History of Procrastination
Steel, P. (n.d.). History of procrastination. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from
Procrastination Central Web site:
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~steel/procrastinus/history/history.html
When I first started researching this topic I tried to track down a book by Ringenback
(1971) Procrastination through the ages: A definitive history, cited several times by
Knaus (1979; 2000). This search is not recommended. After spending weeks on this
endeavor, enlisting the help of professional librarians, I finally found a very relevant
section in the appendix of an old PhD thesis by Margaret Aitken (1982). Her
correspondence with Paul Ringenbach and the publisher reveals that the work was never
actually written. It was actually an elaborate joke (i.e., a book on procrastination that was
never completed). See also Kaplan (1998) for another well-conducted academic
article/prank.
However, there has been some legitimate investigations into when and whether we have
procrastinated. Here are two lines of inquiry. The first indicates that procrastination is a
relatively recent phenomenon. The second, based on my own research, indicates that
procrastination has existed throughout time but has risen in recent years.
Procrastination: Recent Phenomenon
Noach Milgram (1992) wrote the first historical analysis on this topic, Procrastination: A
Malady of Modern Time. There he argues that technically advanced societies require
numerous commitments, deadlines, and scheduling, and it is from this nasty brew that our
vice arises. Consequently, undeveloped agrarian societies are not beset by the woes of
procrastination. Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995), in their book, take a similar
though somewhat softened stand. They contend that procrastination has existed
throughout history but that it only acquired truly negative connotations with the advent of
the industrial revolution, that is circa 1750. Before then, procrastination was viewed
neutrally and could be interpreted as a wise course of (in)action. Accordingly, they find
examples from ancient Egyptian and Roman civilizations where the authors use the
concept of postponement or putting off as being useful or wise (DeSimone, 1993 as cited
in Ferrari et al., 1995). These examples include avoiding unnecessary work or
demonstrating patience. Also, they note that procrastination, according to the OED
(1952), did not have negative connotations until the mid-18th century. Consequently,
they conclude, “that as economies become large and more complex…words related to the
concept of task avoidance become more negatively imbued with meaning” (p. 5).
Procrastination: Perpetual & Pervasive
On balance, there is some truth to procrastination being a modern malady. Self-reports of
procrastination appear to be the rise. My own research indicates that in 1978, when we
first started measuring procrastination, about 15% of the population said they
procrastinate somewhat and about 1% indicated they often procrastinate. In 2002, about
60% of the population said they procrastinate somewhat and about 6% indicated they
often procrastinate. Despite this increase, historical references indicate that our views
about procrastination have been reasonably constant over the ages: its a prevalent
problem.
Starting with the industrial revolution, Samuel Johnson (1751) writes about
procrastination indicating that it is already well ingrained habit, not a recent fad.
Specifically, “it is one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the instruction of
moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or less degree in every
mind.” Similarly, a contemporary of Johnson, Phillip Stanhope (1749), the Earl of
Chesterfield, stated, “no idleness, no laziness, no procrastination; never put off till
tomorrow what you can do today.”
Clearly preceding the industrial revolution was a sermon written by a Reverend Walker
in the 17th century. There he makes it quite clear that procrastination is extremely sinful,
that he and other ministers have rallied their congregations against it repeatedly, and that
there are other texts available that speak similarly. This sermon can be further predated
by John Lyly, an English novelist patronized by Queen Elizabeth I. Lyly made himself
famous through a 1579 work Eupheus, a book that relies highly on proverbs for content.
Within he writes, “Nothing so perilous as procrastination” (1579/1995).
Earlier research into the nature of procrastination is obtainable through the Perseus
Project, an extensive electronic collection of classical texts. Searching this database, there
are several illuminating references. Focusing on the more notable sources, we find in 44
B.C. Marcus Cicero spoke upon this subject. Cicero was the consul of Rome, its highest
political office, and an infamous orator who spoke against several political opponents
such as Catiline, who Cicero had killed, and Mark Anthony, who had Cicero killed. In a
series of speeches denouncing Mark Anthony, he states, “in the conduct of almost every
affair slowness and procrastination are hateful”(Philippics, 6.7). Roughly 400 years
earlier were the musings of Thucydides, an Athenian general who wrote extensively on
the war with the Spartans, including various aspects of personalities and strategies. He
mentions that procrastination is the most criticized of character traits, useful only in
delaying the commencement of war, so as to allow preparations that speed its conclusion
(Histoires, 1.84.1). Finally, there is Hesiod who wrote near 800 BC. Hesiod is one of the
first recorded poets of Greek literature, and thus provides one of the first citations
possible. His words are worth repeating in full (Works and Days, l. 413):
Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not
fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who
puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin.
As an additional Eastern reference, there is the Bhagavad Gita. Written approximately
500 BC, it is considered to the most widely read and influential spiritual text of
Hinduism. Within it, Krishna maintains: “Undisciplined, vulgar, stubborn, wicked,
malicious, lazy, depressed, and procrastinating; such an agent is called a Taamasika
agent” (18.28). Of special note, Taamasika people are considered so lowly that mortal
rebirth is denied to them. Rather, they go to hell.
Conclusion
It is apparent procrastination has been with us for an extremely long time. Given that it
has manifested itself under a myriad of conditions and cultures, it likely represents an
intimate part of our human nature. It seems capable of finding expression equally within
either the steel and glass buildings of modern New York or the stone and wood structures
of ancient Thebes. To be fair to Milgram’s (1992) and Ferrari et al.’s (1995) recency
theories of procrastination, the frequency if not the severity of procrastination has likely
grown. Essentially, if there are now more tasks to do and the deadlines for their
completion are more deeply etched, then the opportunity and saliency of procrastination
has necessarily increased. However, in seeking to better understand this ubiquitous
iniquity, we should not believe it is particular to our modern society. Consequently, our
explanations should likely focus on some fundamental and constant aspects of ourselves,
as they must be relevant not only for the life of today, but also for that of antiquity.
Treatments for Procrastination
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~steel/procrastinus/treat/treat.html
Given the fundamental nature of procrastination, it is curious how such a mechanism
could have become prevalent. One would expect that such a disadvantageous
characteristic would have long been culled from our gene pool. To address this, George
Ainslie argues that people in a hunter/gatherer environment should find that their
motivational compulsions fit motivational demands almost perfectly; “As long as they
sleep and hoard and mate when the relevant urge arises, they will behave more or less
adaptively in the environment in which those urges evolved” (1992, p. 88).
Unfortunately, in our civilized circumstances, contingencies are quite different, and it
often becomes important to act not as nature intended.
There are some who have likely inherited characteristics that let them deal better with
procrastination without any type of self-regulatory assistance. Like the naturally athletic,
they don't need a lot of help to stay motivationally fit. Fortunately, there is help for the
rest of us. There are many, many ways to reduce procrastination if not effectively
eliminate it. Here we review three: Learned Industriousness, Energy Regulation, and
Goal Setting. Of note, most procrastinators have a wide streak of impulsiveness in them
and likely are looking for the "quick fix." Unfortunately, the more powerful the remedy
for procrastination, the longer it takes to work.
Learned Industriousness
You may have heard that success breeds success, and this appears to be true. It all has to
do do with a very basic learning mechanism called classical conditioning. Classical
conditioning occurs when an event or an action dependably leads to a pleasing outcome.
After many repetitions, the preceding event or action starts to be conditioned and is
perceived as rewarding in itself. Hard work, for example, that leads dependably to
success, will eventually be found rewarding for its own sake. Consequently, successful
people find it easier to work hard and this helps to maintain their success (which helps to
maintain their work enjoyment). It is very nice arrangement, but the trick is starting this
virtuous circle. It can easily backfire.
If you start a new task, and you fail the first few times, instead of learned industriousness
occurring, you might get learned helplessness. That is, you might believe that your work
will never lead to success, so what is the point of trying in the future. Without effort, this
becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and success become unlikely and the work becomes
aversive, associated with failure.
When you start a new task, it is very important that you structure it so that your earlier
efforts lead to success. Take small steps in an easy, "safe," environment. Think of it as
physiotherapy. When people must learn to walk again after an accident, they are given
special equipment and exercise. The goal is to strengthen their muscles so they can walk
one day without the apparatus. Without the physiotherapy, walking never occurs. It is the
same for a lot of other activities. In the beginning, your motivation for many tasks will be
weak and you need to take extra-care to nurture it through this vulnerable period. If you
succeed in enough different areas over a long period of time, likely you will enter most
activities with an air of confidence and can endure through many setbacks. You know the
success will eventually come.
Energy Regulation
"Too tired to work" was one of the main reason students use to explain their
procrastination. It also appears to explain why those depressed report more
procrastination: lethargy. Work, especially work that requires intensive concentration or
physical exertion, becomes increasingly unpleasant when our “get-up-and-go” has “gotup-and-gone.” However, energy level also can affect procrastination through an
additional path.
Many researchers have noticed the role that energy has in the process of self-control. In
homage to Sigmund Freud, one of the first psychological theorists to more fully explore
the notion of psychic energy, they use the terms ego and ego strength to describe this
force (you might like to call it willpower). A recent review on the topic makes several
conclusions relevant to procrastination. First, ego energy is used in many impulse
restraining or delaying acts, such as thought suppression or even just volition itself.
Second, this energy is quite limited, and as it depletes, the ability to self-control
diminishes. Third, it is renewable, and perhaps expandable with continued use (i.e.,
stretching it). Consequently, as we get tired, stressed, or frustrated, our ability to suppress
or redirect our needs is hampered and thus so is our aptitude at preventing
procrastination.
There are many roads that should help increase or replenish our energy level or ego
strength. To informally mention a few, adequate sleep is necessary, with research
indicating that almost everyone can benefit from eight hours of slumber each day.
Related to sleep, people’s energy levels rise and fall according to circadian rhythms,
meaning that there will be times of the day where energy will peak (often around 10:00
o’clock in the morning) and where energy level will slump (often around 3:00 o’clock in
the afternoon). It would be best to schedule your most averse tasks during your energy
peak and most pleasant tasks during the slump. Sickness will obviously decrease energy
states and, in a similar manner, so will allergies. Though the former of these is less
avoidable, testing and treating allergies may be a critical step. Exercising regularly often
increases vitality, especially that focusing on cardiovascular health. Food obviously
provides energy, though not all food is the same in this respect. Simple carbohydrates
will release bountiful amounts of energy quickly while complex carbohydrates release
their store at a slower but steadier rate. And of course, there is the crown prince of
energy, coffee.
Goal Setting
This is a very effective mechanism for limiting procrastination. The process requires
taking some larger goal and breaking it down into a series of smaller tasks. For optimum
effectiveness, these goals should have four properties: Specificity, Challenge, Proximity,
and Routine. It works very much as Discounted Utility Theory, outlined on the Theory
webpage, would predict.
Specificity
Goal specificity refers to explicit standards and conditions that indicate their fulfillment.
Increasing specificity has been shown to increase performance and, in turn, should
decrease procrastination. To the degree one does not have a clear understanding of when
goals are about to be achieved, the motivational benefits of temporal discounting do not
occur. In other words, you should know exactly where your finishing line is.
Challenge
Challenge of goal essentially increases its value. Achieving a difficult challenge is more
rewarding than achieving an easy task. To avoid procrastination, challenging goals
should be set as they have higher value and less easily overshadowed by other
alternatives. To be effective, challenging goals should be set as they have higher value
and are less easily overshadowed by other alternatives. Of note, expectancy is somewhat
diminished by challenge. Consequently, there is an optimal breakpoint where the
decreased expectancy of a goal outweighs the potential gains in satisfaction
Proximity
Ideally, your goals should be set though that they can be completed in a timely manner,
perhaps today or even just this morning. Distant goals are substantially delayed, reducing
the motivational effectiveness. The only reservation regarding proximity is that by
dividing a large goal into variously spaced sub-goals, each sub-goal must necessarily be
easier to achieve and thus less satisfying. Consequently, there should be a breakpoint
where the further subdivision of a goal decreases achievement motivation more than can
be offset by the decrease in delay.
Routine
One predictor of procrastination is the number of “choice points” a task requires. The
more junctures that require choice, the more likely it is that we will procrastinate.
Consequently, one of the most powerful self-control techniques is the development of
automaticity through routines. Automaticity refers to a habitualized course of action that
can be conducted with little or no conscious attention. These automatic routines can
maintain goal pursuit as they limit decision making to that relevant to the task at hand.
Consequently, you should try to schedule your goals to occur at a regular time and a
regular place. For example, if you trying to exercise, choose a day, a time, a place, and
stick to it as best as possible. If sickness makes you miss a day, get back to it as soon as
possible. Eventually, you won't be deciding to do other things. You will just find yourself
effortlessly performing.
First article found; not well-sourced—hard to tell which info is from Ferrari and which
from Pychyl
Procrastination: Ten Things To Know
Is your procrastination hindering you? Ten things you should know.
http://psychologytoday.com/rss/pto-20030823-000001.html
By:Hara Estroff Marano
Publication: Psyched for Success
Publication Date: 23 August 2003
There are many ways to avoid success in life, but the most sure-fire just might be
procrastination. Procrastinators sabotage themselves. They put obstacles in their own
path. They actually choose paths that hurt their performance.
Why would people do that? I talked to two of the world's leading experts on
procrastination: Joseph Ferrari, Ph.D., associate professor of psychology at De Paul
University in Chicago, and Timorthy Pychyl, Ph.D., associate professor of psychology at
Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. Neither one is a procrastinator, and both
answered my many questions immediately.
1. Twenty percent of people identify themselves as chronic procrastinators. For them
procrastination is a lifestyle, albeit a maladaptive one. And it cuts across all domains of
their life. They don't pay bills on time. They miss opportunities for buying tickets to
concerts. They don't cash gift certificates or checks. They file income tax returns late.
They leave their Christmas shopping until Christmas eve.
2. It's not trivial, although as a culture we don't take it seriously as a problem. It
represents a profound problem of self-regulation. And there may be more of it in the U.S.
than in other countries because we are so nice; we don't call people on their excuses ("my
grandmother died last week") even when we don't believe them.
3. Procrastination is not a problem of time management or of planning. Procrastinators
are not different in their ability to estimate time, although they are more optimistic than
others. "Telling someone who procrastinates to buy a weekly planner is like telling
someone with chronic depression to just cheer up," insists Dr. Ferrari.
4. Procrastinators are made not born. Procrastination is learned in the family milieu, but
not directly. It is one response to an authoritarian parenting style. Having a harsh,
controlling father keeps children from developing the ability to regulate themselves, from
internalizing their own intentions and then learning to act on them. Procrastination can
even be a form of rebellion, one of the few forms available under such circumstances.
What's more, under those household conditions, procrastinators turn more to friends than
to parents for support, and their friends may reinforce procrastination because they tend
to be tolerant of their excuses.
5. Procrastination predicts higher levels of consumption of alcohol among those people
who drink. Procrastinators drink more than they intend to—a manifestation of
generalized problems in self-regulation. That is over and above the effect of avoidant
coping styles that underlie procrastination and lead to disengagement via substance
abuse.
6. Procrastinators tell lies to themselves. Such as, "I'll feel more like doing this
tomorrow." Or "I work best under pressure." But in fact they do not get the urge the next
day or work best under pressure. In addition, they protect their sense of self by saying
"this isn't important." Another big lie procrastinators indulge is that time pressure makes
them more creative. Unfortunately they do not turn out to be more creative; they only feel
that way. They squander their resources.
7. Procrastinators actively look for distractions, particularly ones that don't take a lot of
commitment on their part. Checking e-mail is almost perfect for this purpose. They
distract themselves as a way of regulating their emotions such as fear of failure.
8. There's more than one flavor of procrastination. People procrastinate for different
reasons. Dr. Ferrari identifies three basic types of procrastinators:
* arousal types, or thrill-seekers, who wait to the last minute for the euphoric rush.
* avoiders, who may be avoiding fear of failure or even fear of success, but in
either case are very concerned with what others think of them; they would rather have
others think they lack effort than ability.
* decisional procrastinators, who cannot make a decision. Not making a decision
absolves procrastinators of responsibility for the outcome of events.
9. There are big costs to procrastination. Health is one. Just over the course of a single
academic term, procrastinating college students had such evidence of compromised
immune systems as more colds and flu, more gastrointestinal problems. And they had
insomnia. In addition, procrastination has a high cost to others as well as oneself; it shifts
the burden of responsibilities onto others, who become resentful. Procrastination destroys
teamwork in the workplace and private relationships.
10. Procrastinators can change their behavior—but doing so consumes a lot of psychic
energy. And it doesn't necessarily mean one feels transformed internally. It can be done
with highly structured cognitive behavioral therapy.
Why We Procrastinate
By Jeanna Bryner, LiveScience Staff Writer
posted: 10 January 2007 03:44 pm ET
http://www.livescience.com/health/070110_procrastinatio
n_science.html
Surfing the Web all night when you should be finishing
an assignment that's due ... yesterday? You're not
alone. About 15 to 20 percent of the general population
are procrastinators, with up to 90 percent of college
students filling that bill.
Now, a recent study reveals some causes of the footdragging phenomenon and what dooms New Year's
resolutions to failure.
"Essentially, procrastinators have less confidence in
themselves, less expectancy that they can actually
complete a task," said lead researcher Piers Steel of
the University of Calgary.
Procrastination can do more than set your work or
school record back a notch. The daily delay can also
drain your wallet. A survey by H&R Block found that
waiting until the last minute to file taxes costs
people an average of $400 because of rushing-caused
errors, which totaled $473 million in overpayments in
2002.
Why dawdle?
Steel analyzed more than 200 past studies on
procrastination, dating back to the 1920s through 2006.
He found a strong link between impulsiveness and the
"I'll-do-it-tomorrow" phenomenon. The research is
detailed in the January issue of the journal
Psychological Bulletin.
Impulsive people value today far more than tomorrow.
"So they can't feel motivated, deadlines don't feel
real, they have no energy until just before they
happen," Steel said. These people have the best of
intentions, aiming to get started right away, but they
don't end up following through on their self-promises.
The personality trait rears its face in more than just
the workplace.
"Impulsive people tend to have self-control problems in
general. So they're more likely to be smokers, more
likely to overeat, more likely to gamble. They are the
type of people who choose short-term gain and incur
long-term pain," Steel told LiveScience.
However, Steel found in another study that when
procrastinators do cram to finish the work, they work
at a dizzying pace. "They work almost 11 times the
average rate. Real procrastinators, just before the
deadline, are mercurial," he said.
More put-offs
His analysis also turned on its head a widespread
notion-one reported in many self-help books-that people
put off work because they are perfectionists and fear
they will never reach this perfection.
"In fact, perfectionists tend to procrastinate slightly
less. They just worry about it more," Steel said. And
perhaps they report it more. Perfectionists tend to
feel guiltier about the delay so they complain and even
seek clinical advice for it.
People who dislike their jobs or find themselves
twiddling their thumbs due to boredom are more likely
to put off tasks than those who are passionate about
their jobs or schoolwork.
Other predictors of procrastination: high
distractibility, lack of self-confidence and a low
level of intrinsic motivation, or the drive to check
things off the to-do list.
Don't delay
Does this mean all dawdlers are doomed to a life buried
beneath perpetually late assignments and sloppy tax
returns? Don't freak out just yet. Steel has some tips
to help put procrastination behind you.
A project due in a month doesn't get the adrenaline
going for a procrastinator, but something due tomorrow
might give you that jolt. "Distant goals have very
little motivational force. You have to bring them down
into the daily goals and make them real in the moment,"
Steel said.
Office managers can also take action to help employees.
Steel said managers need to figure out which workers
are self-motivated "do-ers" and which ones are
procrastinators. Then, the manager could set up daily
meetings to ask the person their goals for that day and
the next, making sure to check up on the person to see
whether they've accomplished those goals.
Make it harder
Since people are more likely to put off work if it's
boring, managers could make tasks more difficult to
reduce the boredom and increase the satisfaction the
employee gets from completing it.
And if this doesn't work, time will, along with
willpower. Steel said as people age they grow out of
their procrastinating behaviors, because they learn
self discipline. He should know. Asked if he is a
procrastinator, Steel replied, "I used to be famously
so."
He hopes to refine procrastination diagnoses so that
doctors can figure out the specific causes of an
individual's procrastination. Then, they could work out
a plan to nip it in the bud.