UNIT ONE
EXCEPTIONALITY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
The study of exceptional learners is the study of differences. The exceptional learner is
different in some way from the average. Such a person might have problems or special
talents in thinking, seeing, hearing, speaking, socializing or moving, or a combination of
special abilities or disabilities.
The study of exceptional learners is also the study of similarities. Exceptional individuals
are not different from the average in every way. In fact, most exceptional learners are
average in more ways than they are not. Until recently, we tended to focus on the
differences between exceptional and non-exceptional learners. Today, however, we
give more attention to what exceptional and non-exceptional learners have in common –
to similarities in their characteristics, needs and ways of learning.
In most cases we are unable to identify the exact reason why a person is exceptional,
but there are reasons for optimism. Progress is being made in determining the causes
of some disabilities (for example of Down syndrome or retinopathy). Scientific advances
raise the possibility of medications or gene therapies to prevent or correct many
disabilities. Surgery to correct some defects can now sometimes be done on a fetus
before birth (in utero), completely avoiding some conditions, such as hydrocephalus.
Educational methodology has also improved. A lot is known nowadays about how
exceptional learners can be taught and managed effectively in the classroom.
Many people with disabilities have abilities that go unrecognized because their
disabilities become the focus of concern. We must study the disabilities of exceptional
children if we are to learn how to help them make maximum use of their abilities in
school. However, we must never forget that the most important characteristics of
exceptional learners are their abilities, not their disabilities.
There is an important distinction between disability and handicap. A disability is an
inability to do something. A handicap, however, is a disadvantage imposed on an
individual. Thus, a disability might or might not be a handicap, depending on the
circumstances. Likewise, a handicap might or might not be caused by a disability. For
example, blindness is a disability, but not a handicap in the dark. In fact, in the dark, the
person who has sight is the one who is handicapped.
Another important distinction is that between inability and disability. All disabilities are
an inability to do something. However, not every inability to do something is a disability.
For example, most six-month-old infants cannot walk or talk, which is not considered a
disability because their inability is age-appropriate. However, if that inability extends well
1
past the time that most children learn to walk and talk, then we consider their inability a
disability. Also, an adult’s inability to read is not a reading disability if she or he has not
had reading instruction. The point is, simply, that disability is a significant difference
from what we expect most people to be able to do, given their age, opportunities, and
instruction.
GLOSSARY
-
exceptionality, n - izuzetnost
exceptional, adj. – izuzetan, neobičan
average, adj. – prosečan
disability, n. – nesposobnost, invaliditet
ability, n. – sposobnost
tend, v. – težiti
have sth. in common – imati nešto zajedničko
handicap, n. - hendikep
inability, n .- nesposobnost, nemogućnost
medication, n. – lečenje medikamentima
gene therapy,n. – genska terapija
surgery, n. - operacija
in utero (Lat) – u materici
methodology, n. - metodologija
focus of concern – centar pažnje
distinction, n. - razlika
disadvantage, n. – mana, smetnja
impose, v. - nametnuti
blindness, n. - slepilo
appropriate, adj - odgovarajuće
opportunity, n. – mogućnosti, prilike
instruction, n. – podučavanje, nastava
2
UNIT TWO
THE DEFINITION OF EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
For purposes of education, exceptional learners are those who require special
education to reach their full potential. They require special education because they are
different from most students in one or more of the following ways: they may have
intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, emotional or behavioral disorders, physical
disabilities, disorders of communication, autism, traumatic brain injury, hearing
impairment, visual impairment or special gifts or talents. Exceptionalities may vary
greatly in cause, degree and affect on educational progress, and the effects may vary
greatly depending on the individual’s age, sex, and life circumstances.
Special education does not always work as it should, but when it does, a student’s
disability is identified early and effective special education is provided in the least
restrictive environment. The student’s parents are involved in the decision about how
to address the student’s needs, and the outcome of special education is the student’s
improved achievement and behavior.
About 10 percent of the student population is identified as exceptional for special
education purposes. Some categories of disability are considered high-incidence
because they are found relatively frequently (e.g. learning disabilities, communication
disorders, emotional or behavioral disorders). Some categories of disability are
considered low-incidence because they occur relatively rarely (e.g. blindness,
deafness, deaf-blindness).
Special education means specially designed instruction that meets the unusual needs of
an exceptional student. It may include special materials, teaching techniques, or
equipment and/or facilities. Students with visual impairments might require reading
materials in large print or braille; students with hearing impairments might require
hearing aids and/or instruction in sign language; those with physical disabilities might
need special equipment; and those with emotional or behavioral disorders might need
smaller classes. Related services – special transportation, psychological assessment,
physical and occupational therapy, medical treatment, and counseling – might be
necessary for effective special education.
Special education may range from the least specialized environment (where the general
education teacher may be able to acquire appropriate materials, equipment and/or
instructional method) to twenty-four-hour residential schools. The least restrictive
environment depends in part on the individual’s exceptionality, i.e. how and how much
the student differs from average students. There is almost never a need to place a
student with speech impairment in a separate class or a separate school. Likewise,
most students with learning disabilities can be appropriately educated primarily in
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general education classes. On the other hand, the resources that are needed to teach
students with severe hearing and vision impairments might require that these students
attend separate schools or classes at least part of their school careers.
GLOSSARY
-
to reach full potential – dostići maksimum
intellectual disability – mentalna retardacija
learning disabilities – smetnje u učenju
attention disorders – poremećaji pažnje
behavioral disorders – poremećaji ponašanja
physical disability – telesna invalidnost
disorders of communication - govorno-jezički poremećaji
autism, n. - autizam
traumatic brain injury – traumatska povreda mozga
impairment, n. - oštećenje
hearing impairment – oštećenje sluha
visual impairment – oštećenje vida
gifts and talents – obdarenost/darovitost I talenti
vary, v. – razlikovati se
cause, n. - uzrok
degree, n. - stepen
affect, n. - uticaj
provide, v. - obezbediti
least restrictive environment – najmanje restriktivno okruženje
to address one’s needs/ to meet the needs – zadovoljiti nečije potrebe
outcome, n. – ishod, rezultat
improved, adj - poboljšan
high-incidence – visoka učestalost
low-incidence – niska učestalost
facilities, n . – oprema, uređaji, objekti
large print – krupna slova
hearing aids, n. – slušna pomagala
sign language, n. – znakovni jezik
assessment, n. – procena, procenjivanje
physical therapy, n. – fizioterapija, fizikalna terapija
occupational therapy, n. – radna terapija
medical treatment, n. – medicinsko lečenje
counseling, n. -savetovanje
4
UNIT THREE
LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
The term intellectual disabilities is now used by many to refer to persons who were in
the past referred to as mentally retarded. The switch from mental retardation to
intellectual disabilities is primarily due to the fact that mental retardation, especially its
shortened term ‘retard’, has become an insult.
At one time, it was common practice to diagnose individuals as mentally retarded
(intellectually disabled) only on the basis of an IQ score. Today, however, professionals
consider adaptive behavior in addition to IQ in defining intellectual disability. Adaptive
behavior consists of social intelligence and practical intelligence. Social intelligence
involves understanding and interpreting people and social interactions, such as being
able to recognize when someone is angry and not being gullible or easily tricked or
manipulated. Practical intelligence involves the ability to solve everyday problems, such
as preparing meals, using transportation systems, making change, using the Internet,
and solving problems that are associated to particular job situations.
Most school systems use the following classification of intellectual disabilities: mild (IQ
of about 50 to 70), moderate (IQ of about 35 to 50), severe (IQ of about 20 to 35), and
profound (IQ below about 20).
A common way of categorizing causes of intellectual disabilities is according to the time
at which the cause occurs: prenatal (before birth), perinatal (at the time of birth), and
postnatal (after birth).
Prenatal causes include:
1)
2)
3)
4)
chromosomal disorders (e.g. Down syndrome)
inborn errors of metabolism (e.g. Phenylketonuria (PKU))
developmental disorders of brain formation (e.g. hydrocephalus)
environmental influences (e.g. mother’s malnutrition, rubella)
Perinatal causes include anoxia (lack of oxygen), low birth weight, and infections such
as syphilis and herpes simplex.
Postnatal causes include those that are biological in nature (like traumatic brain injury
(TBI), meningitis and encephalitis, and toxins), and those that are psychosocial in
nature (like extreme cases of abuse or neglect).
Major areas of problems for people with intellectual disabilities are attention, memory,
language, self-regulation, motivation and social development. The focus of educational
programs varies according to the degree of the student’s intellectual disability or how
5
much support the student requires. For example, the lesser the degree of intellectual
disability, the more the teacher emphasizes academic skills; the greater the degree of
intellectual disability, the more stress there is on self-help, community living, and
vocational skills.
Placements for school-age students with intellectual disabilities range from general
education classes to residential facilities. Although special classes for these students
tend to be the norm, more and more students with intellectual disabilities are being
placed in more integrated settings. The degree of integration is determined by the level
of severity – students who are less severely intellectually disabled are the most
integrated. When students with intellectual disabilities are included in general education
classes, it’s important that special and general educators work together to come up with
ways to make the experience successful.
GLOSSARY
-
switch, n. - promena
due to, prep. - zbog
common practice – ustaljena praksa
adaptive behavior – adaptivno ponašanje
social intelligence – socijalna inteligencija
practical intelligence – praktična inteligencija
gullible, adj. – lakoveran, naivan
mild, adj. - laka
moderate, adj. - umerena
severe, adj. - teška
profound, adj. – veoma teška, duboka
prenatal, adj. – prenatalni, koji se dešava pre rođenja
perinatal, adj. – pretporođajni, perinatalni
postnatal, adj. – postnatalni, koji se dešava posle rođenja
chromosomal, adj. - hromozomski
inborn, adj. - urođeni
developmental disorders – razvojni poremećaji
environmental influences – uticaji sredine
anoxia, n. – anoksija, nedostatak kiseonika
abuse, n. – zlostavljanje, zloupotreba
neglect, n. - zapostavljanje
self-regulation,n. - samoregulacija
emphasize, v. - naglasiti
vocational, adj. – profesionalni, stručni
stress, n. – naglasak, akcenat
come up with – smisliti (plan, ideju, i sl.)
6
UNIT FOUR
LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a group of disorders manifested by
significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning or mathematical abilities. It is by far the largest category of special education.
In the U.S. between 5 and 6 percent of school-age students are identified as learning
disabled
A child with learning disabilities is now often referred to as having central nervous
system (CNS) dysfunction rather than brain injury. Using magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), researchers have accumulated evidence for structural and functional differences
between the brains of those with and without learning disabilities, especially reading
disabilities. Structural differences refer to the size of the various areas of the brain.
Functional refers to activity in the brain.
There is strong evidence that many cases of learning disabilities are inherited.
Teratogens (agents, such as chemicals, that can cause defects in the developing fetus)
and medical factors (e.g. premature birth) can also result in learning disabilities.
Academic problems are the hallmark of learning disabilities. By definition, if there is no
academic problem, a learning disability does not exist.
Reading disabilities are the most common form of academic disability and can be
manifested in decoding, fluency, and comprehension problems. Decoding is the ability
to convert print to spoken language. Reading fluency refers to the ability to read
effortlessly and smoothly. Reading comprehension is the ability to gain meaning from
what one has read.
Writing disabilities include handwriting, spelling and composition; spoken language
disabilities include problems with syntax (grammar), semantics (word meanings),
phonology (the ability to break words into their component sounds and blend individual
sounds together to make words), and pragmatics (use of language in social situations);
math disabilities include problems with computation and word problems.
Apart from academic problems, some students with learning disabilities experience
perceptual, motor, and general coordination problems. Many students with learning
disabilities have problems with attention, memory and social-emotional problems.
There are four major instructional approaches appropriate for students with learning
disabilities:
7
-
-
cognitive training – a group of training procedures designed to change thoughts
or thought patterns
content enhancement – a way of making curriculum materials more prominent
(e.g. graphic organizers and mnemonics)
direct instruction – focuses on the details of the instructional process; task
analysis is a major feature of direct instruction which involves breaking down
academic problems into their component parts so that teachers can teach the
parts separately and then teach the students to put the parts together
peer tutoring – when students with learning disabilities are tutored by
nondisabled classmates who are supervised and trained by the teacher.
GLOSSARY
-
acquisition, n. - usvajanje
accumulate, v. – sakupiti
central nervous system (CNS) – centralni nervni system
injury, n. - povreda
dysfunction, n. – disfunkcija, poremećen rad organa
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – magnetna rezonanca
inherited, adj. - nasleđen
teratogen, n. – teratogen, agens ili činilac koji izaziva fizičke defekte kod fetusa
premature, adj. - prevremen
hallmark, n. – glavno obeležje
fluency, n. - tečnost
comprehension, n. - razumevanje
effortlessly, adv. – bez napora
smoothly, adv. - tečno
handwriting, n. - rukopis
composition, n. – pismeni sastav
computation, n. - računanje
perceptual, adj. – opažajni, perceptivni
motor, adj. - motorni
approach, n. – pristup
cognitive, adj. – kognitivni, spoznajni, misaoni
enhancement, n. – unapređivanje, poboljšanje
prominent, adj. – uočljivo
graphic organizers - grfikoni
mnemonics, n. – mnemotehnika, veština povezivanja slika ili reči radi lakšeg
pamćenja
peer, n. - vršnjak
8
UNIT FIVE
LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a condition characterized by severe
problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity. People with ADHD also often
experience problems in adaptive behavior and in their relationship with peers, and are
at risk for substance abuse problems. Several conditions often co-exist with ADHD:
learning disabilities and emotional-behavioral problems.
Probably because there is no simple diagnostic test, such as a blood test, for ADHD,
there has been much controversy over what actually causes ADHD. Today, however,
there is strong evidence linking neurological abnormalities to ADHD. Five areas of the
brain that might be affected in people with ADHD have been identified: the prefrontal
lobes, the frontal lobes, the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, and the corpus callosum.
The prefrontal and frontal lobes are responsible for the ability to regulate one’s
behavior. The basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in coordination and control of
motor behavior. The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the
brain and serves as a pathway for nerve signals between the two.
Researchers have also found that abnormal levels of two neurotransmitters –
dopamine and norepinephrine – appear to be involved in ADHD.
Family studies, twin studies and molecular genetic studies indicate that heredity may
also be a significant cause of ADHD.
Apart from that, exposure to toxins such as lead and abuse of alcohol and tobacco,
as well as medical factors such as complications at birth and low birth weight, can also
increase the risk of developing ADHD.
Most authorities today believe that a structured program is important in the early stages
of working with many students with ADHD but that these students gradually need to
learn to be more independent in their learning.
The majority of students with ADHD today are in general education classrooms.
Through adding key modifications to their traditional instructional routines, teachers can
address the needs of students with ADHD without taking away from the instruction of
students without disabilities in their class.
9
GLOSSARY
-
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – hiperkinetički poremećaj
inattention, n. - nepažnja
hyperactivity, n. – hiperaktivnost, preterana aktivnost
impulsivity, n. – impulsivnost, razdražljivost
substance abuse – zloupotreba droga
co-exist, v. – koegzistirati, postojati zajedno
controversy, n. – polemika, debata
abnormality, n. - abnormalnost
prefrontal – prednji deo režnja mozga
frontal lobes – čeoni režanj
basal ganglia – bazalna ganglija
cerebellum, n. – cerebelum, mali mozak
corpus callosum, n. – žuljasto telo
pathway, n. – put, putanja
neurotransmitter, n. – neurotransmiter, prenosnik nervnih impulsa
heredity, n. – nasleđe, naslednost
abuse of alcohol - alkoholizam
weight, n. - težina
take away from - uskratiti
10
UNIT SIX
LEARNERS WITH EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Defining emotional and behavioral disorders has always been problematic. However,
there is a general agreement that emotional or behavioral disorder refers to the
following:
-
behavior that goes to an extreme – not just slightly different from the usual
a problem that is chronic – one that does not quickly disappear
behavior that is unacceptable because of social or cultural expectations
Researchers have identified two pervasive dimensions of disordered behavior:
externalizing and internalizing. Externalizing behavior involves striking out against
others. It is characterized by aggressive behavior. Internalizing behavior is
characterized by anxious, withdrawn behavior and depression. These two dimensions
are not mutually exclusive. Actually, comorbidity – the co-occurrence of two or more
conditions in the same individual – is not unusual.
The causes of emotional or behavior disorders are multiple and complex, and seldom
can a single cause be identified. Four major causal factors include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
biological disorders and diseases
pathological family relationships
undesirable experiences at school
negative cultural influences
It’s much easier to identify disordered behaviors than it is to define and classify their
types and causes. Most students with emotional and behavioral disorders do not
escape the notice of their teachers. In fact, teacher judgment plays the most significant
role. The most common type of emotional or behavioral disorder – conduct disorder, an
externalizing problem – attracts immediate attention, so there is seldom any real
problem in identification. Students with internalizing problems might be less obvious, but
they aren’t difficult to recognize. Children with schizophrenia are seldom mistaken for
those who are developing normally. Their unusual language, mannerisms, and ways of
relating to others soon become matters of concern to parents and teachers. Children
with schizophrenia are a very small percentage of those with emotional or behavioral
disorders, and problems in their identification are not usually encountered.
Individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders may vary markedly in intelligence,
achievement, life circumstances, and emotional and behavioral characteristics.
11
The idea that children with emotional or behavioral disorders tend to be particularly
bright is a myth. Most of these students are below average in tested intelligence and
academic achievement.
Several different conceptual models of education have been described over the
decades. They all have two objectives: 1) controlling misbehavior and 2) teaching
students the academic and social skills they need. Children and youths with emotional
or behavioral disorders tend to have multiple and complex needs. In addition to their
problems in school, they typically have family problems and a variety of difficulties in the
community (e.g. illegal activities, substance abuse, etc.). Thus, they might need, in
addition to special education, a variety of family-oriented services, psychotherapy or
counseling , training related to employment, and so on. Integrating these services into a
more coordinated and effective system is very important.
GLOSSARY:
-
slightly, adv. – malo, neznatno
chronic, adj. – hroničan, stalan
pervasive, adj. – pervazivni, koji prožima
externalizing, adj. - eksternalizovano
internalizing, adj. - internalizovano
strike out - napasti
anxious, adj. - uznemiren
withdrawn, adj. - povučen
mutually, adv. – uzajamno, međusobno
exclusive, adj. - iskljčiv
comorbidity, n. – komorbiditet, istovremeno prisustvo dva ili više stanja
co-occurrence – istovremeno javljanje/prisustvo
seldom, adj. - retko
undesirable, adj – neželjeno, nepoželjno
escape the notice - promaći
judgment, n. – procena, mišljenje
conduct, n. - ponašanje
mannerism, n. – osobenost (u ponašanju)
concern, n. - briga
encounter, v. – naići na, susresti
vary v. – razlikovati se
markedly, adv. – primetno
myth, n. - mit
objective, n. - cilj
integrate, v. - integrisati
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UNIT SEVEN
LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
Speech and language are tools used for communication. Language is the
communication of ideas – sending and receiving them – through a system of symbols
used according to certain rules that determine meaning. Speech is the neuromuscular
activity of forming and sequencing the sounds of oral language.
Communication disorders are impairments in the ability to use speech or language to
communicate, and may involve language or speech or both, including hearing, listening,
reading or writing.
Speech disorders are impairments in the production and use of oral language. They
include the following disabilities:
-
Phonological disorders – problems in understanding the sound system of
language
Articulation disorders – problems in producing correct speech sounds
Voice disorders – problems in producing voice with appropriate pitch, loudness,
or quality
Fluency disorders – problems in maintaining speech flow (stuttering is the most
frequent type of fluency disorders)
Motor-speech disorders – problems in speaking due to neuromotor damage,
including dysarthria (problems in controlling the production of speech sounds)
and apraxia (problems in planning and coordinating speech).
Language disorders include problems in comprehension and expression. The
problems may involve the form (phonology, morphology, syntax), content (semantics),
or use of language (pragmatics). Language disorders may be primary or secondary. A
primary language disorder has no known cause. A secondary language disorder is
caused by another condition, such as intellectual disability, hearing impairment, autism,
cerebral palsy, or traumatic brain injury.
Children with all types of disabilities are increasingly placed in general education
classrooms. This means that all teachers must become aware of how they can address
language problems in the classroom. Helping children overcome speech and language
disorders is not the responsibility of any single professional. Identification is the joint
responsibility of the classroom teacher, the speech pathologist, and parents. By
listening attentively when children speak, providing appropriate models of speech and
language for children to imitate, and encouraging children to use their communication
skills appropriately, the classroom teacher can help not only to improve speech and
language, but also to prevent some disorders from developing in the first place.
13
GLOSSARY
-
tools, n. – instrumenti
according to rules– shodno pravilima
determine, v. - odrediti
neuromuscular, adj. – nervno-mišićni, neuromuskularni
articulation, n. – artikulacija, obrazovanje glasova
voice, n. - glas
pitch, n. – visina (glasa)
fluency, n. - tečnost
flow, n. - tok
stuttering, n. - mucanje
neuromotor, adj. - neuromotorni
damage, n. - oštećenje
dysarthria, n. - disartrija
apraxia, n. - apraksija
comprehension, n. - razumevanje
expression, n. - izražavanje
cerebral palsy, n. – cerebralna paraliza
increasingly, adv. – sve više
address a problem – rešavati problem
joint, adj. – zajednički, udružen
speech pathologist – logoped
attentively, adv. – pažljivo
prevent, v. - sprečiti
14
UNIT EIGHT
LEARNERS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
The most common way of classifying hearing impairment is the division between deaf
and hard of hearing. From an educational viewpoint, individuals are classified as: deaf
if they are unable to process linguistic information with or without a hearing aid, and
hard of hearing if they are able to process linguistic information with the help of a
hearing aid.
Educators are extremely concerned about the age of onset of hearing impairment. The
earlier the hearing impairment occurs in life, the more difficulty the child will have
developing the language of the hearing society. For this reason, professionals
frequently use the terms congenitally deaf (those who are born deaf) and
adventitiously deaf (those who become deaf at some time after their birth). Two other
frequently used terms are: prelingual deafness – deafness that occurs at birth or early
in life before speech and language develop, and postlingual deafness – deafness that
occurs after the development of speech and language.
The ear is one of the most complex organs of the body. Many elements that make up
the hearing mechanism are divided into three major sections: the outer, middle and
inner ear. The outer ear is the least complex and least important for hearing; the inner
ear is the most complex and the most important for hearing.
The most severe hearing impairments are associated with the inner ear. Impairments of
the inner ear can be hereditary or acquired. Genetic or hereditary factors are a leading
cause of deafness in children. Acquired hearing impairments of the inner ear include
those due to bacterial infections (e.g. meningitis), prematurity, viral infections (e.g.
mumps and measles), anoxia at birth, prenatal infections of the mother (e.g. maternal
rubella), Rh incompatibility, blows to the head, side effects of some antibiotics, and
excessive noise levels.
In identifying hearing impairments there are four general types of tests: screening
tests, pure-tone audiometry, speech audiometry, and specialized tests for very
young children. Screening tests for infants often measure otoacustic emissions. Puretone audiometry assesses decibel (intensity) and herz (frequency) levels. Speech
audiometry assesses the ability to detect and understand speech. Specialized tests for
young children include a number of different techniques, like play audiometry (using a
game-like format to test hearing), or evoked-response audiometry (which measures
changes in brain wave activity using an electroencephalograph – EEG).
One major problem that educators who work with deaf or hard of hearing children face
is communication. Dating back to the 16th century, there has been a debate over
15
whether the goal of instruction for students who are deaf should be to teach them to
speak or to teach them to use sign language. Nowadays, most educational programs
use a total communication approach which includes both oral and manual methods.
GLOSSARY
-
deaf, adj. - gluv
hard of hearing, adj - nagluv
viewpoint, n. – gledište, stanovište
process, v. – obraditi, procesuirati
hearing aid – slušno pomagalo
onset, n. - početak
occur, v. – pojaviti se
congenitally, adv. – uođeno, kongenitalno
adventitiously, adv. - stečeno
prelingual, adj. prelingvalno
postlingual, adj. – postlingvalno
deafness, n. - gluvoća
outer ear – spoljašnje uvo
middle ear – srednje uvo
inner ear – unutrašnje uvo
prematurity, n. – rađanje pre vremena
mumps, n. - zauške
measles, n. – morbile, male bginje
Rh factor – rezus faktor
incompatibility, n. – nepodudarnost, inkompatibilnost
blows, n. - udarci
side effects, n. – nus pojave, neželjena dejstva
excessive, adj. – prekomerno, preterano
pure tone audiometry – tonalna audiometrija
speech audiometry – govorna audiometrija
otoacustic emissions – otoakustičke emisije
play audiometry – plej audiometrija, audiometrija putem igre
evoked-response audiometry – auditivni evocirani potencijali
EEG (electroencephalograph), n. – elektroencefalograf, aparat za beleženje
električne aktivnosti mozga
sign language – znakovni jezik
total communication – totalna metoda komunikacije, uključuje odgovarajuće
slušne, manuelne i oralne načine komuniciranja
16
UNIT NINE
LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS OR LOW VISION
The educational definition of blindness and low vision stresses the method of reading.
For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must
learn to read braille, a system of raised dots by which people who are blind read with
their fingertips. Alternatively, they use aural methods (audiotapes and records). Those
who have low vision can read print, even if they need adaptations such as magnifying
devices or large print books.
The anatomy of the visual system is extremely complex, so here we focus only on basic
characteristics. Objects are seen when an electrical impulse travels from the optic nerve
at the back of the eye to the visual center of the brain. Before reaching the optic nerve,
light rays pass through several structures within the eye: the cornea, aqueous humor,
pupil, lens, vitreous humor, and retina.
The most common visual problems are the result of errors of refraction. Refraction
refers to the bending of the light rays as they pass through the various structures of the
eye. Myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism (blurred
vision) are examples of refraction errors. Although each can be serious enough to
cause significant impairment, wearing glasses or contact lenses can usually solve the
problem.
Among most serious impairments are those caused by glaucoma, cataracts, and
diabetes. These conditions occur primarily in adults, but each can also occur in
children.
Some conditions affect primarily children. Cortical visual impairment (CVI), now the
leading cause of visual impairment in the Western world, results from widespread
damage to parts of the brain responsible for vision. Retinitis pigmentosa is a
congenital condition resulting in degeneration of the retina. Retinopathy of prematurity
(ROP) is caused by factors related to premature birth, and results in abnormal growth of
blood vessels in the eye. Strabismus and nystagmus, two other conditions resulting in
visual problems, are caused by improper muscle functioning. Left untreated, strabismus
can result in permanent blindness. Fortunately, most cases of strabismus can be
corrected with eye exercises or surgery.
Most experts agree that students who are visually impaired should be educated in the
same general way as sighted children. However, teachers need to make some
important modifications. The most important difference is that students with visual
impairment have to rely on other senses to acquire information. The student with little or
no sight will require special modifications in four major areas: (1) braille, (2) use of
17
remaining sight, (3) listening skills, and (4) orientation and mobility training. The
first three relate directly to academic education, particularly reading; the last refers to
skills needed for everyday living.
GLOSSARY
-
blindness, n. - slepilo
individuals with low vision – slabovide osobe
braille, n. – Brajova azbuka
dot, n. – tačka, tačkica
fingertips, n. – vrhovi prstiju
aural, adj. - slušni
optic nerve – očni nerv
light rays – svtlosni zraci
cornea, n. - rožnjača
aqueous humor, n. – očna vodica
pupil, n. - zenica
lens, n. - sočivo
vitreous humor, n. – staklasto telo
retina, n. - mrežnjača
refraction, n. – prelamanje, refrakcija
myopia, n. – miopija, kratkovidost
hyperopia, n. – hiperopija, dalekovidost
astigmatism, n. – astigmatizam, nepravilna zakrivljenost očnog sočiva I rožnjače
glaucoma, n. - glaukom
cataract, n. – katarakta, očna mrena, zamućenje očnog sočiva
diabetes, n. – dijabetes, šećerna bolest
cortical visual impairment (CVI) – cerebralno oštećenje vida
retinitis pigmentosa – retinopatija pigmentoza
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) – retinopatija prematurorum
blood vessel, n. – krvni sud
strabismus, n. – strabizam, razrokost
nystagmus, n. – nistagmus, drhtanje očne jabučice
improper, adj. - nepravilno
untreated, adj. - nelečen
permanent, adj. – stalan, trajan
senses, n. - čula
acquire information – primiti informaciju
sight, n. - vid
remaining, adj - preostali
18
UNIT TEN
LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
Although autism has been a separate category since 1990, other disorders similar to it
in many ways are now typically called autism spectrum disorders. A similar term is
pervasive developmental disorders, although most professionals now use the term
autism spectrum disorders. All of these disorders involve varying degrees of problems
with communication skills, social interactions, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of
behavior. By far the most prevalent are autism and Asperger syndrome.
Autism is characterized by extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication.
Other common characteristics are stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.
Autism is usually evident before the age of three.
Asperger syndrome is a milder form of autism without significant impairments in
language and cognition. However, people with Asperger syndrome have problems in
the other areas, especially social interaction.
Scientists don’t yet know precisely what’s wrong with the brain in autism spectrum
disorders, but they have established that the cause is neurological. Furthermore, they
have strong evidence that genetics plays a role in many cases.
That autism spectrum disorders have a neurological basis is suggested by the fact that
people with autism have a high incidence of brain seizures and cognitive deficits. Also,
studies indicate that brains and heads of young children with autism tend to grow
suddenly and excessively in the first two years of life and then taper off to be about
normal in size by adolescence.
Scientific evidence for autism having a hereditary component is very strong. Studies
have shown that when one family member is diagnosed with autism, the chances are 50
to 200 times higher that another family member also has autism than in the population
as a whole. When an identical twin has autism, the chances are much greater that the
other twin will also have autism than is the case with fraternal twins. Furthermore, even
if they aren’t diagnosed as autistic, family members of those with autism are more likely
to exhibit autistic-like characteristics, such as lack of close friends, a preoccupation with
narrow interests, and a preference for routines.
Researchers have also found that tiny gene mutations that can result in autism are
sometimes passed down to children from one or both parents. However, researchers
are consistent in stating that there is no “autism gene” – multiple genes are involved and
not the same ones in all people with autism.
19
Although educational programming for students with autism spectrum disorders covers
a wide variety of areas, there are some guidelines on which most authorities have
agreed. First, many believe that the greatest areas of needed instruction are
communication skills for those with autism and social skills for those with Asperger
syndrome. Also, most agree that educational programming for students with autism
spectrum disorders should include (1) direct instruction of skills, (2) behavior
management, and (3) instruction in natural settings.
GLOSSARY
-
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) – spektar autističnih poremećaja
pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) – pervazivni razvojni poremećaji
varying, adj. - promenljiv
repetitive, adj. – koji se ponavlja
stereotyped, adj. - stereotipno
pattern, n. – obrazac,model
by far – daleko
prevalent, adj. – prevalentan, rasprostranjen
autism, n. - autizam
Asperger syndrome – Aspergerov sindrom
resistance, n.- otpor
seizure, n. - napad
deficit, n. – deficit, nedostatak
taper off – smanjivati se
likely, adj.- verovatan
exhibit, v. - ispoljavati
narrow, adj. - usko
tiny, adj. – sičušno
mutation, n. – mutacija, promena
pass down, v. - preneti
consistent, adj. – dosledan
20
UNIT ELEVEN
LEARNERS WITH LOW-INCIDENCE, MULTIPLE AND SEVERE DISABILITIES
Low-incidence, multiple and severe disabilities are those that occur relatively
infrequently and require extensive support in more than one major life activity, such as
mobility, communication, self-care, independent living, and employment. Probably one
percent or fewer of all learners have such low-incidence, multiple or severe disabilities.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is brain damage caused by trauma after a period of
normal neurological development. TBI can result from two categories of injury: open or
closed. Open head injuries involve a penetrating head wound from such causes as a
fall, gunshot, assault, car accident, or surgery. In closed head injuries, there is no
open head wound but brain damage is caused by internal compression or stretching of
neural tissues within the head.
The possible effects of TBI include a long list of learning and psychosocial problems,
such as: problems remembering things, problems learning new information, speech
and/or language problems, inappropriate manners, unreasonable fear or anxiety,
sudden swings of mood, depression, aggression, etc.
One of the great difficulties with TBI is that it’s often “invisible”. Like a learning disability,
it is not something that one necessarily notices about a person at first.
Deaf-blindness is defined by significant impairments in both hearing and seeing,
although the individual may have some residual hearing or sight. Causes of deafblindness can be grouped into three categories: (1) genetic/chromosomal syndromes,
(2) prenatal causes, and (3) postnatal causes.
Some of the genetic/chromosomal syndromes are inherited, and some result from
damaged genetic and/or chromosomal material. There are now over fifty
genetic/chromosomal syndromes associated with deaf-blindness.
Two of the most common prenatal conditions – rubella and congenital cytomegalovirus
(CMV) – can cause intellectual disability and/or deaf-blindness.
Among the most common postnatal conditions that can cause deaf-blindness are
meningitis and traumatic brain injury.
Most authorities agree that the biggest obstacle of people with deaf-blindness is
communication. Without a strong commitment by teachers and other professionals and
parents, the child who is deaf-blind can easily become socially isolated.
21
The major educational needs of students who are deaf-blind are communication and
orientation and mobility. Both, but especially communication are required for social
interaction.
In addressing needs for communication and orientation and mobility, practitioners and
parents should keep in mind two important principles: the importance of direct teaching
and the importance of structured routines.
While students without disabilities can learn a great deal incidentally (e.g. from seeing
or hearing things that happen around them), students with disability are often in greater
need of having material taught to them directly, especially students who are deaf-blind.
To create a successful environment for learning, it’s also very important that teachers
and other professionals and parents provide a sense of security for students who are
deaf-blind. One of the best ways to create this sense of security is through the use of
structured routines.
GLOSSARY
-
low-incidence – niska učestalost
multiple, adj. - višestruk
severe, adj - težak
infrequently, adv. - retko
require, v. – iziskivati, zahtevati
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) – traumatska povreda mozga
trauma, n. – trauma, povreda
penetrate, v. – penetrirati, probiti, prodirati
wound, n. – rana, ozleda
assault, n. - napad
compression, n. – kompresija, pritisak
stretching, n. - rastezanje
tissue, n. - tkivo
swings of mood – promene raspoloženja
residual, adj. – preostao, rezidualni
rubella, n. - rubela
cytomegalovirus (CMV), n. – cytomegalovirus, vrsta herpes virusa
obstacle, n. - prepreka
commitment, n. – predanost (poslu)
practitioner, n. - stručnjak
keep in mind – imati na umu
incidentally, adv. – slučajno, uzgred
environment, n. – okruženje, sredina
22
UNIT TWELVE
LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
Physical disabilities are physical limitations or health problems that interfere with school
attendance or learning to such an extent that special services, training, equipment,
materials, or facilities are required.
Children with physical disabilities may have congenital anomalies (defects they are born
with), or they may acquire disabilities through accident or disease after birth. Some
physical disabilities are mild and transitory; others are profound and progressive
(muscular dystrophy). Some are chronic diseases (cerebral palsy), while some are
episodic (epilepsy).
Major categories of physical disabilities are neuromotor impairments, orthopedic or
musculoskeletal disorders, and other conditions that affect health and physical
abilities.
All neuromotor impairments involve damage to the brain before, during, or soon after
birth or damage to the spinal cord.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, lack of
coordination, and/or other motor dysfunction. It is caused by damage to the brain before
it has matured. Seizure disorder (Epilepsy) is caused by an abnormal discharge of
electrical energy into the brain. A person with epilepsy has a chronic neurological
condition and has recurrent seizures. Neurological damage can involve only the spinal
cord, leaving the brain unaffected. Spinal cord injury can occur before or after birth,
affecting the individual’s ability to move or control bodily functions below the site of the
injury.
Two of the most common musculoskeletal conditions affecting children are muscular
dystrophy and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Muscular dystrophy is a hereditary disease
that is characterized by progressive weakness caused by degeneration of muscle fibers.
Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis is a systemic disease in which muscles and joints are
affected; the cause and cure are unknown.
Many individuals with physical disabilities use prosthetics, orthotics, and other
adaptive devices to help them function better on a daily basis. A prosthesis is an
artificial replacement for a missing body part (e.g. an artificial hand or leg); an orthosis is
a device that enhances the partial function of a part of a person’s body (a brace or a
device that allows a person to do something). Adaptive devices for daily living include a
variety of adaptations of ordinary items found in the home, office, or school – such as a
device to aid bathing or hand washing or walking – that make performing the tasks
23
required for self-care and employment easier for the person who has a physical
disability.
Too often we think of people who have physical disabilities as being helpless or unable
to learn. We forget, though, that many people with physical disabilities can learn to do
many or all the things that most nondisabled people do, although sometimes they must
perform these tasks in different ways. For students with physical disabilities, education
should be as normal as possible and it should equip the student for daily living as well
as employment or further education.
GLOSSARY
-
physical disabilities – telesna oštećenja
interfere, v. - ometati
attendance, n. - pohađanje
equipment, n. - oprema
facilities, n. – oprema, uređaji, objekti
anomaly, n. – anomalija, nepravilnost
transitory, adj. – prolazno, kratkotrajno
cerebral palsy, n. – cerebralna paraliza
epilepsy, n. - epilepsija
neuromotor, adj. - neuromotorni
orthopedic, adj. - ortopedski
musculoskeletal, adj. – mišićno-skeletni, muskuloskeletalni
spinal cord, n. – kičmena moždina
paralysis, n. – oduzetost, paraliza
weakness, n. - slabost
discharge, n. – protok, ispuštanj
recurrent, adj. – povratan
muscular dystrophy – mišićna distrofija
juvenile rheumatoid arthritis – juvenilni reumatoidni artritis
degeneration, n. - degeneracija
muscle fibers – mišćna vlakna
systemic disease – sistemska bolest
prosthesis, n. – proteza, veštački organ ili deo organa
orthosis, n. – ortoza, korekcija deformiteta, ojačavanje zgloba ili mišića
artificial, adj. - veštački
enhance, v. – poboljšavati, pojačavati
brace, n. - pridrživač
adaptive, adj. – prilagodljiv, adaptivan
aid, v. - pomagati
equip, v. - opremiti
24
UNIT THIRTEEN
LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL GIFTS AND TALENTS
Today, most experts in educating those with special gifts and talents suggest that
giftedness refers to superior abilities in specific areas of performance, which may be
exhibited under some circumstances but not others. Having a special gift at one thing
doesn’t mean that a person is good at everything. People get extraordinarily good at
something only by developing their ability to do that particular thing.
There may be different kinds of giftedness, such as analytic, synthetic and practical.
Analytic giftedness involves being able to take a problem apart, which is a skill
typically measured by conventional intelligence tests. Synthetic giftedness involves
intuition, creativity, or adeptness at coping with novel situations, skills that are typically
associated with high achievement in the arts and sciences. Practical giftedness
involves applying analytic and synthetic abilities to the solution of everyday problems,
the kinds of skills that characterize people who have successful careers.
As defined today, giftedness isn’t something that sets people apart in every way from
people who are average. Instead, it refers to specific, valued, and unusual talents that
people may exhibit during some periods of their lives. Therefore, the main factors that
contribute to giftedness are really much the same as those that contribute to any type of
behavior, whether typical or exceptional:
1. Genetic and other biological factors, such as neurological functioning and
nutrition.
2. Social factors, such as family, school, the peer group, and community.
Although giftedness may be determined in part by one’s genetic inheritance, the idea
that giftedness is entirely inherited is wrong. Families, schools, peer groups and
communities have a big influence on the development of giftedness. Stimulation,
opportunities, expectations, and rewards for performance all affect children’s learning.
One of the worst common misconceptions is that giftedness predisposes people to
mental illness. Some people with special gifts and talents accomplish remarkable things
in spite of, not because of, mental illness or physical disability.
Gifted students typically learn to read at an early age and achieve other developmental
milestones earlier than most children. They are typically good at many things, and they
typically like school and learning.
The plans for educating students with special gifts and talents can be described as
providing enrichment (additional experiences provided to students without placing them
in a higher grade) or acceleration (placing the students ahead of their age peers).
25
GLOSSARY
-
giftedness, n. – darovitost, nadarenost
exhibit, v. - ispoljavati
circumstances, n. - okolnosti
extraordinarily, adv. - izuzetno
adeptness, n. – veština, umeće
cope with, v. – izaći na kraj, nositi se sa
novel, adj. – nov, nepoznat
apply, v. - primeniti
set apart, v. - izdvajati
valued, adj. - cenjen
contribute, v. - doprinositi
nutrition, n. - ishrana
determine, v. - odrediti
misconception, n. – pogrešno mišljenje
predispose, v. – predodrediti
remarkable, adj. – izuzetan
milestone, n. – etapa
enrichment, n. – obogaćenje
acceleration, n. – ubrzanje
ahead, adv. – ispred
26
UNIT FOURTEEN
I READING
INTEGRATION, INCLUSION AND TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
The trend of integrating people with disabilities into the larger society began many
decades ago and is stronger than ever. A key principle behind integration is
normalization. Normalization is a philosophical belief in special education that every
individual, even the most disabled, should have an educational and living environment
as close to normal as possible. However, some people with disabilities are cautious
about being too closely integrated into nondisabled society. For example, some people
who are deaf, because of their difficulty in communicating with the hearing world, prefer
associating with other people who are deaf.
The most controversial issue about integrating students with disabilities into school is
that of full inclusion. Although there are different ideas about exactly what full inclusion
means, most definitions include the points that all students with disabilities are placed in
their neighborhood schools in general education classrooms, and that general
education teachers have the primary responsibility for students with disabilities.
Repeated surveys and interviews have indicated that the vast majority of students with
disabilities and their parents are satisfied with the special education system and that
they prefer separate classes to full inclusion. Furthermore, opponents of full inclusion
argue that general educators are unwilling and/or unable to cope with all students with
disabilities.
Whether or not one supports the concept of full inclusion, the fact is that most educators
are in favor of some degree of integration through different forms of cooperation
between general and special education (e.g. collaborative consultation, co-teaching,
instructional modifications and adaptations, etc.)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that every school
system must provide a free appropriate public education for every child between the
ages of three and twenty-one, regardless of how or how seriously he or she may be
disabled. IDEA also states that schools place students with disabilities in the least
restrictive environment. Furthermore, IDEA urges educators to consider the use of
assistive technology in servicing students with disabilities, to allow a greater diversity
of students to be placed in typical classrooms.
Many educators and social scientists believe that the earlier in life a disability is
recognized and a program of education or treatment is started, the better the outcome
will be for the child. IDEA requires that a variety of early intervention services be
27
available to all infants and toddlers identified as having disabilities. Such services
include special education instruction, physical therapy, speech and language therapy
and medical diagnostic services.
Many students with disabilities have problems in transition from adolescence to
adulthood and from school to work. They drop out of school, experience great difficulty
in finding and holding jobs, do not find work that is suited to their capabilities, do not
receive further training or education, or become dependent on their families or public
assistance programs. Federal laws, including IDEA, require attention to transition plans
for older students. Transition services include a coordinated set of outcome-oriented
activities that promote movement from school to postsecondary education, vocational
training, integrated employment, continuing adult education, adult services, independent
living, or community participation.
VOCABULARY
-
integration, n. – integracija
normalization, n. – normalizacija
cautious, adj. – obazriv, oprezan
controversial issue – sporno pitanje
(full) inclusion, n. – (potpuna) inkluzivna edukacija
survey, n. – istraživanje
indicate, v. – pokazati, ukazati
vast, adj. – velika
opponent, n. – protivnik
cope with – izaći na kraj sa
be in favor of – podržavati
collaborte, v. – sarađivati
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) – zakonski akt o edukaciji
ometenih lica
assistive technology – asistivna tehnologija
diversity, n. – raznolikost, raznovrsnost
early intervention – rana intervencija
infant, n. – beba, malo dete (do druge godine života)
toddler, n. – dete između prve i treće godine života
transition, n. – prelazak
drop out – odustati, prekinuti (školovanje)
28
UNIT FIFTEEN
I READING
JOB PROFILES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Special education teachers work with children and youths who have a variety of
disabilities. A small number of special education teachers work with students with
severe cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities, primarily teaching them life skills
and basic literacy. However, the majority of special education teachers work with
children with mild to moderate disabilities, using or modifying the general education
curriculum to meet the child's individual needs. Most special education teachers instruct
students at the preschool, elementary, and secondary school level, although some work
with infants and toddlers. Early identification of a child with special needs is an
important part of a special education teacher's job, because early intervention is
essential in educating children with disabilities.
Special education teachers help to develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP)
for each student receiving special education. The IEP sets personalized goals for the
student and is tailored to that student's individual needs and abilities. When appropriate,
the program includes a transition plan outlining specific steps to prepare students for
high school or, in the case of older students, a job or postsecondary study. Preparing
special education students for daily life after graduation also is an important aspect of
the job. Teachers provide students with career counseling or help them learn life skills.
As schools become more inclusive, special education teachers and general education
teachers increasingly work together in general education classrooms. Special education
teachers help general educators adapt curriculum materials and teaching techniques to
meet the needs of students with disabilities. A large part of a special education teacher's
job involves communicating and coordinating with others involved in the child's wellbeing, including parents, social workers, school psychologists, occupational and
physical therapists, school administrators, and other teachers.
Technology is becoming increasingly important in special education. Teachers use
specialized equipment such as computers with synthesized speech, interactive
educational software programs, and audiotapes to assist children.
Other occupations involved with the identification, evaluation, and development of
students with disabilities include: audiologists, counselors or psychologists,
occupational therapists, physical therapists, speech-language pathologists, social
workers, and assistive technology practitioners or specialists.
29
VOCABULARY
-
special education teacher – specijalni edukator
literacy, n. – pismenost, obrazovanje
Individualized Education Plan (IEP) – Individualni obrazovni plan
tailor, v.- prilagoditi
outline, v. - opisati
well-being, n. - dobrobit
synthesized, adj. - sintetizovan
audiologist, n. - audiolog
counselor, n. - savetnik
psychologist, n. - psiholog
occupational therapist, n. – radni terapeut
physical therapist, n. - fizioterapeut
speech-language pathologist, n. - logoped
social worker, n. – socijalni radnik
assistive technology, n. – asistivna tehnologija
30