. In brief, there are more than 21,000 franchisors and 2.5 million franchised stores worldwide (European Franchise Federation, 2011). In Europe, there are more than 10,000 franchisors and 400,000 franchised stores (European Franchise Federation 2010). 3 Several scholars have focused on E-commerce strategy in franchising, and more specifically on E-commerce strategy of franchisors (e.g. Cedrola and Memmo, 2009; Dixon and Quinn, 2004; Rao and Frazer, 2006; Watson et al., 2002). Some other researchers have explored this particular topic through a legal approach, often focusing on exclusive territories and encroachment (Emerson, 2010; Fontenot et al., 2006). But, none of them have explored the case of a website (transactional or not) set up and run by the franchisees. This paper therefore aims to explore the impact of the use of Internet by franchisees on the network uniformity that is a key element of franchising. We mainly adopt a managerial and strategic-based approach even if some legal aspects are mentioned throughout the text. We shed light on the resulting challenges for franchisors to maintain network uniformity when having various websites (transactional or not) run by their franchisees. This study seems to be the only one of this kind, and we must underline its exploratory nature. This paper is organized as follows. We first discuss the importance of network uniformity in a general context before focusing on the particular context of franchiseedriven online sales and the associated challenges for the franchisors to maintain a uniform network, with the Intercaves case study. The fourth section offers an analysis of the issue from two perspectives, a managerial one and a legal one. The last section is the conclusion. FRANCHISING AND UNIFORMITY In this section, we highlight the importance of uniformity in franchise networks before focusing on the dilemma: standardization versus adaptation. 4 UNIFORMITY IN FRANCHISE NETWORKS Concept uniformity can be defined as the exact replication of a concept in any store of a network. It is an important notion in franchising for at least three reasons: 1) it brings economies of scales concerning purchasing, marketing and implementation (Cox and Mason, 2007); 2) it strengthens the quality control and cost of monitoring (Bradach, 1998; Kaufmann, 1989), and hence the brand image throughout the network both vis-àvis customers (Falbe and Dandrige, 1992; Kaufmann and Eroglu, 1998; Michael, 2002) and franchisees (Kaufmann and Dant, 1999); 3) it ensures the link with franchisees and between franchisees and entails exclusivity arrangements (McAfee and Schwartz, 1994). As we suggest it in the former paragraph, concept uniformity and brand image are key elements for franchisors and are a priori closely related. When building a new brand, a franchisor strives to maintain a uniform image throughout the network, i.e., in every store wherever it is located, because uniformity across stores has to be respected to preserve brand equity (Caves and Murphy, 1976). Some franchisors choose contract tying in order to increase standardization and reduce monitoring costs, and then strengthen their business strategy especially when specific equipment is required (Michael, 2000). Others prefer strengthening their organization through more centralized procedures (Smith and Nichol, 1981). The difficulty of this challenge stands in the fact that franchising requires “a variety of local activities to execute” (Bradach, 1998, p. 23). For instance, managing service quality needs to adapt the service to local demand. Then, problems emerge because maintaining the uniformity of the concept is a real challenge as Bradach (1997) defined it among three other challenges a network 5 should meet. These four challenges are: 1) growth by the addition of new stores; 2) maintenance of the concept uniformity; 3) local responsiveness; 4) system-wide adaptation. In this paper, we deal with the second challenge (maintenance of the concept uniformity) even if it is important to mention that these challenges are all interrelated, and dealing with one of them can have some consequences on the other ones. ADAPTATION VERSUS STANDARDIZATION Talking about the maintenance of the concept uniformity consists in raising once again the famous dilemma: adaptation versus standardization which is sometimes at the international level transformed into: localization versus globalization. The latter has entailed many debates since the beginning of the 1980s opposing Levitt’s globalization (1983) to those who denounce the myth of globalization (Douglas and Wind, 1987) and prone finally a more localized approach (Rigby and Vishwanath, 2006). Douglas and Wind (1987) examined each marketing-mix variables in order to revisit the globalization concept and concluded that there were always several variables which cannot be defined globally. In domestic markets, the problem can be the same. In franchise networks, the store ownership (franchisor or franchisee) prevents from strictly imposing a real standardization in an authoritarian way. Pricing for instance may not be standardized either for legal reasons to avoid breaking antitrust laws in many countries, or for local strategic considerations (Lafontaine, 1999). Breaking with this often counterproductive argument, Kaufmann and Eroglu (1998) proposed a decomposition of the problem showing then that the key question is not whether franchisors should standardize their concept or not but to which extent they 6 have to standardize or to adapt to local conditions. Adaptation degree and performance of replication routines is a concern for most franchise networks and most companies in general (Jensen, 2007). Kaufmann and Eroglu (1998) defined the concept of a franchise network as a “collection of unique elements (product/service deliverables, benefit communicators and system identifiers) that build and maintain a distinct image among consumers”. The uniqueness of the concept leads franchisors to maintain its uniformity, and hence protect its image to build the brand which is a very important asset and the raison d’être of the network. These authors made a distinction between core elements of the concept (product/service deliverables, benefit communicators and system identifiers) which should stay invariant throughout the network, and peripheral elements which may be adapted to local specificities. Adaptation can also be seen as a “glocal” strategy according to a term defined by Robertson (1992). Some recent experiences show that the front office, i.e., everything in front of the customer, can be totally localized whereas the back office dealing with logistics and production is more or less integrated and standardized as it is implemented in the U.S. franchise network Great Harvest Bread Co. for instance (Streed, 2007; Streed and Cliquet, 2008). Therefore whatever the market, at the domestic or international level, the issue of uniformity remains of primary importance in franchising. Besides, this issue takes a total new turn when dealing with franchisees than can set up and run their own website (transactional or not). 7 FRANCHISING, FRANCHISEE-DRIVEN ONLINE SALES AND UNIFORMITY In this section, we discuss franchisee-driven online sales before focusing on the associated challenges for franchisors to maintain network uniformity. The case study on Intercaves illustrates our developments. FRANCHISEE-DRIVEN ONLINE SALES The principle of allowing the franchisee to sell its products and/or services via Internet has been approved on several occasions, yet a number of exceptions still hinder its effective implementation. Principle of franchisee-driven online sales As far as the principle of franchisee-driven online sales is concerned, in its 2000 guidelines regarding vertical restraints, in summary, the European Commission was mentioning that: “every distributor [i.e., every franchisee in our case] must be free to use the Internet to advertise or to sell products [...]. In any case, the supplier [i.e., the franchisor in our case] cannot reserve to itself sales and/or advertising over the Internet” (Paragraph 51). The 2010 guidelines, regarding vertical restraints, are indicating now that: “[the] Internet is a powerful tool to reach a greater number and variety of customers than by more traditional sales methods” [...] “[In] principle, every distributor [i.e., every franchisee in 8 our case] must be allowed to use the Internet to sell products” (Paragraph 52). Concretely, it means that franchisees are allowed to set up and run their own transactional websites whatever the existence or not of a website operated by their franchisor. Nevertheless, some limitations to these practices exist. Limitations to franchisee-driven online sales These limitations are linked to exceptional circumstances, requirements of a physical store and the actual type of sales being transacted. Exceptional circumstances As far as exceptional circumstances are concerned, the 2000 guidelines on vertical restraints were indicating that: “an outright ban on Internet (or catalogue) selling is only possible if there is an objective justification” (Paragraph 51). The 2010 guidelines take into account the new regulation specifying that such an interdiction on Internet sales is limited to exceptional cases, such as involvement in: “selling dangerous substances to certain customers for reasons of safety or health” (Paragraph 60). This new formulation tends to support the position adopted by the Competition Authority in its decision upholding that: 9 “Internet selling may be banned in principle, except under exceptional circumstances that could, for example, be tied to safety considerations” (Paragraph 94). Requirements associated with a physical store Regarding requirements associated with a physical store, on three occasions, within the retail sectors of watches (Decision 06-D-24 of 24 July 2006), stereos and home cinema (Decision 06-D-28 of 5 October 2006) and cosmetics and body care products (Decision 07-D-07 of 8 March 2007), the Competition Authority validated the fact that the manufacturer or supplier, as head of a retail network built from vertical agreements, grants the right to sell online only to network members operating a physical store. As a result, the companies engaged in marketing the network’s products exclusively via the web, also called “pure players”, wind up being separated from the network. This type of requirement should make it possible to block certain practices induced by a phenomenon of parasitism, especially in the case of selective distribution. The 2010 guidelines on vertical agreements support the priorities set forth by the Competition Authority in stating that the supplier (i.e., the franchisor in our case) can: “demand that its distributors [i.e., its franchisees in our case] have one or more brick and mortar shops or showrooms as a condition for becoming a member of its distribution system” (Paragraph 54). Consequently, these “pure players” may be excluded from the network by the operator (i.e., the franchisor in our case) without any objective justification required to carry out this exclusion. 10 Type of sales transacted (active versus passive sales) As far as the type of sales transacted (active versus passive sales) is concerned, beyond the divergences already observed between the 2000 and 2010 guidelines on vertical agreements (see Appendix 1), it can be briefly stated that active sales in the case of franchisee-driven online strategy are those that stem from a designated franchisee, result from a customer prospection effort deployed within a given geographic area outside of the exclusive territory assigned to the specific franchisee, and rely on means such as mass mailing, sending of unsolicited e-mails, cold calls, ad campaigns in the media, including Internet, as well as targeted promotional efforts. It must be pointed out that the 2010 guidelines, in the Paragraph 53, consider as an additional form of active sale: “territory-based banners on third party websites” as well as the step of paying a search engine or online advertisement provider to have advertisements displayed specifically to users in a particular territory”. Regarding passive sales, they correspond to the fact of having to meet specific demands unsolicited, stemming from individual customers, or triggered by advertisements or general promotional campaigns capable of reaching customers located in the exclusive territories held by other franchisees, yet which still constitute a reasonable means for reaching customers in the given franchisee’s home territory. Both the 2000 guidelines (Paragraph 50) and the 2010 guidelines (Paragraph 51) authorize online passive sales. Within the framework of the vertical agreements signed, it has been found that: 11 “[the] protection of exclusively-allocated territories or customer groups must however permit passive sales to such territories or customer groups”. The 2010 guidelines indicate that: “[In] general, where a distributor uses a website to sell products that is considered a form of passive selling, since it is a reasonable way to allow customers to reach the distributor. The use of a website may have effects that extend beyond the distributor’s own territory and customer group; however, such effects result from the technology allowing easy access from everywhere”. Passive sales by franchisees are unquestionably accepted on the Internet without the franchisor being able to limit the percentage of sales to be conducted online. The franchisor nonetheless holds the possibility of requiring each franchisee to sell a minimum quantity of products (in either volume or value terms) offline in order to ensure sustainability of the physical store. Other cases to be considered In addition to the limitations presented above, other cases have to be considered. For instance, the franchisee cannot be forced to renounce efforts to sell online just because a potential customer’s credit card details reveal an address that lies outside the franchisee’s exclusive territory (2010 guidelines, Paragraph 52). Moreover, if the transactional website is designed for consultation in several languages, then the passive 12 nature of the sale will remain intact. The franchisor cannot prevent potential customers located outside a franchisee’s exclusive territory from consulting the franchisee’s website, nor does the franchisor have the means to automatically redirect these potential customers to its own website or that of other franchisees. Such approaches are referred to as “re-routing” (Gurin, 2011). Upon review of the developments discussed above, it is clearly apparent that the European Commission, despite being highly favorable to online selling, would still like to avoid certain excesses resulting from network operators or third parties that are capable of destabilizing the network’s physical stores (Perrot et al., 2010). This concern would explain the exclusion of “pure players” as well as the quality requirements placed on distributor websites (i.e., franchisee websites in our case), with the aim of ensuring a level of uniformity within the network that proves desirable, or even necessary. This is particularly this last point, i.e., the challenge for franchisors to maintain network uniformity when their franchisees set up and run their own websites (transactional or not) that we will examine now, illustrated with the case study on Intercaves. THE IMPACT OF FRANCHISEES’ ONLINE SALES ON NETWORK UNIFORMITY Quality standards must be respected by the franchisees when they set up and run their own website in order not to damage the network uniformity and brand image. The case of Intercaves illustrates the potential issues in the context of multiple websites set up and run by the franchisees. 13 Requirement of quality standards from the franchisor and key aspects to be considered The 2010 guidelines refer to “quality standards” that are, for instance, key elements of the franchise networks’ marketing-mix. Requirement of quality standards from the franchisor As mentioned previously, franchisees can set up and run their own websites (transactional or not). In such a case, the issue of network uniformity is raised because differences in terms of technical, human and financial resources and entrepreneurship orientation exist among the franchisees and can be reflected through the franchisees’ websites. According to the Paragraph 54 of the 2010 guidelines: “[the] supplier may require quality standards for the use of the internet site to resell its goods, just as the supplier may require quality standards for a shop or for selling by catalogue or for advertising and promotion in general”. Briefly, as far as the exclusive territories are concerned, Internet cannot be treated as a store according to the 2010 guidelines on vertical restraints, but practically maintaining uniformity across the network of stores and maintaining the uniformity across the network of franchisees’ websites are almost similar in terms of managerial and marketing tasks. 14 Key aspects to be considered for maintaining network uniformity Within a managerial perspective, several aspects are important to be considered. Uniformity across the websites concerns the marketing-mix elements. First, uniformity in terms of products/services deals with the products/services that must be presented and available for sale on the franchisees’ websites. A customer will not appreciate to see a product/service available in a store of a specific brand, or on a website of a franchisee and not available on the website of another franchisee of a same brand. So, the question of products/services assortment and overlap is relevant. Second, uniformity in terms of price is very important as well. The price represents one of the essential elements of brand positioning, and can have an impact on customer satisfaction and loyalty. High differences in prices could be not understood by customers even though imposing prices is contradictory to anti-trust laws (Lafontaine, 1999). Thirdly, uniformity in terms of communication deals with promotion. The management of promotional activities in a uniform way across the websites is essential. Some other elements have to be considered for underlining network uniformity. They deal with the URL (respect of the brand name use, use of the city name, etc.) and the graphical chart (respect of colors, fonts, etc.), and also the associated services such as delivery, after-sales services, etc. The case of Intercaves We present the franchise network Intercaves before focusing on its uniformity-related issues. 15 Presentation of the case study We choose to illustrate the uniformity-related issues faced by franchisors when their franchisees set up and run their own websites (transactional or not) using a qualitative approach, and more specifically the single case approach. This approach has been often used in the retailing literature (Jackson and Sparks, 2005; Jones, 2003; Palmer, 2005) and in the franchising literature as well (Boyle, 2002; Dos Santos and de Azevedo, 2007; Perrigot et al., 2011a). This is a way to better understand a specific phenomenon, here the uniformity-related issues in franchise networks. We selected a specific franchise network, namely Intercaves, because it illustrates well the different uniformity-related issues than can face a franchisor when its franchisees set up and run their own websites. Intercaves is a French franchise network in the wine and alcohol sector. It is important to mention first that France is the franchising leader in Europe with a continuous growth since the 1970’s. There are 1,477 franchisors (+ 5.8 % compared to 2009), 58,351 franchised stores (+ 9.9 % compared to 2009). Franchising employs 335,000 people and generates more than 47.88 billion euros of turnover (French Franchise Federation, 2011). As far as Intercaves is concerned, the brand was created in 1978, and the development through franchising started in 1992. In 2011, there are 128 franchised stores, two company-owned stores in the French territory, and one store abroad. The franchise contract – whose duration is five years – specifies direct royalties of 3 % of the total sales of the franchised store. The main form of data collection in this case study is websites’ observation. This observation was conducted on a short period of time in order to limit all kinds of biases (modification/updating of the content of the websites, creation/suppression of the 16 websites, etc.). It thus took place on May 2011, 6th by the afternoon. The URL of the franchisor’s website was indicated in the franchise directory published by the French Franchise Federation. Regarding the franchisees’ websites, we searched their URL using Google search engine, with the name of the franchise network as the keyword. We looked at the first twenty first pages of Google results, and if a franchisee’s website appeared on one of the last five pages of results, i.e., on pages 15 to 20, we pursued the search process within five additional pages of Google results. At the end, we found the existence of fourteen websites run by Intercaves franchisees. We explored the content of all these fourteen websites along with this of the franchisor, making screenshots of all the pages of each website. This leads to the elaboration of a Word document of 117 pages, with two screenshots per page. The franchisor’s website represents a total of 23 Word pages, i.e., 46 screenshots, the franchisees’ websites represents 6.71 Word pages in average, with a minimum of three Word pages and a maximum of 21 Word pages. A first comment from these minimum and maximum values refers to the lack of uniformity in terms of content and structure of the franchisees’ websites. The franchisor’s website is transactional, the franchisor is thus considered as having adopted an E-commerce strategy. However, its website seems to meet regular technical problems, and even when it works, it appears not really professionally-made. The website indicates that the delivery of the products is managed by the franchisee located in the geographical area of the Internet user. When indicating several zip codes, we found that some franchisees, even located at 500 meters from the Internet users potential address do not deliver. This can create a certain disappointment among the Internet 17 users who want to buy online. It also shows that the E-commerce strategy of Intercaves is only at its beginning, with some significant room for improvement. Moreover, on its website, the franchisor does not provide the Internet users with the links of the franchisees’ websites. This indicates a lack of a clear multi-channel strategy, of crosschannel optimization. Besides, only one franchisee tried to set up and run a transactional website, but this latter one is not really operational. In this brief case study, we explore these fifteen websites, more specifically all the similarities/dissimilarities that, at the end, refer to the uniformity of the network. We focus on the elements mentioned in the previous section: the marketing-mix elements as well as other elements. Marketing-mix elements and network uniformity Uniformity and products’ assortment within Intercaves network. On the franchisor’s website, the assortment includes nine categories of products: “Everyday wines, wines for buffets and receptions”, “Wines to drink and keep”, “Champagnes”, “Whiskies”, “Alcohols”, “Cocktails and Aperitifs”, “Gourmet products”, “Packagings”, “Gifts and accessories”. On the franchisees’ websites, the assortment range varies from two categories to twelve categories. Only one of the franchisees’ websites proposes exactly the same assortment than this available on the franchisor’s website. Most of the franchisees (in fact, eight) display less than nine categories of products on their website, and three franchisees propose more than nine categories. Moreover, some franchisees display some products and services that are not available on the franchisor’s website (e.g., soft drinks, beer tap rent, food and snacking). It therefore means that most of the franchisees do not offer the Internet users the entire assortment set up by the franchisor, 18 this available on the franchisors’ website. Even if it is one of the franchisees’ rights, these differences in terms of products’ assortment can have a negative impact on the brand image of the franchise network as a whole, and customers can perceive a lack of uniformity related to products’ assortment. Uniformity and prices’ levels / indication within Intercaves network. The franchisor explicitly displays the products’ prices on its website, of course due to the transactional nature of the website. Nevertheless, most of the franchisees do not display any products’ prices on their website. Some franchisees indicate the prices of some products only, to attract the Internet users in their own store, while some others only mention “from X euro”. Only one franchisee proposes a catalogue of the products it sells, but the corresponding webpage is not operational, and prices are thus not available for the Internet users. Even if franchisees are free to display prices on their websites, prices that they set by themselves, the differences highlighted during the observation, in terms of prices’ level and indication, can raise some issues and damage the brand image of the franchise network as a whole. Moreover, customers can perceive a lack of uniformity related to the price policy of the franchisor and of the franchisees as well. Communication / Promotion within Intercaves network. At the time of the observation, the franchisor neither mentioned any specific promotion, nor any loyalty program, on its website. But, at the same time, many franchisees inserted information about promotions on their websites, e.g., “Special offer - beautiful days”, “Special offer - Club and association”, “Offer – Beers”, “For 45€ of purchase… a barbecue set offered”, “Weekend package”, etc. Consequently, all these promotions are upon each franchisee initiatives, underlining a lack of uniformity in terms of communication strategy. 19 Regarding the loyalty program, only one franchisee highlighted its loyalty program, loyalty card usable in the specific store only, and not in all the stores of the network. Finally, one of the franchisees still advertised in May on promotions available for the St Valentine’s Day, three months before. This lack of information updating can also damage the brand image of the whole network, and not only the brand image of the specific store associated to this website. Other important elements and network uniformity URL. As far as the URL is concerned, several elements point out a lack of uniformity. The URL for the franchisor’s website is: http://www.intercaves.fr. Additionally to the fact that the franchisees have URLs ending by “.fr” (two), “.com” (eleven), and “.info” (one) on the one hand, and that some spell the franchise network “inter-caves” (two) or “intercaves” (ten), two out of the fourteen franchisees’ websites under investigation do not refer at all to the name of the franchise network in their URL. Six URL are in the following format: http://www.intercaves-NAME-OF-THE-CITY.com. Five franchisees do not mention the name of the city in the URL of their websites, but instead, they indicate the department. The dissimilarities in the URLs of the franchisees’ websites show that franchisees do not follow any guidelines when they set up their website. This can raise some issues and damage the brand image of the franchise network as a whole. Moreover, customers can perceive a lack of uniformity related to the visibility of the franchisor, and of the franchisees as well. Graphical chart. In November 2009, one of the specialized websites dedicated to franchising, i.e., www.lobservatoiredelafranchise.com, displayed the new logo of Intercaves. Two years later, in May 2011, our observation of the franchisees’ websites 20 point out that ten out of the fourteen franchisees’ websites display the former logo and not the updated one, along with the former graphical chart with warm colors (i.e., red and chestnut) contrary to the current trendy colors (i.e., purple and apple green). This lack of uniformity in terms of use of the logo and graphical chart raises an issue related to the identity of the franchise network. On one side, we have an image of a “traditional and authentic brand” and on the other side, we have an image of “young and trendy brand”. Internet users can be lost when visiting several franchisees websites associated to the brand, and also when visiting the physical stores. Websites design. Whereas the franchisor’s website seems to have been “in-house” created, due to a clear lack of professionalism in terms of design, ergonomics, etc. and the frequent unavailable pages, some of the franchisees have recruited a web expert to design their websites. Over the fourteen franchisees’ websites, we noticed that at least six web experts have worked on an Intercaves website. One of these six web experts has designed the websites of four different franchisees. This can contribute to maintaining brand uniformity in terms of websites design. But, some franchisees created a blog instead of a website, not in accordance with the other websites, and two franchisees created their website via the “Yellow Pages” services. This company, additionally to offer the national phone directory, now propose the creation of websites with very standardized and non flexible designs. MANAGERIAL AND LEGAL PERSPECTIVES The exploration of the topic linked to uniformity and Internet use by franchisees leads us to adopt two complementary perspectives, the managerial one and the legal one. 21 MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE In this paper, we highlighted the consequences of the set up and run of websites (transactional or not) by franchisees on network uniformity. In fact, for franchisors, there are two ways to face this challenge and maintain network uniformity. Both are linked to know-how that is a core element of franchising, as reminded in the definition of franchising (see Introduction). Technical know-how According to the European Franchise Federation, “[technical] know-how means a body of non-patented practical information, resulting from experience and testing by the Franchisor, which is secret, substantial and identified. ‘Secret’ means that the know-how, as a body or in the precise configuration and assembly of its components, is not generally known or easily accessible; it is not limited in the narrow sense that each individual component of the know-how should be totally unknown or unobtainable outside the Franchisor’s business. ‘Substantial’ means that the know-how includes information which is indispensable to the franchisee for the use, sale or resale of the contract goods or services, in particular for the presentation of goods for sale, the processing of goods in connection with the provision of services, methods of dealing with customers, and administration and financial management; the know-how must be useful for the Franchisee by being capable, at the date of conclusion of the agreement, of improving the competitive position of the Franchisee, in particular by improving the Franchisee’s performance or helping it to enter a new market. ‘Identified’ means that the know-how must be described in a sufficiently comprehensive manner so as to make it possible to verify that it fulfills the criteria of secrecy and substantiality; the 22 description of the know-how can either be set out in the franchise agreement or in a separate document or recorded in any other appropriate form.” In other words, according to the Commission Regulation (EU) No 330/2010, “‘knowhow’ means a package of non-patented practical information, resulting from experience and testing by the supplier, which is secret, substantial and identified: in this context, ‘secret’ means that the know-how is not generally known or easily accessible; ‘substantial’ means that the know-how is significant and useful to the buyer for the use, sale or resale of the contract goods or services; ‘identified’ means that the know-how is described in a sufficiently comprehensive manner so as to make it possible to verify that it fulfils the criteria of secrecy and substantiality”. The franchisor can thus create an E-Bible, i.e., an operational manual that details the technical know-how related to Internet activities, in particular the rules to be followed when setting up and managing a website (transactional or not). An operational manual, also called “Bible”, already exists for offline activities. It provides the franchisees with all the standards and rules to be applied in the physical stores. The E-Bible will complement the already existing Bible as far as online activities of the franchisees are concerned. Organizational know-how According to some franchising experts, the benefits for a franchisee to set up and run its own website (transactional or not) are greatly diminished if the franchisor had been able to previously develop a website offering an effective communication platform, eventually with an E-commerce functionality, provided the franchisor had successfully integrated its franchisees into a multi-channel strategy. As a result, the set up and run of 23 a website (transactional or not) could be considered as part of the franchisor’s organizational know-how. Franchisors develop know-how relative to network engineering and management, these are called organizational know-how. This type of knowledge and skills is not necessarily shared with franchisees (El Akremi et al., 2009; Perrigot et al., 2011b). According to these authors, such organizational know-how reflects the systemic and cross-disciplinary capacities that allow a franchisor to coordinate on a sustainable basis the generation and use of its strategic assets, along with its professional skills, in pursuit of achieving objectives. Based on a study conducted among 211 franchisors, several categories of organizational know-how have been pointed out (El Akremi et al., 2009). They deal with codification / transmission / replication, as well as support for human resources management, monitoring / oversight of store operations, external communication, internal cohesion / uniformity building, organizational flexibility, purchasing / logistics, and access to financing sources. It may be considered that over time, an E-commerce activity proves to be a standalone organizational know-how or a component of one of the previously identified organizational know-how, particularly as regards organizational flexibility, external communication and logistics. In this specific case, the franchisor has to do everything in its power to ensure a mastery of the know-how components tied to E-commerce, by investing sufficient amounts of financial, technical and human resources. The franchisor’s transactional website has to derive its full legitimacy and meet franchisees’ expectations in terms of establishing the brand’s web presence. Under such a scenario, franchisees will find no great benefit in setting up and managing their own transactional website and facing the associated challenges, whether logistical, financial, etc. 24 Moreover, this lack of franchisee interest in setting up a transactional website will abate even further as the franchisee becomes more heavily involved in setting up the multichannel strategy. The franchisor can share with its franchisees the management of its transactional website. Two operating modes can coexist. The first one consists of identifying, in collaboration with franchisees, a franchisee remuneration formula on the basis of sales transacted via the franchisor’s website. The major difficulty inherent in this approach is the search for a remuneration formula with maximum objectivity, and acceptable to all parties, thereby avoiding to the greatest extent possible any potential conflict. A network like De Neuville has experimented with this strategy, which remains an uncommon practice (Guiserix, 2007). The second operating mode entails centralizing orders on the franchisor’s website and then relaying the compiled orders to the nearest franchisee as Carrefour does within the network Carrefour Market (Kaufmann et al., 2010). Such an approach now appears to be winning over many franchisors, and experts in the field as well. It thus offers the advantages of being widely accepted and financially profitable to franchisees, while allowing the franchisor to generate a useful file of Web customers and better oversee its E-commerce strategy. The level of confidence inspired throughout the network will then generate a greater propensity to cooperate (Gueye, 2009), and will minimize the internal conflicts. The franchisor will work on network strategy managing online sales, and the franchisees will have time to focus on operational management in their store. 25 LAW PERSPECTIVE In a juridical approach, the concept of uniformity has several meanings. It relies on a global understanding and conceptualization of a phenomenon which is – or can be – basically multidimensional. Nevertheless, in the field of retailing, the concept of uniformity is better known and used in a marketing way. Moreover, in the marketing field, the concept of uniformity seems to be mainly a dynamic process. And particularly in the franchising field, the concept of uniformity enables to define both the element of characterization and the goal of the franchise network. Consequently, in an Economic Law perspective, the question of the concept of uniformity applying to the franchising sector can be analyzed on the basis of the marketing and economic analysis. We have to focus on mainly three issues. First, uniformity may be perceived as being the main element of protection of intellectual and industrial properties. Secondly, uniformity may be perceived as being in contradiction to the free competition principle. Thirdly, uniformity may be perceived as being in contradiction with the International Law. Uniformity and Intellectual and Industrial Property Law As explained in this paper, uniformity characterizes franchising. In a juridical view, the know-how characterizes franchising. And the know-how is developed under a specific trademark. Concerning the existence of know-how, the goal of a franchisor is to build a project which includes the identification and the development of several complex applications, 26 data or tools, to aid in production or commercialization and management proceedings. The franchisor adopts defined frameworks and points from early concept to post implementation. In a marketing and economic view, uniformity must characterize this know-how. In a legal view, uniformity must also characterize the know-how. First, to exist as an industrial property, the know-how must be characterized as explained earlier in this paper. Secondly, to subsist as an industrial property, the know-how must have a uniform implementation so that uniformity is a precondition of the existence of knowhow. Concerning the legal protection of know-how, the owner does not have to register this industrial property, as he does for a trademark. Consequently, the protection of the know-how must be explained in the franchise agreement. These measures have the function of ensuring compliance by contractor with its obligations under the agreement. So that, most of these measures have the function of preserving the uniformity of the concept and the know-how, for the traditional stores and for the websites. Indeed, according to the law, E-commerce represents only one sort of business. A franchisee is allowed to sell its products/services through its traditional store or its online store, so that the respect of uniformity is a precondition of the protection of know-how. But the aim of protection of industrial property can be in contradiction with trade rules as the industrial property rules contain monopolistic rules. 27 Uniformity and Competition Law According to the Competition Law everywhere in the world and to the World Trade Organization rules, the principle is freedom of trade and freedom of competition. In this framework, the concept of uniformity can be in contradiction with the necessary differentiation between the franchisor and the franchisees. Competition Law must be applied to independent companies and not to intermediates. According to the Competition Law, each company must conduct its own business by itself. Consequently, in a franchise network, each franchisee is an independent company and not an intermediate. This would pose a first question of interpretation since the competition rules prohibit that a franchisor requires the franchisees to respect the concept and the know-how and uniform rules. This would pose a second question since the competition rules prohibit discrimination between the rules of traditional sales and E-commerce. The first question is: may a franchisor prohibit the creation of a website? According to the European Competition Law, the franchisor is not allowed to prohibit the E-commerce for the franchisee. But exceptions to that rule are explained in the European guidelines on vertical restraints. There is, however, a fundamental issue: the guidelines are not obligatory rules which courts can demand compliance on the part of all the countries of Union. And yet, only the guidelines give rules upon websites. As a result, the basic principle of Competition Law must be applied to the websites and especially the rules of the article 101 §1, the article 101 §3 and of the block exemption regulation 330/2010. Consequently, if we apply the general rules and not the guidelines upon websites, a second point must be analyzed. 28 The second point deserves further considerations. The competition rules accept the exclusivity of the owner of industrial property if competition is not prohibited and if principle of proportionality is applied. For example, nothing on a website should be construed as granting any license or right to use any trademark, trade names, logos without the written permission of the owner. Nothing on the website should be construed as granting any right to work against corporate or network identity. Besides, the competition rules in the block exemption must not contradict the protection of the know-how. As uniformity is a condition of the existence of know-how, the framework of the rules of uniformity in the know-how must be identified. Maybe, according to the block exemption regulation and not to the guidelines, a franchisee could not create its own website. The second question is: may E-commerce be considered by a supplier as a special business allowing specific rules? This question may concern national Competition Law. For example, in France, a supplier may establish general sale terms and specific sale terms. So that, a supplier may establish sale specific terms for E-commerce. As a result, in these specific sale terms, the supplier, i.e., the franchisor, may introduce for the franchisee specific tariffs, conditions, so that the consumer would prefer to buy in traditional stores. If European Law is not applicable, these French rules could be applied, except if these terms establish an abuse of domination or an unlawful agreement according to the French Competition Law. If European Competition Law must be applied, the general rules of competition would be applied, but guidelines are not obligatory rules. As a result, these specific sale terms for websites could be allowed except of an abuse of 29 domination or an unlawful agreement. These specific sale terms could prohibit indirectly the practice of E-commerce. Uniformity and International Law The applicable Law for an international situation is a national Law. Basically, the Law is national, and the Business is global. Consequently, E-commerce is basically global. The concept of uniformity applied in a franchise network must respect stricter regulatory limits on the territories where the E-commerce concerns active sales. According to the International Contract Law, the supplier who practices active sales, must respect the national rules of the country where it exports its goods or the national rules of the consumer’s country. As a result, a website cannot be uniform. Uniformity could be unlawful. Even if we consider E-commerce as a passive sale, some websites can use technical measures which practice active sales. And all the sales must take into consideration consumer rules of the country where the goods are sold. In consideration of this reality, the concept of uniformity in a website must be analyzed to identify the framework of the uniform values, the uniform concept, and to identify the framework of the rules which must be adjusted. The subject of concept of uniformity and International Law underlines the complexity of the question which deserves complementary studies. In summary, it appears that the concept of uniformity is anything but uniform! In order to be sustainable, the concept of uniformity must adjust to economic, business, social and international rules and designs several frameworks. 30 CONCLUSION This paper is a first attempt that raises the challenge for franchisors facing the existence of various websites (transactional or not) set up and run by their franchisees. More research, from both fields Business and Law, are needed in the future. Besides, other practices being able to lead to the same kind of issues in terms of the use of Internet and network uniformity could be explored in further research. They deal with the presence of the brands on social networks such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Viadeo, etc. Recently, the US franchisor Applebees worked with a media company to propose to its franchisees specific and regular contents to be included on their own Facebook page. It thus highlights the know-how of the franchisor and its involvement. 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International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management 30(5): 228-237. 37 Appendix 1: Evolution in the notion of active versus passive sales, as defined in the two sets of guidelines issued on vertical restraints (October 13th, 2000 and May 19th, 2010) 2000 guidelines 2010 guidelines Active sales ‘Active’ sales mean actively approaching individual customers inside another distributor’s exclusive territory or exclusive customer group by for instance direct mail or visits; or actively approaching a specific customer group or customers in a specific territory allocated exclusively to another distributor through advertisement in media or other promotions specifically targeted at that customer group or targeted at customers in that territory; or establishing a warehouse or distribution outlet in another distributor’s exclusive territory. ‘Active’ sales mean actively approaching individual customers by for instance direct mail, including the sending of unsolicited e-mails, or visits; or actively approaching a specific customer group or customers in a specific territory through advertisement in media, on the internet or other promotions specifically targeted at that customer group or targeted at customers in that territory. Advertisement or promotion that is only attractive for the buyer if it (also) reaches a specific group of customers or customers in a specific territory, is considered active selling to that customer group or customers in that territory. Passive sales ‘Passive’ sales mean responding to unsolicited requests from individual customers including delivery of goods or services to such customers. General advertising or promotion in media or on the Internet that reaches customers in other distributors’ exclusive territories or customer groups but which is a reasonable way to reach customers outside those territories or customer groups, for instance to reach customers in nonexclusive territories or in one’s own territory, are passive sales. ‘Passive’ sales mean responding to unsolicited requests from individual customers including delivery of goods or services to such customers. General advertising or promotion that reaches customers in other distributors’ (exclusive) territories or customer groups but which is a reasonable way to reach customers outside those territories or customer groups, for instance to reach customers in one’s own territory, are considered passive selling. General advertising or promotion is considered a reasonable way to reach such customers if it would be attractive for the buyer to undertake these investments also if they would not reach customers in other distributors’ (exclusive) territories or customer groups. 38