8-15-06
1.
Seven themes of biology a.
Cellular Structure b.
Heredity c.
Reproduction d.
Homeostasis e.
Interdependence f.
Evolution g.
Metabolism
2.
Find a problem-
3.
Observe- through: need to know what you want to change
4.
Ask the experts- make sure to ask proper questions
5.
Form a hypothesis- An educated guess
6.
Test hypothesis- a.
Variable something that has the capability to change
Dependent- factor that you change based on the independent i.
Independent- Changes ii.
Control- has the capability to but does not change b.
Operational definition- how you will measure your variables
8-16-06
7.
Analyze data to check our hypothesis and form a conclusion.
8.
Publish for peer review also called a primary source (get information from these for research papers.)
9.
Lab Report Format a.
Title i.
7-12 words describing experiment b.
Introduction i.
Why you are doing the experiment ii.
Introduce research iii.
1 page double spaced c.
Methods i.
Subjects (specific) Tell who you’re looking at ii.
Procedure- be to the point, if its not in there it didn’t happen d.
Results i.
Just tell what happened facts not opinions e.
Discussion i.
Discuss the good and bad of your results f.
Conclusion i.
Where you take your stand and defend it g.
Bibliography i.
No bibliography plagiarism ii.
MLA format
8-17-06
8-21-06 h.
Lipids i.
Structure

ii.
Type iii.
Function
8-25-06 i.
Element- j.
Periodic table has different groups and families k.
Atom parts- nucleus electrons quarks i.
Nucleus- proton and neutrons l.
Chemical bonds- two or more atoms bonded together i.
Ionic- a chemical bond between two atoms with opposite charges
1.
when an element gains or loses an electron ii.
Covalent- chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more electron
1.
polar- unequal
2.
non polar- equally. iii.
Metallic- chemical bond in which valence electrons are shared amongst atoms m.
Chemical reactions i.
A process in which one or more chemical reactions are turned into another thing n.
Signs of reaction i.
Bubbles ii.
Precipitation iii.
Color change iv.
Temperature change v.
Volume change vi.
Change in taste and smell vii.
Light may occur o.
Types of reaction i.
Synthesis- combining to element to make a complex compound ii.
Single displacement- where a element switches places with another one iii.
Double displacement- in where two cat or anions switch place with each other iv.
Combustion- a reaction in which co2 and water is produced v.
Decomposition- the opposite of synthesis in which a compound is broken down in to smaller compounds p.
Compound i.
A combination of two elements in definite proportion that can not be broken down by physical mean q.
Types of compounds i.
Organic- compound made up primarily of carbon with additional compounds: covalent bonds ii.
Inorganic- compounds made primarily of elements other than carbon iii.
Ionic- formed of cat and anion held together by opposite charges r.
Digestive

i.
Heated cause carbs to come out ii.
Pancreatic enzymes iii.
Converted into fat s.
Structure i.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon ii.
Hexodes iii.
Chain and ring forms iv.
Sugar alcohol, amino acids t.
Carbohydrates i.
23 ii.
Main source of energy iii.
Body uses energy and water and displaces co2 iv.
Also used as structure v.
Carbs- 1 carbon, 2 hydrogen, 1 oxygen vi.
Carbohydrate
1.
Carbon H20 u.
Intakes i.
4 calories per gram ii.
55 calories per carb v.
Glycolosis i.
Breaks down glucose and glycogen ii.
Pyruvic acid w.
Type i.
Disaccharide- two units of sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis.
1.
Water molecule is pulled out a.
Sucrose- glucose, fructose b.
Lactose- glucose galactose c.
Maltose- two glucose ii.
Monosaccharide - one unit of sugar
1.
fructose
2.
ribose- rna
3.
glucose- energy a.
isomer
4.
deoxyribose- dna
5.
C6h1206 iii.
Polysaccharide- long chains of glucose
1.
polymers a.
Starch- made in plants b.
Glycogen- made in animals made in muscle tissue c.
Cellulose x.
Diet i.
Carbs are metabolized faster ii.
Low card diet iii.
Good vs. bad carbs y.
Diabetes

i.
Need insulin to monitor carbs ii.
Carb counting z.
Proteins i.
Made of amino acids ii.
Body breaks down to absorb to rebuild and repair tissue aa.
What humans need i.
Humans need 20 amino acids ii.
Body makes 12 iii.
8 from meat, poultry, dairy bb.
Everyday proteins i.
10 calories protein ii.
Excess turns into fat cc.
What they do i.
Metabolism ii.
Structural support iii.
Source of energy iv.
Enzymes dd.
Primary structure i.
Sequence of amino ii.
L-configuration at chiral centre iii.
polypeptide chains ee.
Secondary structure- repeating local structure i.
Alpha helices ii.
Beta sheets iii.
turns iv.
(Other random coils) ff.
Tertiary- overall shape of the protein gg.
Alpha Helix i.
Most thermodynamically stable hh.
Beta-sheet i.
Not as stable as helix
1.
parallel
2.
non parallel ii.
Turns i.
Reverse diretion ii.
Polar and charged jj.
Protein Stability i.
3d tertiary structure ii.
Specifies primary structure iii.
Fold iv.
Non covalent forces kk.
Classes i.
Globular
1.
soluble
2.
form chains
3.
enzymes

4.
hormones
5.
transporters
6.
affect metabolism ii.
Fibrous
1.
non- soluble
2.
structure
3.
makes up muscle tissue iii.
Membranes
1.
proteins attached to membranes
8-28-06
10.
Lipids a.
Energy storage b.
Protection i.
Cushioning ii.
Insulation
11.
Phospholipids a.
Glycerol i.
Two fatty acids chains ii.
Phosphorous group iii.
Found in membrane iv.
Non-polar repels water v.
Polar attracts vi.
Selective permeable
12.
Water a.
All organisms need water to survive b.
Humans 65-70 percent water c.
Earth
13.
Properties a.
Two hydrogen one oxygen b.
212 boiling point c.
32 freezing point d.
Polar- unequal sharing e.
Non-polar- equal sharing
14.
Uses a.
Homeostasis b.
Lubrication c.
Cushioning d.
Joints e.
Digestive tract f.
Tissues g.
Carries nutrients and waste
15.
Homeostasis a.
Keeps cool b.
High latent heat (355 j/g) c.
Evaporates d.
Absorbs energy

e.
Causes cooling f.
Water absorbs heat
16.
Metabolism a.
Universal solvent i.
Most solutes can be dissolved in water ii.
Help digestion b.
Hydrolysis i.
BREAKS DOWN CARBS AND PROTEINS c.
Water is needed for chemical reactions
17.
Carrying stuff through bodies a.
Blood b.
Oxygen c.
Nutrients d.
Lymphatic system i.
Cleans body of toxin e.
Cohesive- like molecules stick together f.
Adhesive- molecules stick to other things
18.
Water cycle a.
Evaporation b.
Transpiration c.
Condensation d.
Respiration e.
Precipitation
19.
Water in plants a.
Photosynthesis i.
Energy ii.
Oxygen b.
Transport nutrients c.
Transpiration i.
95 percent of water d.
Hydrolysis i.
Breaks down starch
20.
Climate a.
Water vapor i.
Greenhouse gas b.
Ocean current i.
Warming ii.
Cooling c.
Evaporation i.
Cooling
21.
Other a.
Cleaning the air b.
Keeps blood salt balanced c.
8-10 cups needed i.
Food ii.
Diet

22.
isomer- same chemical formula different chemical structure.
23.
Amino Acids

L -Alanine (Ala / A)
L
-Arginine (Arg / R)
L -Asparagine (Asn /
N)
L -Aspartic acid (Asp /
D)
L
-Cysteine (Cys / C)
L -Glutamic acid (Glu /
E)
L -Glutamine (Gln /
Q)
L -Glycine (Gly / G)
L -Histidine (His / H) L -Isoleucine (Ile / I) L -Leucine (Leu / L)
L -Lysine (Lys / K)
L -Methionine (Met /
M)
L -Phenylalanine (Phe /
L -Proline (Pro / P)
F)
L -Serine (Ser / S)
L -Threonine (Thr / T)
L -Tryptophan (Trp /
W)
24.
Plasma Membrane
L -Tyrosine (Tyr / Y)
L a.
It is a phospholipid bi-layer b.
Barrier c.
Selectively permeable i.
Only allows certain things into the membrane
-Valine (Val / V)

d.
Hydrophilic region i.
Water loving ii.
Outside is hydrophilic e.
Hydrophobic region i.
Water hating ii.
Middle is hydrophobic iii.
Cholesterol in middle
1.
increase hydrophobic region and stabilizes the mebrane iv.
Only in animal cells v.
Oxygen, C02, steroids can pass freely through the membrane f.
Proteins- allows water soluble things to pass through i.
Pore-allow water to go through ii.
Channels-ions into to cell iii.
Receptors-allows the cell to bind to other things iv.
Enzymes- proteins on membrane, stimulate chemical reactions v.
Cell service markers- identify the cell g.
25.
Parts of a cell a.
Nucleus i.
The center and most important part of the cell b.
Mitochondria i.
Converts organic materials into energy c.
Endoplasmic reticulum i.
transports stuff through cells d.
Ribosome i.
makes protein e.
Golgi apparatus i.
Series of sack like ii.
Package fluids before they are released into the cell f.
Lysosome

i.
Sack like structures ii.
Contain digestive enzymes iii.
Eats leftovers g.
Peroxisomes i.
Sacks filled with enzymes for cellular function h.
Centriole i.
Cell division i.
Chloroplast i.
Only found in plant cells and is used for photosynthesis.
26.
Cell Structure a.
Cytoskeleton i.
Scaffolding like structure made up of filaments(thread like structures) ii.
Provides structure and support for the cell b.
Cilia i.
Hair like structures ii.
Move stuff past the cell c.
Flagella i.
Tail like structure ii.
Allows cell to move d.
Cell Wall i.
Only in plant cells ii.
Structure and support e.
cytosol (cf. cytoplasm , which also includes the organelles ) is the internal fluid of the cell , and a portion of cell metabolism occurs here. Proteins within the cytosol play an important role in signal transduction pathways and glycolysis . They also act as intracellular receptors and form part of the ribosomes , enabling protein synthesis .
27.
Cellular Movement a.
Move or transports stuff for its environment to its internal structure i.
Passive transport
1.
no energy required
2.
with the concentration gradient a.
moves from where there is a lot to where there is a little ii.
Diffusion
1.
random movement of particles from an area of high of concentration to a low area of concentration a.
gases b.
ions c.
lipid soluble substances iii.
Facilitated diffusion
1.
diffusion carried out by carrier molecule a.
glucose b.
amino acids iv.
osmosis

1.
diffusion of water
2.
high concentration water or salt or solutes a.
hypotonic i.
more water than solute
1.
cell gets bigger b.
isotonic i.
same amount of water as there is salts or solutes ii.
osmosis occurs at the same rate in both c.
hypertonic directions
28.
Metabolism a.
Sum of all chemical reactions i.
more solute than water ii.
cells shrinks b.
To store and make energy available for cellular function c.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed d.
Enzymes i.
Made up of proteins ii.
Reaction specific
1.
An enzyme will work with one reaction only
2.
All reactions reversible
3.
Sensitive structures a.
To acid i.
Temperature b.
And the presence of other chemicals
4.
They work to lower the amount of energy required to start the reaction.
5.
Unchanged during a chemical reaction e.
Adenosine Triphosphate(ATP) i.
The immediate energy source for cellular function ii.
Comes from carbohydrates, iii.
Structure
1.
Adenine molecule
2.
Ribose molecule
3.
3 phosphate ions iv.
Reaction that liberate ATP for the cell are exergonic v.
Reactions that use ATP are endergonic vi.
Breaks off third phosphate
1.
Release 7.3 kilocalories
2.
becomes ADP
3.
Adenisine diphosphate
29.
Metabolic Pathways a.
2 of them i.
Catabolic

1.
Takes a big particle and break in down into a bunch of little particles ii.
Anabolic
1.
Small particles join together to make a big particle
30.
Metabolism a.
Cofactors i.
Chemical molecules that work with enzymes to start metabolic reactions b.
Autotrophs i.
They can make there own food from non-food sources
1.
Plant Cells- Photosynthesis a.
Chloroplast- organelles within plant cell that helps in photosynthesis i.
Stroma- a protein rich fluid of the chloroplast(organic molecule protein)
1.
Thylakoids- membranes in the stroma a.
Grana or granum- stack of thylakoids
2.
Pigments- are light absorbing substances. a.
Chlorophyll- reflects green lights b.
Carotenoids- reflects red, yellow and orange lights c.
When the pigments(associated molecules) cluster together on the Thylakoid they form a photosystem i.
Photosytem 1 ii.
Photosystem 2 c.
Heterotrophs i.
Obtains food from food sources
31.
Chemical reactions a.
Oxidation i.
When in a chemical reaction a molecule loses electrons b.
Reduction i.
When during the chemical reaction a molecule gains electrons c.
Both happen in same overall reaction
32.
Photosynthesis a.
Energy fixing reaction i.
Plant gets energy ii.
It is light dependent

1.
Sunlight is captured in photosystem 2 at the p680 energy center. When sunlight is captured it causes electrons to jump out of the chlorophyll a.
Carboxylation
2.
Pass through pigments called cytochromes a.
Chimeosmosis ( electrons lose energy that is used to pump hydrogen ions across the thylakoid)(Turn direction and rush back across the thylakoid)(Give off energy in rushing across the thylakoid)(This energy is used to make ATP)
3.
Electrons go in to photosystem 1 and the p700 reaction center
4.
Sunlight reactivates the electrons
5.
When reactivated they leave the p700
6.
Go through an electron transport system
7.
Electrons will create a substance NADPH(electron receptors)
8.
To replace electrons in the p680 energy center a water molecule is broken.
9.
The electrons go in to the chlorophyll
10.
The oxygen will combine with oxygen and is released in the atmosphere as a waste product.
11.
The oxygen we breathe is a waste product of photosynthesis(glucose is produced)
33.
Cellular Respiration a.
Heterotroph and autotroph take energy from carbs to make ATP i.
Aerobic
1.
processes that need oxygen ii.
Anaerobic b.
Glycolysis
1.
processes that do not oxygen i.
Occurs in the cytoplasm and is an anaerobic process
1.
Hexokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose. (Kinase means a phosphate group will be transferred)
2.
Phosphoglucoisomerase transforms the molecule from glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate( isomerase means that the structure will change)
3.
Phosphofructokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to form fructose 1,6-biphosphate
4.
Aldolase breaks the fructose 1-6 biphospate into two three carbon molecules
5.
Isomerase converts dihydroxy-acetone phosphate into its isomer, glyceraldehyde-3 phospate
6.
the two glyceraldehyde 3-phospate gain phosphate groups and are oxidized, forming two molecules of NADH+ H+

7.
Phosphoglycerokinase catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups to ADP forming two molecules of ATP
8.
Phosphoglyceromutase changes the position of the bphosphate group
9.
Enolase causes the 2-phosphoroglycerate to lose a water molecules forming phosphoenolpyruvate
10.
Pryuvatekinase transfers phosphates from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP forming two ATP’s
(pyruvate is the end product) c.
The Krebs Cycle(requires a water molecule) i.
Cristae- membrane of the mitochon;dria
1.
3 carbon pryuvate will go to the cristae and become acetylcoa a.
Two carbon molecule i.
NADH will occur and carbon dioxide
1.
Carrier molecule ii.
Acetyl-coa a.
takes its two carbons and combine with a four carbon carbohydrate to form citric acid
2.
Citric acid will change shape to become isocitric acids
3.
Isocitric will undergo a reaction to create ketoglutaric acid a.
NADH is made and carbon dioxide is released b.
5 carbon molecules left
4.
Ketoglutaric will undergo a chemical reaction to become succinyl-coa a.
NADH is made and carbon dioxide is released b.
4 carbons left
5.
Succinyl-coa goes through a reaction and become succinic acid a.
ATP is formed b.
Still 4 carbons
6.
Succinic acid goes through a change and becomes fumaric acid is created a.
FADH
2
7.
Fumaric acid undergoes a reaction to become malic acid(requires a water molecule)
8.
Malic acid partakes in a chemical reaction to become oxlaocetic acid a.
NADH
9.
Oxlaoacetic Acid is the four carbon carbohydrate to restart the Krebs cycle. a.
For each molecule of glucose a cell will be able to go through the krebs cycle twice. b.
Get 1 ATP, 1 FADH2, 4 NADH d.
Electron Transport Chain i.
(in the mitochondria)

ii.
When oxygen is present the NADH and FADH2 will go through a electron transport Chain iii.
For each NADH that goes through 3 ATP are made iv.
For each FADH2 there will be 2 ATP made. v.
In a complete aerobic condition 1 molecule of glucose will generate 36-38. e.
Anerobic conditions i.
The pyruvate will go in and go through a process called fermentation
1.
the conversion of pyruvate to latic acid or ethanol
2.
Depending on the organism lactic acid(humans) or ethanol(plants) is produced. f.
Vocab i.
Gylcogenisis- turning glucose into glycogen(anabolic) ii.
Gylcogenolysis- turns glycogen into glucose iii.
Gluconeogenisis- the creation of glucose from non carb substances iv.
Eukaryote- a complex cell that has a nucleus
1.
haploid cell- cell with 23 chromosomes
2.
diploid cell- cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes v.
Prokaryote- a simple cell without a nucleus. vi.
Apoptosis- programmed death of a cell vii.
Necrosis- cell dies by trauma or some other factor g.
Lipid metabolism i.
Breaking down lipids to get energy ii.
Twice the amount of energy of carbs. iii.
Only natural fats can be routinely used. iv.
Trigylcerides go through a process called v.
1.
lipolysis a.
glycerol molecule and fatty acid chains are broken apart from each other b.
glycerol molecule will be changed into gylceraldehyde phosphate c.
goes through gylcosis and then enter the krebs cycle d.
each as the molecules gives as much energy as ½ glucose molecule e.
fatty acids- go through a process called beta oxidation i.
are broken up into two carbon molecule called acetic acid ii.
they are then bonded with coa to form acetyl coa iii.
can enter the krebs cycle iv.
you need an ATP molecule and a water molecule for each fatty acid chain.

2.
When carbohydrates are not available the body will panic and will turn its oxylacetic acid into glucose a.
With out oxylacetic acid the krebs cycle cannot function. b.
The acetyl coa will accumulate and undergo a process called ketogenis i.
The liver converting the acetyl coa into to ketone bodies ii.
In a healthy body the ketone bodies will be released into the blood and then urinated out iii.
If the ketone bodies build up in your bloodstream the ph of your blood level will change and you will enter a state called ketosis which could be fatal
34.
Cell Cycle a.
Life of a cell i.
Interphase- four subparts prepare the cell to divide
1.
Growth phase 1 of G1 a.
Cell performs normal daily function. b.
Has high metabolic rate(means processes are moving faster) c.
Cell gets larger, organelles get duplicated d.
Cell gets checked to make sure its big enough and that the dna is correct.
2.
Can go in two directions can go in to G0(cell performs its normal functions, not going to decide) Sphase(synthesis phase) a.
Synthesis Phase dna will copy itself
3.
Growth Phase 2 a.
Cell prepares for division b.
Spindle fibers will form( help move the chromosomes during cell division. c.
Checks its self and dna one more time d.
IF there is an error in the Dna it will be corrected at this point in time. ii.
Mitosis
1.
The primary result of mitosis is the division of the parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes , complexes of tightly-coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for per cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the middle of interphase , the period that precedes the mitotic phase in the cell cycle

where preparation for mitosis occurs.Each chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself, called sister chromatids , attached together in a specialized region of the chromosome known as the centromere . Each sister chromatid is not considered a chromosome in itself.In animals and plants, the nuclear envelope that separates the
DNA from the cytoplasm degrades, and its fluid spills out into the cytoplasm. The chromosomes align themselves in an imaginary diameter line spanning the cell. Microtubules , essentially miniature strings, splay out from opposite ends of the cell and shorten, pulling apart the sister chromatids of each chromosome. As a matter of convention, each sister chromatid is now considered a chromosome, so they are renamed to sister chromosomes . As the cell elongates, corresponding sister chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated sister chromosomesAs mitosis completes cytokinesis is well underway. In animal cells , the cell pinches inward where the imaginary line used to be, separating the two developing nuclei. In plant cells , the daughter cells will construct a new dividing cell wall between each other. Eventually, the mother cell will be split in half, giving rise to two daughter cells, each with an equivalent and complete copy of the original genome.Recall that prokaryotic cells undergo a similar process to mitosis called binary fission. Prokaryotes cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis because they lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere. Kinetochore
35.
Meiosis a.
The process of creating haploid gamete cells i.
23 chromosome ii.
Gamete means sex cells iii.
All of the chromosomes are dealt with in pairs and each chromosome has two chromotids iv.
92 chromatid b.
Two Phases i.
Meiosis 1 ii.
5 stagesf
1.
Prophase 1
2.
longest phase of meiosis
3.
normal steps of prophase occur plus chromosome pairs get together it is called a tetrad
4.
process of chromosomes forming the tetrad is synapses
5.
Crossing over occurs

a.
A piece of each of the chromatids will go and move to another chromatid. b.
The four chromatids after crossing over are genitically different than the first four chromatids c.
This is to create genetic diversity so you can look different.
6.
Metaphase 1 a.
Tetrad line up in the middle of the cell
7.
Anaphase 1 a.
Tetrads are broken up and chromosomes are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell. b.
23 chromosomes at each end of the cell which is 46 chromatids c.
Reduction division
8.
Telophase 1 a.
Chromotids become invisible b.
mass nuclear membrane forms and cytokinesis occurs c.
You have two daughter cells with 23 chromosomes in them but 46 chromatids
9.
Interphase 1 a.
Cells will enter interphase b.
And this signals the end of meiosis one iii.
Meosis 2
1.
Interphase a.
No dna duplication b.
Can be short when sperm cells are created but long when the eggs are created.
2.
Prophase 2 a.
Nuclear membrane dissolves b.
Chromosomes become visible
3.
Metaphase 2 a.
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell b.
Spindle fibers attach to the kinetochore
4.
Anaphase 2 a.
Centromeres divide b.
Chromosomes allow each of the chromatids to turn into a chromosome. c.
46 chromosomes with one chromatid each d.
23 chromosomes move to each end of the cell
5.
Telophase 2 a.
Nuclear membrane reforms b.
Chromosomes disappear c.
Cytokinesis occurs iv.
Gamete formation

1.
Differentiation- taking a cell and giving a specialized function.
2.
Spermatogenesis- formation of the male sperm cell a.
After meiosis differention will take place for the sperm cell and the four haploid cells. b.
Cell becomes elongated c.
A portion of its cytoplasm will be lost
3.
Develop organelle called acrosome created by the golgi body. a.
Flagella will form by the centriole
4.
Oogenasis- formation of the ovum a.
Ovum largest cell in the human body b.
Egg will not be an acceptable answer c.
Telophase 1 i.
Cytoplasm will divide unequally d.
Telophase 2 i.
Cytoplasm divides unequally again. e.
The three little cells are called polar bodies and are destroyed f.
Large cell will develop into the ovum
36.
Dna a.
Dexoyribose nucleic acid b.
Double helix i.
Twisted ladder c.
Polymer or long chain i.
Structual unit of a nucleotides ii.
6 carbon carbohydrate
1.
deoxyribose iii.
Phosphate group iv.
Nitrogen base
1.
two types of nitrogen bases
2.
purines a.
two rings to them b.
adenine c.
guanine
3.
Pyrimidines a.
Single rings b.
Cytosine c.
Thymine
4.
Cytosine can only go with guimine a.
Adenine and thymine go together b.
Rules of complimentary bases. v.
Sequence of the nitrogen bases will determine all of your genetic traits
37.