REPORT TO UNIVERSITY FORUM FOR HRD
EXPLORING THE DIVERSE DEVELOPMENT ISSUES OF FEMALE EXPATRIATES
Dr Sue Shaw & Dr Andrew Rowe
Manchester Metropolitan University
May 2012
Sue Shaw: S.Shaw@mmu.ac.uk
Andrew Rowe: A.Rowe@mmu.ac.uk
1
THE AUTHORS
Sue Shaw
Sue is Associate Dean. Learning and Teaching and Head of the Department of Management at
Manchester Metropolitan University Business School. She studied History at the University of
Southampton before completing an MSc in Manpower Studies and Industrial Relations at the
University of Salford and a Doctorate in Business Administration at the University of Manchester.
Her teaching and research interests are in international HRM/HRD, individual performance and
women in management. She has a number of publications and conference papers in these areas.
She leads the MMU accredited McDonald’s in-house Foundation Degree programme in Managing
Business Operations and until its conclusion in March 2011, led the School’s four year METP
EU/China management development project. Sue is a Chartered Fellow of CIPD and has been
actively engaged with the CIPD for a number of years both nationally and internationally.
Andrew Rowe
Andrew is currently a senior lecturer in organisational behaviour at Manchester Metropolitan
University, leading a variety of post experience courses and successfully supervising at doctoral level.
Prior to joining MMUBS, he completed a PhD in Management Learning at the University of Essex,
then becoming a research fellow at the Cranfield School of Management on an EPSRC project
looking at teamworking in construction. Recently, alongside researching female expatriation, he has
also been investigating executive remuneration as well as the contribution of the arts to
organizations: the latter through a metaphorical application of dance, in addition to exploring a
spatial understanding of organizational learning. He has published in a range of international
journals and has written on Learning and Development for a CIPD publication
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the UFHRD for their generous sponsorship of this research in the
form of a research honorarium
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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 5
2 The LITERATURE ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.1
Women Expatriates ............................................................................................................... 8
2. 2
Learning and Development for Expatriates ........................................................................ 11
3 THE STUDY...................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1
Research Aims ................................................................................................................... 19
3. 2
Methodology .................................................................................................................... 20
4 FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................................ 23
4.1
Motives for Going on an Expatriate Assignment .............................................................. 24
4.2
Previous Work Experience ................................................................................................ 25
4.3
Expatriate Cycle................................................................................................................. 27
4.4
Expatriate Learning ........................................................................................................... 44
4.5
Expatriate Career Management and Development ......................................................... 52
4.6
Expatriate Women and Identity ........................................................................................ 56
4.7
Expatriate Women and Generational Factors ................................................................. 59
5 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................................... 61
5.1
Women’s Learning and Development & the Global Assignment Cycle............................ 61
5.2
Emphasis upon the Product and Process of Learning...................................................... 63
5.3
Exploring the Potential of Learning & Development to Support Female Expatriates ..... 66
6 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY........................................................................................................ 67
6.1
Implications for Organisations ......................................................................................... 67
6.2
Implications for Individuals ............................................................................................. 68
7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................ 70
References ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
APPENDIX 1 INTERVIEW FORMAT .................................................................................................. 85
APPENDIX 2 BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE PARTICIPANTS ..................................................................... 86
3
4
EXPLORING THE DIVERSE DEVELOPMENT ISSUES OF FEMALE EXPATRIATES
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper examines the development of female expatriates, both traditional and self-initiated
expatriates across the expatriate lifecycle. Globalisation has led to an ever increasing cross-border
international business activity and it has been estimated that there are currently 850,000
subsidiaries of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) operating worldwide (Colakoglu and Caligiuri,
2008). International staff mobility has emerged a major strategic issue for MNCs and expatriate
numbers are expected to continue to rise steadily over the next decade (Harvey and Moeller, 2009).
Consequently, the need for organisations to be able to develop and deploy effective global
managers has never been so important (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1998) and this has led to increased
academic interest on the global career and role of expatriate workers assigned abroad (Jannssens,
Cappellen and Zanoni, 2006). At the same time the rise in protean and boundaryless careers is an
emerging issue in the field of international management (Banai and Harry, 2006; Briscoe, Schuler
and Claus, 2009; Arthur and Rousseau, 1996).
Traditionally characterised as an ambitious male manager with his ‘trailing spouse’ (Adler, 1984a),
research suggests that the expatriate profile is changing in a number of ways. One notable feature is
the increasing use made by organisations of alternative forms of international assignment (e.g.
commuter, short-term, flexpatriate, etc.), alongside the so-called Independent Internationally
Mobile Professionals or international itinerants, who have emerged in the context of boundaryless
global careers (Banai and Harry, 2006; Collings, Scullion and Morley, 2007; Peltokorpi and Froese,
2009). First acknowledged in the work of Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and Barry (1997) this group have
been referred to variously as self-initiated expatriates (SIE) or self-initiated foreign experiences
(Myers and Pringle, 2005). They now constitute a large contingent of workers that are largely
invisible to extant research because they are not sponsored by a specific organisation (McKenna and
Richardson, 2007). Their importance to organisations in the staffing of foreign subsidiaries in today’s
competitive global environment cannot be underestimated (Peltokorpi and Froese, 2009).
Research into expatriates traditionally has focused on those people sent abroad by multinationals.
However studies of SIEs whilst increasing are still limited and to date largely exploratory ( Suutari
and Brewster, 2000; Forstenlechner, 2010): therefore further studies that look at SIEs are to be
5
welcomed not just because of their distinctive nature but also because of the size of the group
(Bozionelos, 2009).
Another notable feature is the changing gender profile of international managers and professionals.
Relatively little attention has been given to female expatriates – partly because expatriates have
traditionally tended to be male. It is only in recent years that there has been a significant increase in
the number and visibility of women in international assignments (Altman and Shortland, 2008).
Whilst the number of females that pursue expatriate assignments (particularly Traditional Female
Expatriates [TFE] sent by an organisation) continues to remain at a disproportionately low level
(Varma, Stroh and Schmitt, 2001; Cole and McNulty, 2011), it is argued that female participation is
actually rising to around an estimated figure of between 14% and 23% of the total expatriate
workforce (Meyskens, Von Glinow, Werther & Clarke, 2009). Finding that they continue to be faced
with a ‘glass border’: women may now be choosing the self-initiated rather than a traditional route
into international careers (Altman and Shortland, 2008). Early research into women in international
management focused on the very small numbers employed as traditional expatriates sent abroad by
their organisations, the reasons for that, the difficulties and challenges women encountered and the
ways they surmounted these (Adler,1979, 1984a, 1984b, 1986/7, 1987, Tung 2004). Rather less is
known about female expatriate career development needs and experiences particularly within this
new context. Yet the business case for having a well developed female cadre of international
managers is clear- given the predictions of increasing organisational demand (Harvey and Moeller,
2009). This fact together with the rise of female workers actively seeking international experience
and the general interest into alternative options such as the self-iniated route (Fitzgerald and
Howe- Walsh, 2008) – in turn challenges the role of HRD in supporting females in this changing
international career context. Research that incorporates the perspective of self-initiated female
expatriates will deepen our understanding of the development issues facing female expatriates in
general.
The issue of expatriate failure rates – measured by the premature return of assignees - and the
factors that influence success of an international assignment have been important areas for research
(Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou, 1987). Whilst the precise size of the problem has not gone
unchallenged (Harzing, 1995, 2002) or suggested varies between nationalities (Lett and Smith, 2009)
the occurrence of expatriate failure has highlighted the significance of expatriate preparation such
as pre-departure training and cross – cultural training (Tarique and Caligiuri, 2004) with the precise
nature and content of learning and development interventions mediated by contextual and
situational factors (Mendenhall , Stevens, Bird and Oddou, 2008). HRD can play an important role in
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equipping expatriates to cope with postings: training, mentoring and career development
interventions have been identified as ways of obviating common problems such as personal
adjustment, career anxiety and under utilisation of global skills on repatriation (Dowling, Festing and
Englel, 2008).
However, expatriate managers’ development is traditionally explored from an
Organisational (Male) Expatriate perspective notwithstanding the rise of other forms of expatriate
described above. The provision of HRD support (particularly the funding of this) is an important
issue- especially who pays, how/whether the return on L&D investment is calculated. Existing
theories and models of career development fail to adequately explain the experiences of
international managers who pursue boundaryless careers (Banai and Harry, 2006) not least of all
when those individuals are women.
So, we support the view that it is important for organisations to manage expatriates effectively
providing opportunities for them to develop their career through overseas assignments; especially as
the skills required for organisational leadership positions require international familiarity (Altman
and Shortland, 2008). Those organisations finding it difficult to diversify their expatriate mix can
suffer a negative impact on their performance (Rhinesmith, Williamson, Ehlen and Maxwell , 1989) –
with the potential loss of knowledge and skills gained by expatriates learnt through their
experiences. This means that organisations must in future pay careful attention, not just to
managing the development of the traditional expatriate at each stage of the life cycle from selection
and pre-departure training to repatriation (Dupuis, Haines and Saba, 2008 ), but also to managing
their SIEs (Ariss, 2010; Banai and Harry 2006). A gender understanding is vital if organisations
themselves are going to deliver high performance in an international context. However, extant
research also highlights how organisations face difficulties in comprehending the specific issues
experienced by female expatriates: be it in relation to selection (Harris and Brewster, 1999),
ethnicity (Tzeng, 2006), adjustment (Linehan and Scullion, 2001) or work-life balance (Fischlmayr and
Kollinger, 2010). For these reasons, further understanding how female expatriates are managing
their global careers, what challenges they have encountered in their experience of expatriate
working and how they are learning to construct their performance within their working environment
are an important contribution to facilitate more effective management of female expatriate
employees.
Consequently, this study explores the development issues facing female expatriates in the context of
boundaryless careers. It takes the view that human resource development is not only a very broad
process that encompasses all learning situations both formal and informal that develop individual,
group and organisational knowledge but also one that is socially situated and embedded in
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interactions with others (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Unpacking this further, the term learning and
development refers not simply to the capturing and codification of explicit knowledge – e.g.
manuals, information systems and handbooks – but the harnessing of tacit knowledge held in, and
developed between, individual’s in practice. Thereby transcending formal organisational boundaries
to include communities of practice as vital arenas in which learning can take place (Brown and
Duguid, 1991). It refers to the achievement of goals, both at the individual & organisational level,
exemplifying a collaborative approach implicating all key stakeholders – governmental,
organisational and individual working together to provide opportunities, as well as identify further
needs, for learning and development. However, not all believe that this idealism is reflected in
practice. Vince (2003: 559) suggests not much has changed at all. He laments at what appears to be
an over-simplified view of development at the individual level alone, with too often mechanistic
learning based upon a limited range of models. This, he contends reflects no stimulation for staff to
learn and develop new knowledge; no concern for the needs of diverse individuals (overlooking
gender or cultural issues), and little consideration given for transfer of learning from the individual
to the organisation. This raises concerns for the practicalities of the new millennium, with its
globalised, organisational workplace. Notwithstanding such scepticism, research into the learning
and development of expatriates therefore needs to adopt this broad view.
This paper first examines the relevant literature in relation to women expatriates and learning and
development of expatriates particularly in relation to women expatriate development and that of
self- initiated expatriates. It then goes to report the study, outlining its aims, the methodology used
and the findings. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of the research and highlights
areas for future development.
2 THE LITERATURE
2.1 Women Expatriates
2.1.1 Traditional Female Expatriates
Female participation in global assignments has been of academic interest for over three decades
since the work undertaken by Adler in the late 1970s and 1980s. Whilst the barriers to women’s
increased international representation have been attributed to attitudes of the host country, the
reluctance of employers and to the women themselves, there has nevertheless been some attempt
to challenge this picture of negativity or what Adler called the three myths about women in
international management (Adler, 1984a; Caligiuri and Tung, 1999; Linehan, 2005). Adler’s early
finding (1987) that in Asia expatriate women were seen first and foremost as a ‘Gaijin’ (Japanese for
foreigner) has been confirmed in later studies. For example, research highlights female expatriates’
8
reported perceived success -in terms of intentions to repatriate and repatriation – in cultures as
diverse as China, Japan and Turkey (Napier and Taylor, 2002) and Mexico, Korea and Germany (Paik
and Vance, 2002). Moreover, Varma, Toh and Budhwar’s (2006) study of US and Indian Host Country
Nationals (HCNs) found that female US nationals far from being discriminated against were actually
preferred as co-workers over male US nationals by Indian HCNs. Whilst this suggests that claims
made about foreign prejudice stopping women succeeding abroad need some qualification, not all
research has appeared so positive particularly in areas where women are not well accepted in the
workforce. In the Middle East for example whereas Bozionelos’(2009) study of self- initiated
expatriate nurses in Saudi Arabia found women could succeed in cultures that appear to treat
genders differentially provided they were working in a female dominated profession and work
environment, Stalker and Mavin’s study (2011: 288) of self-initiated expatriate women in the United
Arab Emirates, in contrast, found the women were exposed ‘to gendered discriminatory values and
practices without the protection of legal or procedural support’. Moreover, Hutchings, French and
Hatcher’s (2008) study of female expatriates in China found that female expatriates perceived
themselves to receive less organisational support than men.
What is more, there are suggestions that women overcoming the stereotypes and prejudices of poor
selection practices of the employers and actually getting sent overseas (Linehan and Walsh, 2000;
Linehan, 2002; Harris, 2002, Insch, McIntyre and Napier, 2008; Varma et al, 2006), have been as
significant a barrier as the actual challenges experienced once abroad. Labelled the ‘glass border’
by Linehan and Walsh in 1999, it is suggested that institutional hurdles as manifested in both formal
and informal organisational policies, have worked
to limit women’s career opportunities in
international management and keep them at relatively junior levels of management (Forster, 1999).
These include formal policies relating to international selection criteria and career development
frameworks together with both informal processes, which influence women’s perceived suitability to
international management roles and the operation of informal socio-organisational processes that
construct gendered career paths and roles (Harris, 1995). The result is human resource practices
which reflect the interest of the dominant (male) group (Linehan and Scullion, 2004). Furthermore
these organisational barriers are compounded by the weakness of female organisational networking
(Varma et al, 2001) and the perceived lack of organisational support for females pursuing global
careers as evidenced in the lack of women mentors and role models. The work of Linehan and her
colleagues together with other writers, suggests that the lack of social network support also
presents another barrier to women’s international mobility (Linehan, 2000; Linehan, Scullion and
Walsh, 2001; Caligiuri and Lazarova, 2002). These developments lead Linehan and Scullion (2004) to
conclude that ‘ Women expatriate managers will remain a minority in Europe until organizations re-
9
examine their human resource management policies and practices and offer organizational support
in the form of mentoring and interpersonal networks’ (445-446).
What is more, extant evidence highlights that there are also gender considerations, such as family
responsibilities, which influence the decision to become an expatriate and can make this a
disproportionately difficult choice for women (Hearn, Jyrkinen, Plekhari and
Oinonen, 2008;
Tharenou, 2008). The rise in dual career couples also has implications for international relocation
(Harvey, 1995, 1996). Furthermore, whilst the likes of Stroh, Varma and Valy-Durbin (2000) reinforce
Adler’s (1984a) refutations of the myth that women are unsuitable to work overseas, it is significant
that there is a predominance of single/childless expatriates (Tzeng, 2006) as well as accounts of high
levels of work-family conflict (Fischlmayr and Kollinger, 2010; Tharenou, 2008). There is also
evidence that women are reluctant to pursue careers in countries that appear to have discriminatory
cultures (Tung, 2004). Gender role theory, for example, helps to explain how women need to
overcome substantial social barriers. This suggests that an international career is still not without
challenges or sacrifices that make it difficult for women to achieve or maintain high performance
and that the majority of international women mangers typically choose between a career and a
family (Linehan and Walsh, 2000; 2001).
Notwithstanding these challenges, the increasing demand for expatriates means that women should
be able to play their full part in global organisations. Indeed the exclusion of women from expatriate
assignments seems to run counter to Altman and Shortland’s (2008) conclusion from their review of
twenty-five years of research into women on international assignments, that there is strong
evidence that women adapt better than men in cross cultural business situations. However, in terms
of adjustment in general, the results are ambivalent. Lineham’s (2002) study of 50 senior female
international managers found women faced specific difficulties relating to gender bias linked to
international assignments, the negative influence of gender over international career, the difficulties
in finding career alternatives in the case of dual career couples and the difficulties of balancing
family demands. There is evidence that men and women‘s adjustment patterns are different with
women showing higher levels of work adjustment (Selmer and Leung, 2003) and interaction and
relational adjustment (Haslberger, 2007; Selmer and Leung, 2003). Moreover, Janssens et al’s (2006)
later study found expatriate women rather than seeing them selves as ‘victims of a penalising
structural context ‘(143) for gender, hierarchy or cultural reasons actively sought to counter this in
their interactions with men by developing their own professional identities as either a woman,
manager or western expatriate.
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2.1.2 Self-initiated Female Expatriates
One reason why published female expatriate numbers appear to remain low may be because
research tends to concentrate upon female expatriate managers (and their development) from a TFE
perspective rather than those who work outside of that kind of employment contract (Meyskens et
al, 2009). Yet as we asserted in the introduction recent research suggests that newer categories of
expatriates (particularly the self-initiated or self-financed expatriates [SIE]) play an important role
within the context of boundaryless global careers (Peltokorpi and Froese, 2009). Indeed, some
writers suggest that because female expatriates continue to be faced with a ‘glass border’, more
women may now be choosing the ‘self-initiated’ rather than a traditional route into international
careers (Altman and Shortland, 2008). This reinforces the need for female expatriate research when
discussing non-traditional routes to explore the implications for organisations and individuals of
supporting expatriate development on those differing routes.
One factor that is related to the rise of interest into female expatriation – particularly the nontraditional route is changing attitudes from younger generations of women. The emerging literature
on generational differences provides some rationale for why there is a steady increase of traditional
and SIE female expatriates, as well as why females are overcoming hurdles to take up international
assignments. Gen X, Gen Y and third culture kids (TCK) are seemingly more culturally aware than
previous generations and therefore may not need as in-depth cross-cultural training (Selmer and
Lam, 2004). This project provides the opportunity to investigate what differences exist amongst the
female expatriates – how they value the expatriate assignment and in particular look at how
organisations are perceived to value expatriate assignment and experience (Scullion, Collings and
Gunnigle, 2007). This is an emerging issue in the literature and little is known specifically regarding
Gen Xers as well as Gen Y in the context of international assignments.
2. 2 Learning and Development for Expatriates
Whilst they are inextricably linked it is nevertheless important to distinguish between the expatriate
assignment as an organisational and individual career development vehicle and the training and
development to successfully undertake the international assignment.
2.2.1 The International Assignment as a Means of Career Development
International assignments are increasingly used as a development tool by MNCs (Dowling et al,
2008; Harris and Dickmann, 2005) and indeed studies show that job development and opportunities
to enhance their career capital are major considerations for individuals in their decision to accept an
overseas assignment (Suutari and Brewster, 2000, Tung, 1998, Stahl and Cerdin, 2004, Dickmann,
Doherty, Mills and Brewster, 2008). Jokinen, Brewster and Suutari’s (2008) study of Finnish
11
expatriates found that an overseas assignment was an important learning opportunity for both
conventional and self-initiated expatriates, with both groups perceiving that the assignment
experience had enhanced their knowing how, knowing why and knowing whom career capital. This
led the authors to conclude that an international assignment provides a real opportunity for a SIE to
develop his or her career capital. Interestingly organisational expatriates were found to learn more
organisational knowledge and know-whom – which the authors attributed to the organisational
expatriates prior organisational knowledge and organisational networks which enabled them to
enhance their learning through their comparative and cumulative experiences.
In their study of
British academic SIEs, Richardson and Mallon (2005) found the internationalisation of higher
education and the belief that international experience would enhance their career capital and
academic marketability was a key driver in the decision for academics to seek a post overseas. Vance
(2005) developed a three-phase career path model to represent how an individual initiated and
implemented a career strategy for obtaining significant foreign work experience. Stage one started
with a foundation building stage centred on exposure to or immersion in international activities such
as tourist travel, language training, international internships or study abroad and this was followed
by specific preparation using networks, mentor and the development of marketable skills for
working abroad. The final stage was either securing foreign employment with a MNC or transferring
immediately into a internationals post, Interestingly in the research that underpinned this model
Vance found that was individuals who took up the immediate expatriation track were typically
younger and less constrained by domestic career and family support responsibilities than their MNC
counterparts.
2.2.2 Learning and Development to Support the International Assignment
The traditional expatriate cycle which is traditionally depicted as having three stages: pre, actual and
post assignment has been central to understanding the effective management of expatriates
(Bonache, Brewster and Suutari, 2001; Collings, Heraty and Morley, 2006). Training and
development is at the heart of this cycle: training, development, mentoring and career development
interventions have been recognised as supporting expatriate adjustment, on-assignment
performance and repatriation, thereby contributing to the overall success of the
expatriate
assignment (Dowling et al, 2008).
The importance of both anticipatory and in-country expatriate adjustment (Black, Mendenhall and
Oddou, 1991) to assignment success has led to research into the relevant dimensions of expatriate
acculturation and their implications for the expatriate selection process (Mendenhall and Oddou,
1985; Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and Luk, 2005). The importance of adjustment has also
12
led to an emphasis on the need for companies to undertake comprehensive pre-departure training
programmes covering cultural and country awareness and language skills training. For instance,
Harzing and Pinnington (2011) argue that by providing cross cultural training, MNC’s can positively
influence anticipatory adjustment by helping to build up realistic expectations about the assignment
and reducing culture shock. According to Vernon, Sparrow and Brewster (2007) the pre-departure
preparation usually includes training and other forms for example briefings, visits and shadowing.
Extant literature identifies cross-cultural training as a means of facilitating effective interaction
across different cultures (Brislin, 1981; Tung 1981; Bochner, 1982; Mendenall and Oddou, 1986). In
order for female expatriates to effectively perform whilst on assignments in foreign countries crosscultural training is required, to assist interaction between the head office and the host country Tung,
1981; Bochner, 1982; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1986).
Harris and Brewster (1999) argue, however, that in many MNCs actual training falls far short of good
practice with language training and country briefings being the extent of what is offered. Moreover,
research specifically into the effectiveness of cross-cultural training has shown mixed results
(Deshpande and Viswevaran 1992; Black, Mendenhall and Oddou, 1991). Vance and Paik (2002) have
criticised
organisational
approaches
suggesting
that
‘.....both
ethnocentrism
and
the
universal/generic nature of past approaches may have led to the design of expatriate pre-departure
training that does not adequately address the specific and unique workforce demands present in a
particular assigned country’ (558). This leads them to suggest that training far from being generic,
should be customised and should incorporate input from the host country workforce. Consequently,
whilst early models of cross cultural training (Tung, 1981; 1998 and Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou,
1987) concentrated on the development of cultural awareness, later adaptations have emphasised
the need for expatriates to retain and reproduce learned behaviours appropriately in the new host
culture (Black and Mendenhall, 1989; Vance and Paik, 2002) and the need to link adjustment and
performance within a wider performance management system (Dowling et al, 2008). It is in this
context that the importance of
in-country training and development has been recognized
(Mendenhall and Stahl, 2000), together with the wider process of learning that actually takes place
once the expatriate is in situ and becomes more sensitive to the challenges of working in another
country (Caligiuri and Di Santo, 2001). This is summarised succinctly by Mendenhall and Stahl
(2000): ‘...expatriates need training in “real time”; they need cross-cultural training or some form of
personal assistance “on the fly” (253). This leads Vance and Paik (2002) to suggest that it may not be
pre-departure training per se, but rather its inadequacies in the past that has led to the conclusion
that on site real time learning is more effective than pre- departure training.
13
Black (1988) identified three types of adjustment that were necessary for an expatriate: general
/cultural, work adjustment and interactional. The importance of adjustment at the interpersonal
interaction level has also been acknowledged in other studies. In Napier and Taylor’s (2002) study
female expatriates both recognized the importance of adapting their interpersonal skills to the
cultural context and gave examples of how they had learned to develop and enhance them in situ.
They also reported feeling that, in certain circumstances, they were more successful than men in
interpersonal interaction. Mendenhall & Oddou, (1985) argue that female expatriates need to
develop international working competencies through adaptability, cultural empathy and cultural
toughness. Furthermore, Suutari and Brewster (2000) as well as Selmer and Leung (2003) point out
female expatriates need to effectively adjust and feel comfortable with the environment in which
they have gone to work.
Mentoring is a long established form of individual development and means for improving learning
and career development (Clutterbuck, 2004) and the importance of in-country peer support and
mentoring to expatriates’ development has been acknowledged ( Jassawalla, Asgary and Sashittal,
2006; Mezias and Scandura, 2005). However, it has been asserted that expatriates may receive less
mentoring than domestic staff and female expatriates less mentoring than their male colleagues
(Harvey, McIntyre, Thompson, Heames and Moeller, 2009) do. Harvey et al (2009) argue that three
forms of mentoring: traditional, reverse and reciprocal are essential in today’s hyper-competitive
global environment and particularly so for stimulating the learning of female global managers.
Furthermore, where mentoring of an expatriate woman does occur it is likely to be undertaken by
men because of the shortage of appropriately experienced female international women although
this is not necessarily always seen as detrimental (Linehan and Walsh, 2001).
A key issue that has emerged is the lack of perceived value that organisations have in regard to the
experience that individuals have gained working internationally (Begley, Collings and Scullion, 2008).
This is reflected in expatriates’ reported dissatisfaction with the final stage of the expatriate cyclerepatriation-the lack of support they receive from their MNEs when they return home and the
impact it has on their decision to remain with the organisation (Bossard and Peterson, 2005; Stahl
and Chua, 2006; Stroh, Gregerson and Black, 2000, Tung, 1998). Not withstanding the importance
organisations attach to international assignments as a means of knowledge transfer and
management development, researchers have suggested that the area is both under researched and
under developed organisationally (Bolino 2007, Lazarova and Cerdin, 2007, Stroh et al, 2000 ). In
their study of US firms, Pattie, White and Tansky, (2010) found only 5-7% offered some form of
training with less than 70 % offering no training whatsoever and only 5% had formal career
14
development plans which utilised the repatriates’ careers. Whilst acknowledging that the link
between repatriation and career success is not straightforward (Bolino, 2007), good practice
suggests that repatriation expectations should be set at the pre-departure stage of the cycle. In
addition, from a learning and development perspective, by incorporating mentoring programmes
during the assignment and pre-return training repatriation training seminars on return, these
expectations should be met by a well integrated career planning and development process for the
assignee (Lazarova and Caligiouri, 2001).
Much of the above discussion and research into expatriate development has focussed on
conventional organizationally driven expatriate training as part of the expatriate management cycle.
This has two implications. Firstly, it can lead to a very narrow view of expatriate learning and
development. The second implication of what is a focus on organisationally driven expatriate
development is that it tends to ignore the development needs and practices of self-initiated
expatriates. The next two sections explore these issues.
2.2.3 The Role of Informal Learning in Expatriate Development
Recent studies have demonstrated the importance of host-country management and support (
Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley, 1999; Hutchings et al, 2008; Kraimer, Wayne and Jaworski, 2001), the
informal workplace learning (Morrison, 2002) and the role of local social networks in aiding
expatriate adjustment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al, 2005, Wang and Kanungo , 2004 ). Using social
identity theory, Stalker and Mavin(2011) define expatriates as out-group members or ‘other’ and
argue that they could benefit from host country nationals’ or third country nationals’ acting as
socialising or informal learning agents, providing role information , access to networks and
resources. Indeed Varma et al (2006) suggest that the perceptions attitudes and behaviours of HCNs
can impact not just the adjustment but also the learning about the organisation, local practices and
customs of expatriates. Interestingly Yamazaki and Kayes (2007) study of Japanese expatriates
working in the United States found that Japanese managers became more concrete and more active
in their learning style during the time spent in the United States leading the authors to conclude that
the learning style of expatriates changes and adapts in response to cultural demands. Social
networks with HCNs and other expatriates not only provide a sense of affiliation but may also be a
source of information about the host environment (Caligiuri, Joshi and Lazarova, 1999). BhaskarShrinivas et al (2005)’s meta analysis suggests that that the performance of expatriates who are not
well connected to their work unit’s social networks is likely to be adversely affected, because they
are less likely to receive local job knowledge and support. Caligiuri and Di Santo (2001) go as far as
to argue suggest that networks can be more effective than pre-departure cross-cultural training.
15
The role of women‘s networks as a means of learning, development and support has been well
researched in a national context (Catalyst, 1999; Ibarra, 1995, 1997, Bierema, 1996, 1999, 2005).
Consequently networks are seen inter alia as a means of learning about corporate culture (Bierema,
1999), as a way of counteracting and navigating organisational patriarchal structures (Catalyst,
1999) and for providing contacts and support for career guidance and advancement (Hanson,
2000). The importance of formal and informal social networks is seen to be particularly important to
female expatriates.
Shortland (2011) suggests such networks are potentially a valuable career
intervention for women at each stage of the expatriate cycle and in particular on assignment and
repatriation because their lower numbers make adjustment more challenging. Her study of female
expatriates in the extractive industries found the women valued the opportunities networks
presented in preparing to go as well as living and working abroad. However, whilst they were helpful
in terms of adjustment the majority of women felt they were not important from a career
development or promotion perspective. At the same time, working in a male dominated industry the
expatriate women found the value of a formalised female network helpful although potentially
divisive.
Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that accessing such networks is by no means easy to achieve and
research suggests that international women like their domestic counterparts are less well integrated
into organisational networks as their male colleagues (Linehan and Walsh, 2001). Although evidence
suggests that they do take opportunities to join associations or women’s networks not only as a
means of learning how business is done and to enhance their cultural understanding but also for
friendship (Napier and Taylor, 2002). Linehan (2000) found that female expatriates, notwithstanding
the difficulty in accessing male dominated networks, experienced greater benefit from these
because of the absence of family and friends than they did in the domestic environment. Gender
differences in networks have been acknowledged for some time and, in particular, the practice for
women’s networks of being more relational than men’s, which Bierema (2005) suggests may be
down to women’s pre-disposition to relational and connected knowing (Belenkey, Clinchy,
Goldberger and Tarvie al, 1986). Furthermore, suggestions are that women expatriates experience
difficulty in accessing networks in a male dominated environment but not vice versa (Bozionelos,
2009).
2.2.4 Learning and Development of Self Initiated Expatriates
Research into the learning and development of self-initiated expatriates is limited and we know
little about how individuals overcome barriers to their professional development in the host
countries (Ariss, 2010). Mayerhofer et al (2004a and 2004b) suggest that self-initiated expatriates
16
are often expected to assume responsibility for their training and development. Both Howe- Walsh
and Schyns (2010) and Suutari and Brewster( 2000) make the point that organisations should do
more to facilitate the adjustment of the SIE both in terms of his/her role and in the wider social
environment although the former authors suggest that the reality is more ad-hoc than planned.
Mayerhofer et al (2004b) argue that cross cultural issues are as important for self-initiated
expatriates as they are for conventional ones although the evidence suggests that this group of
assignees do not get the same level of cross cultural training as their organisational counterpart
(Tahvanainen, Welch and Worm, 2005). This lack of support is also evident in the repatriation
phase. Begley, Collings and Scullion’s (2008) study of self-initiated repatriates to the Republic of
Ireland labour market found that the international experience of many of these individuals was not
valued in the indigenous labour market. This led them to conclude that the adjustment to work
following repatriation presents even greater problems for this group than it does for their traditional
counterparts and furthermore to suggest that on appointment they will therefore need training to
be integrated into the domestic corporate culture before they can add value to the organisation’s
cross-cultural activities.
The importance of mentoring and peer support for self-initiated expatriates has already been
alluded to above. Bozionelos’ (2009) study of self-initiated expatriate Saudi nurses found a positive
relationship between mentoring and job satisfaction leading him to acknowledge the importance of
mentoring as a resource for self-initiated expatriates in general and particularly for those who are
based in countries that are culturally distanced from their own and where peer support may not be
forthcoming. The results of the study also led the author to suggest that mentoring and supportive
relationships with peers appeared to be far more beneficial to self-initiated expatriates than crosscultural training although he acknowledged that further research was needed before firm
conclusions could be drawn.
There is limited research that looks specifically at the development of female SIEs. In one of the few
studies to date to focus on the learning of SIE women, Stalker and Mavin (2011) in their research
into the development experiences of 12 SIE expatriate women in the United Arab Emirates, found
that formal organisational support for learning and development was lacking.
Faced with
marginalisation on account of their gender and foreignness the women in their study chose to take
responsibility for their own professional and personal development through their networks and
contacts leading the authors to conclude that further work is needed on informal and relational
methods of learning in the context of SIE women. The authors found that in the absence of
organisational support female SIEs in the UAE, embarked on their own professional development
17
initiatives including studying for formal qualifications and accessing professional networks. They
relied heavily on informal learning.
For SIEs, the overseas assignment is also a means to enhance their career and secure accelerated
development (Myers and Pringle, 2005). Fitzgerald and, Howe-Walsh’s (2008) study of professional
women in the Cayman Islands shows the extent to which this is attained. Writers have suggested
that SIEs attitudes towards their careers and the development
of those careers differ from
conventional expatriates in a number of ways and this has implications for how career management
is practiced within organisations (Banai and Harry,2006; Biemann and Andresen, 2010). Begley et al
(2008) suggest that one of the key distinguishing features of a self-initiated assignment is that it is
driven by an individual’s motivation to explore and learn rather than as a response to an employer
initiative. They are seen as free agents crossing organisational and national borders without difficulty
(Tharenou, 2009; Tharenou and Caulfield, 2010) and consequently that has implications for how
careers are perceived. Inkson et al (1997) argue that unlike conventional expatriates SIEs these
individuals plan and manage their own careers and are loyal to their own professional development
and career progression. They select their jobs for the potential to provide more knowledge and
judge their success not by salary level but by ‘learning related milestones’ (Banai and Harry, 2006:
171). Consequently, the focus of their development is on the job training rather than formal training
programmes. Furthermore, not only do they feel an urge to move and migrate to another country
earlier in their career but their career orientation is sustained longer at a higher age than their
multinational expatriate counterparts (Biemann and Andresen, 2010). At the same time, SIEs face
organisational and institutional barriers to their career development (Richardson, 2009, Ariss, 2010).
SUMMARY
What is clear from the review above is general agreement that further research is required into the
less traditional forms of expatriation. The diverse nature of female expatriation, particularly given
that they are prevalent in a globalized workforce is attracting further interest in research, but there
are concerns over how successful are their expatriate experiences. The importance of managing the
learning and development of employees is acknowledged for leveraging both individual and
organisational performance generally, although the ad-hoc nature of such provision suggests a need
for further research to investigate how HRD strategies affects the experience of female expatriates
especially given that many women are not following the traditional organizational-bound route.
18
3 THE STUDY
This study looks at the lived experiences of learning across the traditional expatriate cycle for female
expatriates from different nationalities following the different expatriate routes i.e. self-initiated as
well as the traditional organisational route. We have investigated the perceived role of Learning and
Development phenomena – covering formal HRD interventions such as cross-cultural training
provision, as well as less structured (but nevertheless important) processes like informal mentoring
from pre-departure preparations, up to the adjustments needed to be made post-repatriation. It
covers these issues both in terms of personal and professional growth, as the women progress
through the stages of the expatriate life cycle (Fitzgerald and Howe-Walsh, 2008; Vernon, Sparrow
and Brewster, 2007), This is important for organisations as well as individuals as the underlying
concerns remain concerning the facilitation and nurturing of human resources to benefit both
individual and organisation. We argue that acknowledging Learning and Development issues reveals
the function of both structured and unstructured learning – exploring the role of individuals,
organisations and other actors in shaping the experience of female expatriates’ through their
‘journey’. Employing this approach has enabled us to engage with how the women themselves
construct their own performance within international contexts. Our qualitative empirical research is
timely in light of the changes that are taking place in the expatriate arena and we suggest will help in
gaining a deeper understanding of the ‘lived experience’ between the female expatriates, which is
proving an increasingly rich source of insights for gender research (Xian and Woodhams, 2008).
3.1 Research Aims
This research was designed as an exploratory qualitative study of the development issues facing
female expatriates in the context of boundaryless careers. Specifically the study aimed to:
i.
Identify what are the diverse development needs & experiences of female expatriates
ii.
Understand what are the tensions & issues facing female expatriates – particularly those
following non-traditional routes (e.g. the SIE route) – in terms of their learning and
development (L&D) needs.
iii.
Explore what is the perceived potential of available L&D interventions for supporting female
expatriates (pre, during and post assignment) and the extent to which L&D supports female
expatriates in practice
iv.
Understand how HRD might support the process of female expatriate development and
determine the future directions for research
19
3. 2 Methodology
3.2.1 Rationale for Approach
We employ a qualitative approach to investigate the social worlds of female expatriates. In this, we
reveal the negotiation of identity, the different voices and understandings emerging from being
confronted with unfamiliar situations that not only challenge their extant theories-in-use (Argyris
and Schon, 1978), but reveal how the female expatriates learn to participate within these novel
contexts (Gherardi and Nicolini, 2002). Employing this approach enables us to engage with how the
women themselves construct their own performance within international contexts. In tracing
through the ‘lived experience’ of the female expatriates, we link with Elkjaer’s (2004) suggestion of a
pragmatic view of learning. In this, learning is understood as arising from the reflection that occurs
when habitual practices appear not to work – these act as triggers for reflection. Learning involves
participants addressing this uncertainty by coming to understand the situation, with its challenges
and possible solutions. She envisages organisations as arenas of multiple social worlds, formed
around organisational activities to which individuals commit or not. This draws partly from the
traditional experiential learning theorising, with its emphasis upon critical reflection on action (e.g.
Argyris and Schon, 1978) as well as the practice-based approaches that focus upon communities of
practice that form around people with common interests and shared identities (Brown and Duguid,
1991).
Elkjaer (2004) suggests for learning research to focus upon the inquiry arising from challenges to
habitual practice – such as when an expatriate goes abroad or changes post.
This permits
investigation into what happens when expatriates face these challenges. It gives an insight into how
organisational practices shape these social worlds and the implications for establishing roles and
identities: at individual, group and organizational level. Pragmatic theorizing here shows how
research can look beyond static representations of organizations, groups, or even communities;
instead, to focus upon the social worlds of “collective actions and interactions shaped by individual
commitment” (Elkjaer, 2004: 428). Here learning is understood as both an individual and collective
enterprise and reveals the diversity of ideas, meanings, and power bases that influence and emerge
from the action or inaction, commitment or withdrawal, from organizational processes. This is
useful for investigating how the female expatriates engaged, or disengaged, in their expatriate
experience.
3.2.2 Data Collection
Data were collected by means of individual interviews, both virtually and face-to-face. The
qualitative approach allows response to highlight personal stories through explanations emerges
20
because of the explanatory and descriptive nature of questions that were asked. Mann and Stewart,
(2000) point out this method allows a socially constructed world to emerge, allowing data to be
collected through the building of rapport with the interviewees. This fits in well with the main aim of
the research project considering a deeper understanding and exploring the lived experiences of
female expatriate working.
The level of depth and personal experience can be achieved effectively through relationship building
making the interviewees feel comfortable in disclosing personal information. This makes it quite
different from quantitative data through questionnaires, diagrams and statistics which is known to
create a detached involvement with the research subjects (Glesne and Peshkin, 1999). Therefore,
the qualitative approach is seen appropriate and was suitable in achieving the data that helps in
developing a depth understanding of expatriate working.
The use of MSN messaging was applied to collect the data, primarily to enable interviews to take
place with interviewees dispersed around the world, which had a by-product of helping to reduce
the time spent on transcribing some of the responses. Offline messaging and file sharing can be
particular useful when one individual is not logged in as messages can be sent and picked up when
the person logs in next. This can be particular useful when collecting the responses of females who
can send messages as and when they feel regarding any issues that may arise. The response rate of
individuals who use MSN instant messaging compared to normal email is much higher more so as
the responses are live and being processed as the interviewee is typing.
The use of instant messaging via MSN was useful when communicating with respondents living
overseas or a long journey from the researchers.
It was practical for dealing with such a
geographically spread set of respondents in the research project – covering the globe. Furthermore,
Watson (2004) suggests that the saving of costs in terms of travel, time, transcriptions and expenses
adds to the advantages of using this particular type of method. The location of the females adds to
the difficulty in conducting interviews in a convenient and cost effective manner and MSN provides a
practical solution to these problems.
In a research project conducted by Davis, Bolding, Hart , Sherr and Elford (2004) the use of instant
messaging using MSN was applied and was found to be particular useful in addressing sensitive
issues as opposed to conducting interviews face to face. This is particular useful when applying this
to the females when discussing certain issues might not be so easy through face to face. However
instant messaging makes it more difficult to develop effective rapport and trust which could have an
impact on the quality of data obtained. Consequently, respondents were informed about the issues
that the study was seeking to address beforehand, to allay any concerns.
21
Aspects of the cycle were included in the research framework to scope the experiences of both TFEs
and SIE to help investigate their experiences in depth (Brewster, Sparrow and Vernon, 2007). At the
same time, the study aimed to be particularly sensitive to the Learning and Development needs of
female expatriates from different routes. The open-end nature of the research questions was
deliberately designed to ensure that the analysis (as much as possible) was not delimited by
researcher assumptions. Our preliminary investigations engage with the diverse ‘journeys’ made by
the women: with interviewees having experiences of the different stages of the “the global
assignment cycle” (Brewster et al, 2007). These journeys, whilst in detail unique, also reflected links
with factors such as generation, culture and levels of international experience.
A copy of the interview outline can be found in Appendix 1
3.2.3 The Sample
Whilst the conventional view of expatriate is of someone sent abroad by an organisation on a
specific assignment, Engle, Dowling and Festing (2008: 4) refer to expatriates more generally as
those employees who are “working and temporarily residing in a foreign country”.
This is
characteristic of all the female expatriates in the sample, who have left their home country and are
(or were recently) working internationally. Daymon and Holloway (2002) point out there is no final
answer for the right sample size. However, Kuzel (1999) suggest that in order to achieve a level of
depth rather than breadth i.e. regarding the personal experiences of female expatriates a sample
between four and fifteen is a satisfactory number to allow sufficient data.
The sample in this study consisted of a variety of women who have been or are working as
expatriates, from different sectors, positions and occupations. Each generation group is included in
the sample. In total, thirty interviewees were interviewed for this exploratory study. A full break
down of the participants that have taken part is included in Appendix 2. The sample was gathered
through networks and snowballing (Fitzgerald, C. & Howe-Walsh, 2008). Each woman was asked if
she was aware of any other individuals who might be interested in taking part in the research to help
identify any other female expatriates that would like to take part in the interview. Lee (1993)
suggests that by asking members of the sample for further contacts it will allow a network to be
identified. This will help source female expatriates who would be interested in taking part.
Furthermore, Fitzgerald, C. & Howe-Walsh, L. (2008) highlights personal contacts to be helpful in
finding potential female expatriates therefore these were contacted in helping source female
expatriates.
22
3.2.4 Data Analysis
Grounded theory is the most widely used framework when analysing qualitative data and was
applied to this study. There are number of tools of grounded theory referring to theoretical
sampling, coding, theoretical saturation and constant comparison. It is best described as the
“interpretative method that share the common philosophy the methods that are used to describe the
work of the person or persons under study” (Stern, 1994:213). According to Collis and Hussey, (2003)
the approach builds theory that is faithful to the area that is under investigation. The data collected
from the females was organised into a framework that aims to make sense of the information
provided by allowing issues to be grouped together (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Moving from
descriptive categorisation through to analytical categories that attempted to capture similarities and
differences in the reported instances enabled the development of an empirical framework. This
grounded theory approach has proved useful in developing new theory in research topics that are
relatively new and unexplored.
It has been used to address aspects of female expatriation
(Fischlmayr and Kollinger, 2010). The study employed a largely abductive approach– wherein ideas
are both inductively drawn from the data as well as integrated with deductively drawn categories.
Our data was subject to theoretical sampling, involving the collection of further data in the light of
emerging categories, in order to refine the categories to ensure theoretical saturation is achieved
(wherein further coding no longer reveals new categories and/or addresses the within-code
variations). The comparative comparison approach is then applied in order to allow further
interesting codes to form under sub-headings after scrutinizing the transcripts, which were then
added to the framework (Stern, 1994).
Smith (2004) points out that accounts of the interviewees need careful attention with the
interpretation of the data as there is a risk that in making sense of the “journey” the researchers use
their own interpretation: therefore an open mind was considered to allow the details of the
individual experience to be conveyed effectively.
We draw out themes from the narratives,
reflecting the contextual emergence of learning, noting temporal and spatial considerations (Elkjaer,
2004), when and where events occurred, and being sure to distinguish between TFE and SIEs
(Peltokorpi and Froese, 20090 noting differences with considerations for individual and
organization.
4 FINDINGS
The main aim of the study was to explore the interpretations females have of their lived experience
as an expatriate. This was achieved by “probing” and “questioning” through the interviews allowing
primary research to be collected in a detailed and sensitive manner. In particular, whilst following
23
through the expatriate cycle, the learning and development implications of the female expatriate
experiences were explored. The first section explores the motives for undertaking an expatriate
assignment and this is followed by an exploration of previous work experience.
A detailed
exploration of the expatriate cycle follows in particular paying attention to the learning and
development aspects. This section then moves on to examine expatriate learning more widely,
including the formal and informal learning followed by issues of career development and identity.
The analysis finishes with an exploration of generational issues.
4.1 Motives for Going on an Expatriate Assignment
4.1.1 Choosing SIE or TFE Route
The interviews explicitly addressed the choice of the routes taken by the respondents. There was no
evidence that those who took the TFE route felt under pressure to do so, contrary to the findings of
earlier research (Stahl, Miller and Ting, 2002). However, it was noted by Expatriate 28 (TFE) that it
was difficult for her to obtain permission to go abroad, as although the company was a MNC it
tended to recruit from local workforces – partly because it is a franchised organization.
4.1.2 A Multiplicity of Drivers for Working Overseas
Respondents gave various reasons for working overseas and in addition to personal reasons such as
following a spouse, or to be closer to family and friends or limited opportunities in the home country
and there was evidence that the move was development driven to some degree. Some women left
their home country for professional reasons to improve career prospects and enhance their
employability which is consistent with Jokinen et al, (2008) findings. For example “experience with a
global company, exposure to different countries tax practises and accounting standards” (Expatriate
5 (SIE)), “an international assignment looks good on a CV” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)). Others found
themselves facing difficult employment condition in their home country for example “no jobs in
Toronto at the time when I graduated and decided to leave for the U.K” (Expatriate 6 (SIE)). Some
women found working internationally had more scope in terms of their career compared to staying
in the home country “staying in New Zealand didn't really have much scope with London, they will
send you for small projects but want you back!”(Expatriate 2 (SIE)). Whilst others preferred to have
contacts that already existed in the country they were working in for example “the prospect of
moving to a foreign country with no friends/family PLUS the uncertainty of not knowing whether I
would even like the new company/colleagues might have put me off from resigning from a safe job
at home surrounded by people I love and a country I know” (Expatriate 7 (TFE)). Some women were
motivated based on creating a gaining international experience to develop a portfolio of managing
international assignments that would help their career for example “the international experience
24
was crucial to developing my own global career as I want to work in a global organisation, hence the
need for international experience through the expat assignment”(Expatriate 1 (TFE)).
Moving to another country specifically in order to study was a prominent reason. The opening up of
China enabled our Chinese respondents to come to the West. The choice of becoming a student was
taken partly because of the ‘push’ of conditions back in the home country (e.g. Expatriate 21 (SIE)
had lived through life under siege in Sarajevo) or the ‘pull’ of opportunities to be able to legitimately
travel to a different culture. However, these are not necessarily either/or for the respondents.
Other women decided to work internationally because of their own desire to travel more for
example “I left New Zealand to travel more and I have been fortunate enough to land a job that
allows me to carry out advertising shoots across the world” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)), “thought of working
and being able to travel through Europe compared to just working in U.K” (Expatriate 7 (TFE)). Whilst
others shared a passion for learning and experiencing different cultures for example “I have a
passion for travelling having been to Ireland, Jordan, Austria, Czech Republic and the Netherlands to
live abroad and experience a different culture and work environment first hand defiantly motivated
me!” (Expatriate 8 (SIE)).
A number of observations can be made about female expatriate development driven motives.
Firstly, our findings reinforce Vance’s (2005) model of how individuals might initiate and implement
their career strategy for getting international experience. Secondly, the findings demonstrate clear
generational differences. The age range of the SIE route suggested that there was a preponderance
of women seeking to go abroad in their early 20s – particularly for studying abroad. This was
counter-balanced by those (e.g. Expatriate 16 (SIE)) who are currently abroad in their 30s or 40s.
The latter support the idea of older women moving abroad as ‘free agents’ (Myers and Pringle,
2005). Finally it is noticeable how the respondents seem to suggest a very ad hoc approach. For
instance, Expatriate 19 (SIE) commented that she did not actually plan to go abroad and no plans as
to how long to stay out of China as her decision to come to the UK and other career decisions were
made “70% on impulse”. Conversely, Expatriate 25 (SIE) stated that she came to the UK to study as
she “couldn't get into uni in Finland, UK was the easy option!” It is important to bear in mind that, as
Xian and Woodhams (2008) point out, it is not uncommon for women (particularly Chinese) to
underplay their decision making.
4.2 Previous Work Experience
Given the emphasis in this study upon Learning and Development, how the expatriates drew upon
any relevant experiences was investigated.
25
4.2.1 Years of International Working
Some of the women have previously worked internationally. Whilst expatriates 9 and 23 had only
three years of international experience, other women, perhaps not surprisingly, the older women
had more international experience. For instance, the two oldest women (Expatriates 2 and 7) had
over 25 years of international experience each – respectively as a SIE and TFE. However, the
diversity of our sample highlighted how the age of first overseas position varies greatly, meaning
that younger women also had extensive foreign experience.
Some of the respondents had little or no experience of working in their home country before moving
abroad: for example, Expatriate 19 (SIE) only had experience of vacation jobs. Others had more full
time working experience in their past, although not necessarily in the same sector that they now
found themselves in their host country.
Respondents not only mentioned whether they had worked abroad, but also whether they had
experience of going abroad for an extended period of time (i.e. beyond a two week vacation) and
the impact these experiences had on them – and how it influenced them in their future overseas
experiences. Indeed, the interest in travelling as argued earlier formed a motivation for taking an
expatriate route, consistent with Vance’s (2005) model.
We also asked the respondents for their experiences of their first working position abroad. For
some, they were still on their first assignment (e.g. Expatriate 23 (TFE)), so had not been through the
whole expatriate cycle personally. They consequently, did not have the advantage of those who had
worked abroad before to draw upon first hand experiential learning.
However, we note that being a first time assignee does not necessarily infer lacking work experience
abroad. For instance, Expatriate 28 (TFE), although she had travelled for work abroad to the Far East
“numerous times” for her that was not working abroad “to me that meant more like a prolonged
stint out of the country working, and so to that question, this is the first time” (Expatriate 28 (TFE)).
4.2.2 The Value of Previous Experience
There was variation in the women’s opinions in respect to the extent to which previous working
experiences informed expatriate performance. For instance, Expatriate 17 (SIE) had worked for 10
years in retail in her home country (UK) and was able to move into a similar retail management
position in her host country (Australia). Conversely, others found that their previous experiences did
not seemingly help to obtain a particular position, but instead informed their attitudes towards
adapting to the work place:
26
“I think it wasn’t that hard to me, because my two degrees totally irrelevant you can see, especially
things I do here, and things I do backwards, I had tonnes of job experience back in China working in
the hotel, in the consultant industry, so I wouldn’t think that’s very hard to … I get used to things
quite quickly so it never bothers me, change environment, that kind of thing. I actually quite fancy a
change, every couple of years. Ha ha! “ (Expatriate 20 (SIE))
Testimonies from other expatriates suggested that moving abroad, despite ostensibly remaining
within the same company, can result in having to meet new challenges, not necessarily covered by
previous experiences. For instance, Expatriate 28 (TFE) was working in the UK, but for the Olympic
connection in a different role from her experiences in the US. This required her to act as a project
manager, running a team, unlike her earlier specialist role.
4.3
Expatriate Cycle
This section looks at the expatriate cycle and explores the women’s experiences at each stage of the
cycle in detail from selection and pre -departure to repatriation. It starts with a discussion of the
length of the cycle and women’s experiences within it.
4.3.1 Projected Assignment Length
The expatriate cycle often has no specific time-limit for SIE (Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010). Some of
the women had experiences of the different stages of the ‘the global assignment cycle’ (Vernon et
al., 2007) for example “I am traditional expatriate referring as being sent from the home country to
the host country via a pre-arranged agreement from an organisation. I did encounter the stages of
the traditional expatriate cycle; however I did not receive a formal performance appraisal, predeparture training and repatriation program” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)). Whilst other females who
consider themselves being self-initiated had experiences of the cycle as well for example “in my
opinion I did encounter the stages as a traditional expatriate would have faced in terms of being
recruited through an agency, prepared myself with a brief cultural training, performance appraisal in
my various positions. However I have not experienced the repatriation stage as I have U.K my
permanent home” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
All the TFE women agreed to take on managerial roles. For example “the project manager asked me
to help his team with some business processes because of my expertise and because the processes
were been transferred before that I went to learn how to deal with complex queries about devices”
(Expatriate 1 (TFE)). Some of the women used their own initiative to travel abroad to find work
rather than be transferred through an organisation for example “yes, self-initiated. My old
Australian company and new English company are independent of each other but members in an
27
international network of agencies. I sought employment at the UK one with my own initiative”
(Expatriate 9 (SIE)).
Those on assignments were asked how long they were meant to last. This proved to be significant as
the length could be flexible. For instance, Expatriate 23 (TFE) found that her assignment length
changed after she went there because her client wanted her to remain, although her company
wanted to repatriate her.
However, the (changing) length of assignment refers to TFEs. Other respondents, particularly those
SIEs who had moved to a new country for the first time in their lives, many did have more than one
position: often the early positions being part time, low grade jobs (such as the Chinese expatriates
serving time in a restaurant). Those women with a more substantial TFE background also had
experience of multiple assignments. For instance, Expatriate 11 (TFE) had been sent on a number of
assignments from her current and previous employers.
This demonstrates the complex nature of female expatriate careers.
4.3.2 Selection Process
There are suggestions that a common problem with the selection process is that a decision is made
on technical rather than cultural considerations (Harris & Brewster, 1999). The study itself noted
how selection varies from the formal process.
Formal Selection: Some of the women were selected for their post once they arrived in the host
country via different agencies and going through a formal selection process based on CVs, portfolios
etc. for example, “I spoke to number of advertising recruiters who put me in touch with a potential
creative partner. I started off freelancing with the creative department for Channel 4 which was
based on my creative portfolio” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)). Other women were selected by recruitment
companies for example “I was approached by a recruitment company who were contracted to fill our
contract roles. I was then interviewed by the project leader and was hired as a contractor”
(Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
Other women employed different strategies in order to successfully gain a position. This might be
through a combination of both CV and portfolio without actually being interviewed for the position
for example “I have made contacts at the UK agency when at two international conferences
(representing my old agency) in 2007. I stayed in touch and they let her know if a position opened up,
I supplied my CV and portfolio via email and they hired me 'remotely' as it were, I did not have an
official interview. My new boss had worked with me on projects at those conferences and they also
had verbal references from other people throughout the network who she had successfully worked
28
with in the past” (Expatriate 9 (SIE)). Others did have to go through an interview – albeit how this
was carried out differed. In Expatriate 13 (SIE)’s case, she had to go through rounds both of virtual
(telephone interviews) and face to face interviews, because she was in Germany at the time.
The respondents from the SIE route tended to go through a similar formal selection as local
employees, even for part time positions such as university teaching. For the TFE, Expatriate 11 had
an interview for the Japan assignment, but it was also “a look-see visit”, whereas in her previous
position the selection was based on her language competence.
Formal selection by a specific organisation was not the first step for SIEs. For instance, Expatriate 16
(SIE) and her husband found speaking with the consulate was important as, in order to gain a
(temporary) residency visa they had to demonstrate “a good business case” that they could offer
sufficiently to the country, given their capabilities – ultimately they made the presentation in
Spanish, which she felt helped their cause.
Informal selection: Some of the women had been selected for international assignments through
informal chats that had taken place amongst senior staff consistent with the “coffee-machine”
approach (Harris and Brewster, 1999). For example “I was informally approached by the project
manager who asked me to help his team with some business processes” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)). Some of
the women highlighted this is a common approach which exists in organisations today for example
“it is often expatriate assignments are disclosed through informal networks” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)).
Whilst others had been approached by external agencies for example “I had been approached by a
head-hunter in China” (Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE)).
Some women who were accompanying
partners/spouses decided to work on the project their partners had been working on for example
“My fiancé company contracts, the positions under his industry fall into the job shortage category.
Therefore I was able to work with my fiancé” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
According to Harris and Brewster(1999) in practice, much of the selection process for expatriates is
conducted through the “coffee-machine” approach whereby an expatriate can actually start off
through an informal chat taking place amongst senior levels of staff in informal settings (e.g. over
the coffee machine) where employees are unaware of what is happening. The experience of the TFE
women seems to support this theory of informal selection and suggested it was the most common
approach their organisation disclosed international assignments.
Expatriate 17 (SIE) obtained her first overseas position through family contacts, which she felt was
advantageous for such a young teenager with little prior work experience:
29
“because I was going into acting, as my first degree, I was taking a couple of years out. You don’t
normally go when you’re 18 and the job was actually offered to me by somebody that had known my
Dad, who they wanted somebody in their office for a year, and it was actually more an officially set
up expatriation because I had a flat provided, a car, and a wage, so it was pre-arranged in that
respect” (Expatriate 17 (SIE)).
4.3.3 Pre-departure Training
Importance of pre-departure training: The respondents demonstrated that some organisations at
least recognised the importance of pre-departure training. They reported having received some
organisational pre-departure training, such as in the form of briefings and site visits, so that they
would be able to interact in the host country effectively (e.g. Expatriates 4 and 10) and this is
consistent with the literature (Vernon et al, 2007). However, the other expatriates did not
universally experience this provision, thereby reinforcing the findings of Harris and Brewster (1999)
that pre-departure training falls short of good practice in many cases.
It is suggested that SIE’s have little or no knowledge of the local culture (Howe-Walsh & Schyns,
2010) and this view was confirmed in the responses of a number of the SIE respondents when they
went abroad to work: such as the perceptions that the Chinese expatriates had of the UK.
However, it was pertinent for this study to note how the more experienced SIE expatriates targeted
the appropriate sources for cognitive, behavioural & motivational knowledge cross cultural training
(Waxin and Panaccio, 2005).
Self pre-departure training: This varied considerably. Some of the women provided themselves with
pre-departure training although this did not consist necessarily of cultural preparation, especially
where some women had visited the host country previously and could speak the national language
which was not so different from their mother tongue. Other women had thought it would have
been a better idea to conduct some research which would have helped reduce the culture shock
that had been experienced for example “it would have been so much better if I had carried out some
research regarding living in the U.K more so as she had experienced a lot of culture shock. I
remember November was really dark and depressing” (Expatriate 2 (SIE))
Some of the women did not conduct any pre-departure training for example “I did not prepare
myself for the U.K as I felt it would be relatively the same being from an English speaking country”
(Expatriate 6 (SIE)). Having said this, others carried out some ad hoc preparation, accompanied by
drawing upon lessons learned by previous exposure to the host country environment, particularly
those moving to the UK from English speaking countries, such as Ireland:
30
“I’d been in the UK for a couple of weeks whilst travelling in the past so knew that the English culture
was extremely similar to my own! (We all drink stupid amounts of tea) That and the lack of language
barrier were very reassuring. I did do online research on the local towns - basic Wikipedia stuff really
- and also things like opening bank accounts, medical care for foreigners etc” (Expatriate 10 (SIE)).
Organizational cross-cultural preparation: Experience of organisational training to support the
assignment was mixed. Some of the women had been provided with some form of pre-departure
training that consisted of cultural training prior leaving for the assignment for example “I received a
briefing on culture and language training prior to leaving the organisation in the U.K asked and
visited the plant and the neighbourhood in which we would be living in” (Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE)). The
recipients noted the significant benefits of cross-cultural training incorporating language and local
knowledge of living and working practices:
“I did a week of intensive Japanese before I went, which enabled me to at least direct a taxi, even if I
couldn’t tell where they were taking me, and some of that covered the culture, but actually my
language tutors did a lot of culture stuff with me. Both of them … they had both lived … one in
Australia and one in Canada, and so they could … having both lived in significantly different cultures,
they can see the things and I felt quite comfortable asking them well what is this, why is everyone
sitting here ‘till 7 o’clock at night, or 8 o’clock at night, whatever, and that was a useful actually nonthreatening third party type” (Expatriate 11 (TFE)).
Conversely, other women did not have any pre-departure training from the organisation. For
example “the organisation did not see it relevant to provide any training due to the number of weeks
the assignment was for” (Expatriate 7 (TFE)) and “I did not receive any formal cultural training prior
to leaving the home country even though there was a substantial time that was left between me
actually leaving. It would have been so much better if they had provided this as it did have an impact
on training schedules when the local were commemorating religious birthdays” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)).
Those following the SIE route had to rely upon their own initiative in order to obtain some training.
Other organisations, such as the British Council, were drawn upon instead. Indeed, the role of other
bodies in providing information from other’s experiences was highlighted:
“I went to the events organised by the British council. twice I went [to hear] the experiences shared
by ex-UK Masters students… it was quite useful... it set out the expectations I think, what would I
expect when I arrive, what would I need to do, etc” (Expatriate 12 (SIE)).
31
4.3.4 Expatriate Adjustment
Adjustment to Organisational Culture: The interviews revealed the challenges experienced by
respondents in adjusting to the particular culture and their stories reveal how they learned to cope
in a new organisation.
Females are known to find it difficult to adjust to male dominated
environments (Mendenhall et al., 1987). Furthermore, Harris (1995) claims that women particularly
find it hard adjusting in traditional cultures due to greater divergences in the societal roles of men
and women, this highlights increase pressure for females to perform effectively on international
assignments. The sample included a number of women working in traditionally male dominated
jobs (e.g. engineering). Some of the women adjusted well in male dominated environments for
example “I had adjusted to the culture. I consider adjusting to the culture as being the most
important thing. I did work in a very male dominated environment and settled in very well!”
(Expatriate 1 (TFE)). Moreover the same individual found males had difficulty in adjusting to work
with females and went to explain: “I felt I had to work extra hard when working with local male
colleagues to get the work done and did experience some pressure to get the assignment done
especially working in such a male dominated environment” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)).
The narratives revealed that women still feel that they are missing out on international assignments
to males, not (in their opinion) because of their inability to adjust to the environment, but due more
so to biased gender perceptions in the organisation. For instance:
“I thought I was just as capable (if not more capable) than the other staff to perform the role,
however not being sent away was due to the “girl" needed to be in the office to do the admin work.
There seemed to be a bit of an "old boys" network. One of the guys from her team got approached
that he had no experience with an oil company who got the job offer even though I had helped him
write the paper who got a permanent position” (Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
However, it is not simply that expatriates struggled with the host country culture.
Indeed,
Expatriate 23 (TFE) found that it was easier to work with host country (UK) male managers in the
client organisation than her own organisation’s line managers. Whilst the former both made an
effort to understand programming, they also respected her judgement in making decisions based
on her knowledge. In contrast, her opinion of Indian expatriate managers was different:
“They just manage. They want to be administrators. They don’t want to get into the technical stuff,
but here, the more they’ve experience … they even at the simplest, up to the simplest level of that
coding. They [UK managers] take interest and get into the bottom of it, know what it is, but people
India Managers have just said we don’t care, they don’t want Managers. He is a Desk Manager; he
should be able to tell the end to end impact. He should … he must know the big picture, just not
32
managing the resource management and time management, which is usually all people [managers]
from India do. They’re reluctant to, yes, because they don’t think that’s their job. They just take the
person who knows the technical stuff with them everywhere “(Expatriate 23 (TFE)).
The problems of fitting into a different working culture were not always related purely to
unpleasantness with their male colleagues. The attitudes of a female boss, whose more forthright,
aggressive style contrasted with her own:
”I think there was … the Manager of the Group, or the boss of that Group where I worked, was a
woman, actually my age, but very driven, very successful one, and I think she didn’t see me fit or … I
don’t know why, I mean we did not have any problems or any like work-related issues, maybe
because I’m not really … I tend to be quiet and I’m not too like interact with people too much, maybe
it was that and I think it was some other people from that Group who told her or suggested you know
to consider me for full time “ (Expatriate 21 (SIE)).
This links with the concerns of Napier and Taylor (2002) that female expatriates can struggle to
adjust to the local women, as well as male colleagues.
There was an acknowledgement that one of the problems for adjustment appeared to come from
the lack of preparedness by the organisation. Expatriate 28 (TFE), although working for a large, wellestablished MNC, noted how few expatriates, particularly female, were in the UK branch. This was
despite the branch being a relatively large and important one for the European Region:
“I don’t think they've had any, besides there's only one other American in the building, and she didn't
come here for [current employer], she came here for Burger King four or five years ago, and then has
stayed on you know started to work for us two or three years ago…But there isn't anyone else. Now
we right now have, I think, two people, two or three from here, that are working in the States, so
there's more folks that'll go that direction because that's our corporate office, so a lot of opportunity
there, a lot more people are hired, many times it's to gain that knowledge to bring back here, as
opposed to this other way around where I was presumably bringing something of value from my
previous jobs to here” (Expatriate 28 (TFE))
Adjustment to Country Culture: All of the respondents had examples of the challenges of adapting
to a different country. Expatriate 19 (SIE) was mugged for the first time in her life within weeks of
arriving in the UK, for instance:
“we thought it would be a safe environment, especially in the economically developed country, but I
just … I just didn’t realise that there could be dangers just around the corner and nobody I suppose
you know that area nobody actually forewarned us. The area we lived in was probably known to the
33
general society it’s not the most safe area for a foreign student to live, but there wasn’t any
information available for us to find out”. Expatriate 19 (SIE).
For her, this was a shock to her original expectations. Although the adjustment for her as a Chinese
woman took time, she felt more comfortable in the working culture of the UK (see section 4.5.1). In
contrast, as a gaijin working in Japan, Expatriate 10 perceived herself as remaining peripheral to the
workplace and the society in general, commenting that:
“I felt welcome however I always felt as if I would never be 'one of the gang', I’d always be the
foreigner. the host country is quite closed culturally to foreigners. It took about a year to get used to
things and because I did not speak the local language, it was very difficult even in day-to-day tasks
like shopping. However, I presented myself with an open mind and decided I would need to change
and adapt and that made things easier. I was lucky as I was surrounded by co-workers who were in
the same position so I had support and could share this with them”. Expatriate 10 (SIE)
The effect of having previously studied in a country was explored by expatriate 24, who found the
contrast between studying in the UK and returning shortly afterwards to live was a challenge:
“...well this for me was like that, you know, I just stayed there all the time with students. We would
go into London and back but I was not really aware of what was happening in the wider context of
the UK, I don't think I was until I came to Liverpool, then you settle and it's totally different and you
really interact with the local people. I don't even think I had that many British friends when I was a
student, even the nature of the course I was taking, there were only very few British students, most
people were either from Taiwan or from other countries”. Expatriate 24 (SIE)
Respondents highlighted the importance of support from social network to make the adjustment.
For instance, a British Care Assistant found some unexpected issues in adjusting to Dutch life.
“I felt I had adjusted very well to the environment more so thanks to my friends that were already in
Amsterdam. Looking back i did feel some frustration as the company hadn’t really told us about the c
ulture and what to expect when arriving in Amsterdam. This was not a big deal as I had friends who
were living there and were able to show me the ropes and brief me in terms of what to expect from t
he Dutch foke[sic].More so as i wasnot aware that Dutch are pretty reserved, I remember going to fri
ends dinner who was Dutch and found that people were very reserved about talking about their pers
34
onal lives. This I did find hard especially as I was used to talking about my life quite open.” (Expatriate
7 (TFE).
Similarly, expatriate 13 felt that the UK should not be that much different from Germany, but she
found that the British had a “them and us” attitude towards foreigners. Consequently, the
adjustment experience varied between individuals. This was a product of the expectations of the
expatriate herself of the host country, as well as of the industry. Expatriate 3 was an experienced
Copywriter from New Zealand who spent time in Hong Kong. The working conditions in the latter
were not a great shock to her, because of her industry experience “in advertising you work long
hours anyhow, so I was used to working 12 hour days norm. The creatives in HK were amazed that
my partner and I turned up to work at 7.30am like usual (when the cleaners were there!), but then
again, we left at 8 or 9 pm, whereas they worked till past midnight!” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
Organizational support for adjustment: Some women had support from the organisation to help
with the adjustment for example “the organisation provided us with a colleague who had been
previously working on an assignment in the host country. He played an important part in her
adjustment in socialising with locals and into the work environment itself” (Expatriate 1(TFE)). In
contrast, other respondents noted the lack of formal organizational support in making adjustments.
In respect of induction, the SIE experience was generally that there was no difference between the
provision for them as overseas women and that given to the local employees.
There were
differences of opinion in respect to the quality of this induction.
Positive responses included a Taiwanese academic who had just started her first year as a lecturer in
UK University “we had staff induction which lasted for a week...it was very very good, we got to meet
other new staff who started at the same time...the staff induction was university wide, not based on
the department” (Expatriate 22 (SIE)). Conversely, another expatriate working in another
department of the same institution had a very different experience “It's just like a day thing. I think
it was probably a day of talks and then one afternoon we did like a little tour of Liverpool. That was
about it…And I think it took place a few months after I'd started. I think it's like once a year it
happens. Some people had it at the end of the first year” (Expatriate 27 (SIE)). These differing
perceptions of the support given by the same organisation are interesting: they could be explained
by a number of factors – differing perceptions on the part of the expatriates, or the fact that
Expatriate 27 (SIE) joined the organization a few years before Expatriate 22 (SIE).
35
One issue that emerged from the experiences of the respondents was homesickness: both its
prominence as well as how they coped with this aspect. The lack of communication channels for
some was important. For instance, Expatriate 21 (SIE) noted that her years in the States were harder
because there was no internet connection or Skype available for her to use in the early 2000s, whilst
upon coming to the UK from Taiwan in the 1980s Expatriate 14 said she knew little of the UK and she
“regretted it for first six months. I was crying every night”.
A common theme was that, despite their homesickness, the women did not regret leaving their
home countries.
“You always have your down moments when work gets stressful and the homesickness hits but I've
never once regretted my decision to come. I'm very much a people and adventure person (the career
bit is an added bonus!) and I'm fortunate to have had luck on all three fronts”, (Expatriate 9 (SIE)).
That women reported this as an issue is consistent with Linehan’s (2000) assertion that women
benefit from networks because they miss their family and friends. The experience of being away
from home impacted for different reasons for different women.
Homesickness was not always simply a product of being away from home – it was also connected
with other life changes, such as Expatriate 27’s realisation that she was no longer able to perceive of
herself as a student. Whilst homesickness was identified as a period gone through at the start of
their time abroad, it could reappear later on or periodically.
Gender and Age Adjustment Issues for Female Expatriates: The significance of being at an age that
made it possible to travel abroad was highlighted. This was both in terms of being relatively young
and single, or older and free of family responsibilities:
“I think it was after that we actually thought about it some more, but for us, we were in a very good
position, children grown, my husband, when we had re-located to New Orleans, had sold his business
in Chicago, so he came down to help get the household set up and then he ended up really being stay
at home Dad, so he wasn't leaving behind a job, he wasn't needing to have to find a job, my family,
my parents, healthy, you know, there just didn't seem to be any compelling reason not to come, from
that aspect” (Expatriate 28 (TFE)).
The lack of female representation in the workplace was discussed. Being in a male dominated
environment was still apparent but apparently less intimidating than previous research suggests:
“Sometimes I go to meetings, notice that 20 of us, and I’m the only female…And I’m a foreigner. It’s
amazing you know … just feel like how did I end up to this position and you know but the more you
get into this kind of environment, you start to get used to it. I sometimes I forget my gender; I just
36
know I need to go there and get my job done. It doesn’t bother me any more, ha ha! (Expatriate 20
(SIE))
For Expatriate 28 (TFE), there was only two other females out of a cohort of TFEs of around 30.
“because ladies don’t prefer to come…That’s the thing, otherwise they may give … the opportunity’s
open, but ladies because they are coming to … I’m going back so most of them came and some will
have debts and they want to settle it so they’ll be coming for six months assignment. They’re making
have a kid so they must fly back…They don’t have no discrimination against you. They’ll always …
actually they’ll give more preference for ladies” (Expatriate 28 (TFE)).
This seems to provide a slightly different picture from the extant literature (e.g. Tharenou, 2008),
which suggests that that professional females from poorer countries are pulled abroad to escape
disadvantage gender bias and lack of opportunity:
“Not female, male only. Female they don’t … the thing is, they don’t feel they stop the family. I don’t
know what that kind of feeling is, but they don’t feel good for them to stay single, without her
parents, they don’t want them to be alone, and I’m not married yet, so that’s the other botheration,
and they speak differently because the parents are using me to earn money so it won’t be … they
won’t think it the way they should. It’s all cultural thing because women are not allowed to go to
work. They get married at the age of 23, just after their studies, they don’t even … now it has
changed because of IT boom. But they are still the same in my area” (Expatriate 23 (TFE))
When the issue of whether the expatriates were treated differently because of their gender or
culture, the responses varied. Some felt that they had not experienced any disadvantaging because
of their gender or culture:
“I have to say; I personally, didn’t feel any difference. I don’t know for the applications that failed,
you know, whether my gender or my nationality made a difference, but for the jobs that I did do, I
didn’t feel much difference or being treated differently, and I think … except for the Chinese
restaurants, Jerry and Premier Inn and the hospital, and sometimes working for an agency that
serves banquets in hotels, you have a mixture of people from different countries, different
nationalities, so I know so boys and girls. I think the service industry does attract a variety of races for
the reason that you know I said about the training because most time it’s not accepted for you to
learn silver service skills, but you know the general working requirements is not very high”(Expatriate
19 (SIE))
37
Female participation, albeit not at the senior management levels, was not always seen as a problem
as articulated by Expatriate 9 “I was the only girl on my team when I began, but now its half half. We
have women at every level in the company bar the very top, and I've never encountered any negative
treatment of anyone due to gender” (Expatriate 9 (SIE)).
On the other hand, others saw a mixed picture. Expatriate 3 (SIE) felt she was not getting the
opportunities to take on the better projects in her earlier positions “have learnt my lesson there!!!!
in some agencies yes. In others, no...at my current agency, no... I think my previous agency also had
too many people and not enough work too...a lot of very senior teams fighting over the good briefs
and not enough good stuff to go around!!!”(Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
Expatriate 20 (SIE) referred to her development opportunities available in her position with a UK
engineering firm, but that other issues that made her leave overshadowed these:
“Yes, pretty much. I mean professional skills-wise, company always provide these opportunities, but
there was another reason why I left the {Engineering Firm} because all of a sudden before half a year
I was about to leave, they changed their Director, and he is kind of … I don’t know, towards women
or something, become a big bully, and nobody likes him. The office was size of 10, they reduced it to
three of us, and I thought it’s not much point for me to stay at all” ................“I don’t know if it is
because of the recession of not. Skill-wise I get trained like anybody else and I do my job, but the
promotion just happens really slow because they keep on using this excuse saying because of the
recession and you know we can’t afford to give you any pay rise or can’t afford to do anything, but
my Line Manager helped me to push. I did get my pay rise but it’s just the title never changed”....Q:
Yes, So … But Is That The Same For Everybody You Know?....”No, because I’ve got a fellow colleague
who entered the company the same time as me, he’s now already the Senior and now my position is
still Assistant” (Expatriate 20: (SIE))
4.3.5 Arrangements & Benefits
Relocation: The experience of having relocated on numerous occasions seemed to be a benefit for
the respondents.
“I had tonnes of job experience back in China working in the hotel, in the consultant industry, so I
wouldn’t think that’s very hard to … I get used to things quite quickly so it never bothers me, change
environment, that kind of thing. I actually quite fancy a change, every couple of years. Ha ha!”
(Expatriate 20 (SIE))
Family considerations in general: The implications of having a family were not high for the majority
of our respondents, because many of them were single without children. Tharenou’s (2003)
research has investigated the significant challenge that having a family provides. Our research
38
reveals the hard work involved with managing family requirements whilst on an international
assignment (Expatriate 11 (TFE)). The SIE respondents reflected the same challenges, although for
some the children were resident in their spouse’s home country – however, Expatriate 27 (SIE) and
her husband moved to Thailand with a child.
Trailing spouse: Traditionally, the concept of trailing spouse is associated with a wife. However, for
two TFEs (Expatriate 11 and 28), the role of trailing spouse was something that their husbands
seemed to cope with quite well. However, it is noticeable that both were at stages in their careers in
which they were able (mentally, professionally and financially) to take a career break. Expatriate
11’s husband took time away from a very busy finance career; whilst Expatriate 28’s husband had his
own business and was able to wind that down in order to spend time as a house husband. Both men
became active in family duties (looking after child, house hunting etc.). Nevertheless the change in
role was perceived to be a challenge. An expatriate career is a learning experience for the spouse as
well.
4.3.6
Social support
Social support provided by organisations: Some women had social support provided by the
organisation for example “organized culture, language training helped me feel more comfortable
working in the U.K” (Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE)). Some women felt let down by the organisation in not
providing assistance in helping to socialise with individuals in the host country for example “the
organisation did not provide any support: I felt it should have been offered by the organisation some
sort of briefing to help with socializing with locals terms of language, society norms and values”
(Expatriate 7 (TFE)). The women that had been provided social support by the organisation in
particular felt they were satisfied with what they had received whilst others would have liked more
support.
Non work support: Some of the women were did receive social support provided by their mentors
for example “a colleague that who had already been to the country who told me what to expect. He
provided physical and emotional support helping introduce to the local people who then provided
support from transport and creating awareness of festivals and public protests that were taking
place” (Expatriate 1(TFE)). Whilst other women found support through other groups for example
“through colleagues and women that I met at the baby group classes I began to socialise with other
individuals” (Expatriate 2 (SIE)). Some women found support to adjust socially in the host
environment through work colleagues and informal networks they became aware of for example
“colleagues that had accompanied me on the project had worked in the U.K previously and had
creating contacts and by talking and socialising with them I felt I began to adjust to the U.K
39
smoothly” (Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE)). Some women had expatriates already in the host country for
example “ friends already out there helped me in adjusting especially non work going out, socialising
and meeting local people” (Expatriate 7 (TFE)).
4.3.7 Mentoring
The importance of and relative shortage of mentors and role models referred to elsewhere (Scullion
and Linehan, 2001; Harris, 1995) to assist performance and adjustment was reinforced in this study.
The females did indicate how useful mentors were in helping to adjust to the host country and in
some cases assist in providing support for their career.
Some TFE women (e.g. Expatriate 1(TFE)) wanted the organisation to provide mentors to help them
adjust to the host environment – and would have liked mentors to help them through assignments.
Other women found mentors/role models within different individuals, who were not working within
the organisation. However, what is common all women could identify an individual they could go to
gain assistance in adjusting to the host environment. Some of them suggested that, if it was not for
the mentor, they would find it hard to adjust hence having an impact on their performance
(Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
Formal mentoring: Most expatriates did not have a mentor however some of the women did
highlight the need for mentor being beneficial assisting other females to consider international
assignments for example “having a mentor would have been useful which may have helped support
other female colleague as many of them decided not to go through with the international
assignment. It would have been ideal to help the other female colleagues offering insight into how
they have managed previously on international assignments and prepare them for the journey
ahead” (Expatriate 1(TFE)).
However, it was clear that simply identifying a formal mentor was not a guarantee of successful
support for expatriate learning and development. For instance, Expatriate 11 (TFE) had a supportive
mentor originally when travelling to Japan. However, later on the female mentor appointed for her
had was based in the Home Country (US) and did not like to travel abroad (e.g. would take own food,
only eat in Fast Food restaurants etc.). In this event, having a formal mentor was devalued: instead,
Expatriate 11 (TFE) relied upon informal mentoring from other sources – such as a friend, a British
man who went out to teach English (TEFL) and who married a Japanese woman, who provided useful
insights and contacts into Japanese culture.
Informal mentoring: Some women however did identify other individuals who they considered as a
mentor or a role model for example “I found support through pregnancy and baby group classes the
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women who I came in contact with acted like my mentors helping to support me through my time in
the U.K” (Expatriate 2 (SIE)) and “I would consider my manager who is a top creative director as
someone I aspires and has on several occasions asked for her opinion of going for certain advertising
contracts. She has been useful in helping me through current advertising projects” (Expatriate 3
(SIE)).
Whilst other women highlighted if it was not for these mentors or role models it would have been
more difficult in adjusting to the host country for example “I did have two role models that had
helped me during previous assignments whom I did look for support and help during the assignment
latest assignment. It important to have someone you can look up to and talk to especially during
international assignments. If it was not down to those two colleagues I would have found it difficult
adjusting” (Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
Women in the sample have appeared to find other forms of support amongst other individuals
rather than relying on organisations providing mentors/role models. Howe-Walsh & Schyns (2010)
are very unclear on the precise role of mentoring for SIEs, suggesting that “We can assume that this
is less relevant for ‘private expatriates’” (267), yet “though they are familiar with the culture of their
country of choice, they may still need to be advised on business practices. We therefore assume that
both types of expatriates benefit from mentoring” (267). The experiences of the respondents
suggested that mentoring tends to be ad hoc and that mentoring would be a very important
developmental tool.
4.3.8 Performance Management and Reward
Experience of performance management: Some of the women recounted experiences of
performance appraisals which they have encountered whilst working on their position. for some
this was not altogether satisfying experience.
For example “I have had formal performance
appraisal during the time I have been employed in the U.K. They were conducted by the head of
department, the executive creative director. I would have liked them a little more often and wanted
to move away from the account mainly I worked on. However I did not get a chance to discuss this
through the performance appraisal more so as my manager and I did not meet as often as I hoped
we would have” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)). "You've passed your probation period - keep up the good work"
thing and at 9 months had a formal review with my line manager” (Expatriate 9 (SIE)).
Whilst other women found they had positive experiences of performance appraisals for example “I
did have formal performance appraisals they were mostly just a big group hug and thanks for being a
good employee. They were conducted by the director so they would be the best person to do the
appraisal. I have never had a bad experience during an appraisal” (Expatriate 6 (SIE)).
41
Some women felt that specifically due to the nature of their assignment being a contract basis did
not experience performance appraisals. However traditional expatriates felt they had been let down
by the organisation who did not provide any opportunities for them to review their performance for
example “I did not have any formal performance appraisal during the two years I had been posted
abroad for. There was a lack of communication, with the home country whilst I was working, I felt
really let down by the organisation once I was in the host country I was left on my own which is what
I had not agreed to everything seemed right before I left” (Expatriate 1(TFE)).
However, some women found due to the host countries culture performance appraisals were not
the norm. Some women found managers in these situations open to new ideas and introduced
performance appraisals into the workplace for example ““I had performance appraisal on a once
occurrence culturally performance appraisal were not big where I worked. However my supervisor
was very open to 'western' ideas and therefore when a colleague introduced the idea of performance
appraisals they were very open to it and tried it” (Expatriate 10 (SIE)). Conversely, due to cultural
and sectoral factors, performance management was carried out regularly –such as those working in
the UK Higher Education sector (e.g. Expatriates 19 & 22).
Experience of Reward Management:
Cultural factors in reward management: Expatriate 21 (SIE) noted from her time working as an
engineer in the US that Government legislation appeared to her to shape both reward and
performance management strategies:
You know what; my Group actually consisted of quite a few foreigners, and in the engineering field,
even here, employs a lot of foreigners. There was some Government rule there that to help ensure
that they would not hire a foreigner to pay them less than they would Americans, so that Americans
did not stay without jobs, so I don’t think that my salary or my annual review was significantly
affected, perhaps there was some differences, but I couldn’t tell. I couldn’t really come with evidence.
They know … that’s one thing … they know that you … I had a work permit and that work permit tied
me to that particular job, changing jobs was a major hassle, so basically they knew that I was fairly
flexible in terms of like switching jobs, something that, at that time, Americans did on … I don’t want
to say a monthly basis, but they would stay in one job two months or three months and then they
would move, just because they got a bigger salary, so in the U.S., at that time, it was a known fact
that if you wanted to increase your pay slip significantly, you would have to change the job”
Similar concerns were raised in other countries. In the UK, whilst working part-time for an SME,
Expatriate 18 (SIE) was only paid on an hourly basis (£10 per hour), which she considered to be “very
42
unfair” because she had won a large contract with a power station in China. There were no financial
bonuses at all. Indeed, there were no performance-related bonuses at all. The only bonuses were
two bottles of wine each at Christmas, which were not linked to past performance at all. She left
soon after to pursue a full time PhD, and was replaced in the SME by a full time employee.
Gender-related factors in respondent experiences.
Expatriate 25 (SIE) was asked about her
experience of performance management in her current employer (a university) “It's been same from
the beginning. However, haven't been successful in promotions, and I feel strongly it's partially
because of my part-time contract. Having had kids, time off work, working part-time definitely goes
against promotions (although of course, it shouldn't..)”. Similarly, Expatriate 20 (SIE) did not know if
there was a difference because she was a foreign female, but suspected that there was a difference
“I think, from the job I’m doing at the moment, I suspect there is a difference. It’s just really I’ve got
no proof to push”.
The gender factor had an unexpectedly consequence for Expatriate 11 (TFE).
I didn’t, was the very long and short of it. I didn’t even ask the right questions about how … well I did
ask what housing was covered and what was subsidised. I didn’t push for anything; in fact my boss
must have thought bloody hell she’s supposed to be in reward, why isn’t she asking. I think I was just
so excited by the prospect to be honest. What became very apparent early on and which I’ve
subsequently found is an issue is, and this is perhaps more to do with the either the modern incidence
of a woman being the lead mover where the spouse has worked or dual careers, is the uplift that we
got to move to Tokyo, the (41:31) didn’t cover my husband’s salary by any stretch of the imagination
because at the time we went out we were broadly doing the same salary, and what happened was
that we were very lucky, we rented our house out, so the mortgage was covered… I think that’s a
harder discussion for a female expatriate to have because it’s not the norm. I think the men I’ve seen
negotiating for expatriate packages have always been more direct and specific about their
requirements than the women. If I think of the one we’ve got here now, she’s … she just took what
we said we were giving her, and was quite happy about it.
It is interesting to note how, despite having a background in reward, this TFE realised how naïve she
had bee in her negotiation. This is a significant learning issue – something that TFE expatriates and
their employers need to consider.
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4.3.9 Repatriation
Self supported repatriation: Many of the women had not received any support from the
organisation during this process and had to manage the whole process on their own. The difficulties
this presented are clear in the narratives of these two individuals:
“I did not experience any formal repatriation program and did not have any support from the
organisation during this process. I felt very disappointed and stressed, during the time I spent abroad
I had no communication with the home country and knew once I arrived back I would have to start
looking for work on my own instead of being able to share my experiences with the organisation, I
felt very let down!” (Expatriate 1 (TFE))
“I did not have any support from the organisation when moving back to China. The project was
aborted and I felt pity that the project could not go ahead. I had simply to pack things up and could
not do much about the situation. I felt let down and had to start over again after 3 years working and
then going back and looking for work as well as making new friends has been the biggest difficulty”
(Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE))
Some women found the repatriation more stressful then going to the host country in the first
instance for example “I returned back as I always felt I would be the foreigner and found the host
country is quite closed culturally to foreigners. It was quite demotivating and demoralising as I tried
really hard to 'fit-in' but I knew |I never would. The country I went to was so 'different' when I came
back it felt like people were not interested in what I had done or where I had been” (Expatriate 10
(SIE)).
4.4
Expatriate Learning
4.4.1 Transfer of Learning
Value of international experience: The study explored the extent to which the respondents felt that
there was value in the assignment for them and perceptions varied. Some women reported that
employers were interested in their experiences of expatriate working, for example:
“I am more confident in my abilities now - and it showed apparently when I applied for the contract.
The international exposure and the name of the organisation on my resume will always be well
received by future employers. The general skills like people and project management that I picked up
working will always be helpful” (Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
Whilst other females found employers less encouraging of their experiences for example “I starting
from scratch as previously I worked in development in America which is completely different than it is
in the U.K. I now work for an American Company so they do but my first job in the U.K they were all
44
British and it was not quite as open here to the skills I had gained through previous assignments”
(Expatriate 6 (SIE)). This latter view of feeling that their expatriate experience is not valued by
employers is consistent with the findings in Bossard and Peterson (2005) own empirical research of
both male and female repatriates.
Transfer of learning barriers: Whilst there were those who felt that they could transfer previous
learning from before becoming an expatriate, others found it problematical. This was partly because
they had studied courses that were not related to their jobs:
“I think it wasn’t that hard to me, because my two degrees were totally irrelevant you can see,
especially to things I do here, and things I do backwards, I had tons of job experience back in China
working in the hotel, in the consultant industry, so I wouldn’t think that’s very hard to … I get used to
things quite quickly so it never bothers me, change environment, that kind of thing. I actually quite
fancy a change, every couple of years. Ha ha! “ (Expatriate 20 (SIE)).
Being able to put into practice any development experiences was highlighted as being difficult.
Expatriate 13 (SIE) was sent on a four day leadership training course, from which she found it
difficult to transfer the lessons learned as the day to day job was so busy it was difficult to get time
to practice. In addition, as she was not in a leadership position, it meant that not always
opportunities to practice. However, some skills were put to use (such as active listening skills being
immediately useful for dealing with other staff).
Looking forward, concerns were raised over the transfer of learning in future contexts. For example,
Expatriate 22 (SIE) noted that although she now had gained experience of academic teaching, it was
all gained in the UK, along with her postgraduate studies. “Taiwan is the country I am familiar with,
but in terms of working as academic, I have no idea what it is like....it will probably be challenge for
me once I go back to work in Taiwan”.
Transfer of learning enabling factors: For some respondents, they were able to transfer their
learning from previous experiences into their expatriate careers. For instance, Expatriate 19 (SIE)
found that her student background in hospitality, and her experiences in that sector, enabled her to
deal confidently when booking with hotels etc. For expatriate 20, it was familiarity with previous
systems that she found helpful for her:
“Uhh … with the finance side. Yeah. Because I remember the agency … the company I work, every
agency I work before, which they use the same computer system. I think it’s called ABS or something,
yeah, that is the same … the mechanism … so it’s not too bad to pick it up. My main duty is run the
department, make sure we invoice how much money per month. I need to reach the target. Make
45
sure the payments are paid to the suppliers and make sure all the accounts management charging
their clients correct amount of money” (Expatriate 20 (SIE)).
For others, the experience of having a similar position beforehand benefited their performance. For
example, Expatriate 26 (TFE/SIE) had worked as a HR manager in a large entertainments corporation
then moving to a similar position in a smaller charity. Although, also she felt that taking time out
travelling helped her as well:
“Because I'd already made the break, it wasn't as daunting, there wasn't as much preparation for my
personal life to do. I wasn't sure at that point in time that I wanted to continue doing HR, I wasn't
completely convinced. I certainly wasn't at the point I am now, hadn't thought about doing a
Masters, so I think that's quite interesting because I think it can show how you can change a lot, even
in your 30's, about what you might want to do in the future, or what may have not come to you yet in
terms of thinking what you want to do later on, so I wasn't absolutely … I wasn't 100% convinced I
wanted to stay in HR. I mean my dream is to go and buy a chalet and live in a ski resort, but that's
not going to happen yet, so umm …Working on different clients helps you learn about different
sectors and the best way to advertise them, but in general, you just gain a better idea on how to
advertise to certain targets…In saying that, my general skills mean I would be happy to go into a job
advertising something I've previously had no experience creating concepts for as a good creative you
have to get into your target's shoes...hence the theory that girls can write car and beer ads and men
should be able to do tampon ads!!!”(Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
Whilst Expatriate 21 (SIE) did feel she was using some of her knowledge and skills there was also a
feeling of underutilisation:
“I’m not sure I use or transfer this knowledge consciously. My experience in the U.S. was like so dense
that here I feel like I’m almost, even though I’m working, I feel like I’m almost on a vacation, so I’m
not using all the potential or I’m not challenging enough. I’m not saying that I miss that stress from
there, but definitely it’s more relaxed so I can spend more time on details, and I think that’s
important because in the U.S. you reach one point where you get so stressed that the quality of your
work drops, so here, I feel things should be more you know done more quicker, more efficient. Also,
over here, things are much more regulated so you don’t have so much freedom in your work. In the
U.S. it’s like you have a problem, solve it, I don’t care how you get to the solution, where here, even
more constrained, so there are pro’s and con’s everywhere, but what I feel like from my life abroad,
just in changing environments, you learn so much quicker about so many different things. I mean you
are forced to, to adjust, and to meet new people, to establish new connections or make home in a
46
new environment. I mean it seems to be … it’s happening to a lot of people. Everyone is moving
around the planet, things that were not common, that common, like even 15/20 years ago
now”(Expatriate 21 (SIE)).
4.4.2 Exploring the Learning Process
Formal learning: The provision of formal learning by organisations for the female expatriates was
variable. This is noticeable with the experience of Expatriate 14 (SIE). She found few training
opportunities whilst working as a Taiwanese expatriate for a home country organisation, she then
moved onto a major oil MNC, where she commented that: “They send you for courses, they send you
for training, and send you to go to different places, and its absolutely wonderful opportunity, that’s if
you want to learn” (Expatriate 14 (SIE)). However, her later experience at a UK firm was that little
provision was given “I think I was too busy to implement a new system, new way, to making changes
and also when I started the job, it was massive, it merged three departments into one, my
department, so was a lot of things needed sorting out. The staff needed sorting out. The system
needed sorting out. A lot of, lot of things. No, I didn’t get any training” (Expatriate 14 (SIE)).
The lack of formal learning provision was partly reflected in the length of contract as well as the
sector. For example, Expatriate 19 (SIE) on coming to the UK from China had a succession of jobs in
the hospitality industry, local Chinese restaurants as well as UK Hotel Chains:
“I think the only organisation where I did have a little bit of training in the official sense, as in you
were called in, sit in a room, and being told about this company’s history and culture and what you’re
expected to do, was [UK based Supermarket]” (Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
“I don’t get really any support. I think partly because they want me to explore what other
opportunities are there in the Far East, and they do not speak the language, and I’m the only person
who can speak the language, so with the job role of exploring, you know, what has opportunities
there, I didn’t get much support with regards how to search for information and things” (Expatriate
18 (SIE))
The lack of provision for training was not limited to those who took a SIE route. For instance,
Expatriate 23 (TFE) was assigned from India to the UK she noted that the pressures of dealing with
clients immediately after arrival meant little opportunities for formal development:
“No, the thing is, they don’t have enough time … they don’t usually have enough time for training.
The client will be expecting us to start the work on day one, and they are assuming that we are
47
trained well enough before and we have hands-on experience but most of them wouldn’t”
(Expatriate 23 (TFE)).
This was common, she felt across both male and female colleagues. Interestingly, she noted that
there was some provision:
“...but it was very stressful because it didn’t go the way it was intended, no, so it was dropped. The
Manager was pushing it too much to come to his place, on Saturday’s to conduct the training, which
we were not happy… Yeah, not office, at home, concepts, basic questions. Which was redundant but
we were forced to, so I didn’t like that mandatory… it was not from the company, it was the person’s
thing, so he was sent back … it’s not … it’s against the policies”(Expatriate 23 (TFE)).
Formal learning experience included university study:
‘I was a professional student, you know, I definitely knew how to study, how to get organised to
prepare all these things, how to get most out of the lectures. It turned out that Financial Engineering
is actually more engineering than the finance, so it was not that big of a departure from my
engineering field, lots of mathematics there, but anyway, it was very interesting and I met some very
interesting people on that course, Professors, so I enjoyed that quite a bit” (Expatriate 21 (SIE)).
It is noticeable how the Higher Education sector provided formal learning opportunities (e.g.
Expatriate 15 and 18). Compare the experience of Expatriate 18 (SIE) – going from no support
whatsoever in the UK SME, into part time lecturing for a local University wherein she was given the
opportunity to receive training in such matters as handling the classroom, marking, all delivered inhouse by the University. Similarly, Expatriate 15 (SIE) was given funding to take specialist courses to
support her development as a library information officer:
“They encourage us, apart from the formal courses, like the STD, UD, staff development scheme is
paying something formal visit to other University, because I’m doing quite a specialist unit here is a
self access area for the language centre so its not quite a general thing or a library situation, and I’ve
got a chance to visit different University language centre, resource centres, both here, local, and
overseas ‘cause last time, four years ago, I went back to Hong Kong. I said ooh can I take the
opportunity to visit say a few Hong Kong Universities there, and then they say yes, and then I got
some extra money and the time as well, so its then my holiday, but … but it was a very good way to
enrich the sort of experience, to share, basically sharing experience and see how people run their
place and I can bring back the good bits and then we can sort of streamline our operation better”
(Expatriate 15 (SIE)).
48
But, this picture does not reflect the experience of all the respondents working in the HE Sector as
this account from Expatriate 12 (SIE) suggests:
“…. not much in [1st University] as a RA [research assistant]…at 2nd University [ft lecturer], I followed
the teaching certificate programme…I did not particularly seek learning and development
support…that was the problem.. i didn't know I needed it. I know the basics... I teach, I do research,
and I do admin…the expectations for research changed in the third year of my position at [2nd
University]. I did not manage to pace up between colleagues, I did not interact as much either so the
L&D probably did not come from colleagues”........Q: “what do you mean by 'pace
up'?”.......Expatriate 12 (SIE): “to step up the expectations to push the publications through…the
planning etc “....Q:”how did you learn to cope with this situation?”......Expatriate 12 (SIE): It seems
that I don't learn very fast…I am taking some learning and development programme within [current
employer - University]…it is a coaching and mentoring programme…after 6 years in academia, I
realise perhaps I do need some help in L&D…you can assess the info from our website I think”
(Expatriate 12 (SIE))
Other respondents reported being given training on special technical skills, but finding the informal
learning from colleagues more helpful. “I went on those workshop.... but to be honest, I found
talking to the staff who work on the same module is far more useful than the faculty training
workshop” (Expatriate 22 SIE). This importance of informal experiences is discussed below.
Informal learning: The significance of informal learning (i.e. outside of training courses etc.) was
noted by the expatriates:
“The initial period is always copying from your colleagues and then, after a bit, you find, when you
are familiar with your job enough, you’re confident with what you do, you start to have thoughts
about this system didn’t suit me, I’d rather do it that way. Either way, I achieve what is expected …
what was expected for me to achieve, then it was okay to alter the current order of things.”
(Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
For some of the expatriates, informal learning was the only way to learn how to perform in their
role. For instance, upon being made a part time lecturer, Expatriate 22 (SIE), found there was no
formal training. Her learning constituted hands on experience if I had problems, or not sure how to
conduct the group discussion, I would ask other staff who also teaches on the same module for tips,
also I would sit in their sessions (Expatriate 22 (SIE)).
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4.4.3 Learning Outcomes of Assignment
Explicit perceptions of identifiable learning outcomes by the respondents were centred on learning
that is focused upon their development professionally as well as helping their personal development
as an expatriate.
Professional learning: Expatriate 16 (SIE) (an HR Director) noted that, whereas in the UK, there are
readily available academic and CIPD/ professional connections, in places like Chile there are few such
connections. She was still able to use internet (e.g. for CIPD website and other resources). However,
she felt that she needed to work harder to maintain her CPD.
Personal learning: Going abroad to Chile helped RC learn a lot about “resilience levels and how you
deal with people and how you react to challenges”, which then can be translated into a professional
role “…..and I really enjoy going abroad, meeting different people, involve myself in different
cultures, I think it's very exhilarating and I think if you have the opportunity to do it, it's really
beneficial and not just for that time but when you come back into your working environment, I think
it gives you valuable experience, gives you insight, I'm more motivated than I was, and it gave me
direction(Expatriate 26 (TFE/SIE)).
Expatriate 10 (SIE) reflected upon how her employers had perceived the value of what she had
learned:
“Yep. Both, again, exposed me to different working practices etc than I had been used to in my Aussie
agency. I think it has given me a broader education in best practice etc... Plus the hands-on work I did
was, again, in line with the kind of work I'm doing now”..... Q:” so you have found employers
interested in your experiences?”.......Expatriate 10 (SIE): “They don't ask directly what I got up to, but
in terms of my personal learning I think the experience enables me to be a better employee
now”....Q: “have you found employers positive in terms of your experience or perhaps your
skills?”...Expatriate 10 (SIE): “Yep! I get to use a pretty broad skill set because the creative
department is very integrated and we all jump in to help when we can. So my illustration,
photography, concepting, writing, client liaison etc skills have all come in handy” (Expatriate 10
(SIE)).
In expatriate 16’s words, her advice was to ”ride the waves and enjoy it” because succeeding as an
expatriate is all about being able to take risks “mental positioning” is important as there is often no
family or friends close by to help support in a difficult situation: therefore she and her husband have
had to keep positive.
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Developing language competence: Not speaking Spanish, the offer of an assignment for her
husband was seen by Expatriate 16 (SIE) as a very useful opportunity for her in order to develop her
language skills, apart from O’ Level German and French, the opportunity to experience a very
different working culture (her husband’s company actually paid for her to learn the language).
Provision of language training from employers was noted by TFEs Expatriate 11 (TFE) was given
Japanese lessons provided by the company, Expatriate 4 (SIE/TFE) was provided with language
training after arriving in the UK.
“Yeah it’s basically integral adaptability, like they teach the basic English, like we don’t understand
someone asks “are you alright”, we don’t get it because, “are you alright” (in an accent!), people will
see their lips moving, it’ll be done and they’ll be waiting for a response [for us]…So they’ll teach us
and then we call ‘curd’ but it is yogurt here…When I did look into that, which is standard stuff, they
have training material, so all basic English, and then some warnings like do not use idioms, phrases
because you don’t really know the meaning of things, you’ll get into trouble” (Expatriate 23 (TFE)).
Expatriate 23 (TFE) came from India, where English was the official language. For those who did not
have that background, language acquisition was a more piecemeal experience. For example, coming
from Croatia, Expatriate 27 (SIE) as a young adult was taught by a Croatian woman with work
experience in London, as well as having a background of summer schools in the UK as a pupil.
Others (e.g. Expatriates 12, 19) had gone to language centres in order to pass language competence
tests.
The significance of being able to demonstrate language competence in the workplace was
commented upon by Expatriate 11 (TFE):
“That look on their face when they go oh no, she knows what we’re talking about, it was priceless, it
was priceless, and that wasn’t even anything fun, it was the Sales Commission Plan, but you know
the fact that I could say no, no, no, guys, its not then its then, not that date you’re talking about, that
one, and they all went huuuh! That was … yeah, it was good. Interestingly though I was the only expat who’d taken the exams and maybe that … I passed that me wanting to have an aim in
something, you know, I want to be able to do more than order pizza and be polite.”
Language competence provides a clear opportunity for the expatriates to integrate into their
workplace, as well as a barrier. Another expatriate in Japan lamented that “it was quite
demotivating and demoralising as I tried really hard to 'fit-in' but i knew i never would. For example i
51
could speak the language after 3 years to a proficient level however when I spoke to host country
nationals they always spoke to me in English, it was very frustrating” (Expatriate 10 (SIE)).
4.5 Expatriate Career Management and Development
4.5.1 Positive Assignment Experience
The interviewees’ responses provided clear evidence of positive experiences and reflected the
flexible nature of the workplace. For example Expatriate 2 (SIE) had transferred from a long-term
part-time contract to a permanent part-time member of staff “I realize this is not how most
employment works” (Expatriate 2 (SIE)). Another talked of how she came to widen her experience:
‘it wasn’t an internal only job, but it was an internal job because of a change of position and project,
so the person who originally worked on this post had to unfortunately re-apply, and of course I didn’t
know that, and I applied too, and I suppose in a way I probably (inaudible 46:07) the interviewers to
be a capable person so they’ve decided that they could open up a position for me as well, so I started
on this project, in April 2004, and I worked on it for about three years, but after two years, I wanted a
change. Because this department that I was working for was known for its ability to applying for
external funded projects, and so there would always be bids and new projects coming in, so I worked
on this particular project for two years and then there was a new project coming in which this first
project was only UK based, yet this new project came in 2007 and was more of a European project,
and it involves three or four different European countries, and it interested me, you know, way of just
trying something different, meeting different people, especially people … non-British people from
other European countries, European organisations” (Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
This experience helped expand her understanding of what she could do within the organisation:
“I think probably as I become a bit more experienced in working in the UK and in working in the
organisation, you know what is rightly yours, what you are entitled to get, as far as your personal
and career development, so you are a lot more … I’m a lot more daring to ask for certain
opportunities to be made available to me and, of course, then there is again you have to combine
your personal pursuit with how you balance what your job responsibilities, what the Department can
offer you, should be respected in a way that you have to take care of what you do for the
Department at the same time as developing yourself, in as many ways as I can find, and then of
course, the PDR’s are a lot more regular now, you know, owing to the effort probably myself and the
Head of Department and the Managers. The general feeling is if you’ve stayed in your job for some
time, although the content of it has changed a lot, over the past few years, like you say the METP and
even accreditation and any other projects, varied projects, that you know went through seven or
52
eight different projects, but the generic areas was you know a similar so the general understanding
is, after a certain time, you would want to put your energy into something different, and so it’s just a
matter of time when that’s being catered for, that appetite for learning something drastically
different”(Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
4.5.2 Female Expatriates Managing their Global Careers
Some of the women felt they were taking constructive steps towards managing their career and
found having worked internationally previously was an added bonus for example “I was able to
apply the skills I have gained through the assignment into my position now. The international
experience I have gained has prepared me for future assignments. This is crucial to managing my
own global career as I want to work in a global organisation” (Expatriate 1 (TFE)).
Some women consider edmore personal and individual goals that have influenced their career
development:
“I want to win more advertising awards and eventually take on a Creative Director role it as about
being able to produce good work and win awards. I do not have a set path in terms of career. I am
working on more interesting projects to help create a portfolio” (Expatriate 3 (SIE)).
Some women currently did not have career path but did have an experience of an organisational
career path for example “I have not really considered it and do not have a clear path. I finished
university, with the Chartered Accountants program (which is what you are expected to do when you
work for the big accounting firms). Within the big firms there is a usually a clear path - accountant,
senior, manager, partner.” This I did follow...” (Expatriate 5 (SIE)).
4.5.3 Women Expatriates did not Consider Managing their Careers
Some women when asked had not considered much regarding their career and did not like the
question. Instead when asked where they see themselves in 5 years time women identified differing
career aspirations. For example, Expatriate 10 (although currently a student after working as an
expatriate in Japan) was quite clear what was her career plan. She stated that “I would like to join an
organisation in a role related to my studies and with an international element, and would like to be in
that role for about 3 years and then be promoted to another level, so after 5 years I would like a
second promotion” (Expatriate 10 (SIE)).Conversely, other women felt they had come to the end of
their working life. For example, “I am not considering it and I feel I have reached the furthest in my
working life. I have worked in the hospitality industry for over 25 years and have a lot of experience
but do not wish to continue working in the same field” (Expatriate 7 (TFE)).
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4.5.4 Career Path Expectations
The respondents discussed how their expatriate experience fitted into their career expectations
generally. For some, the opportunity to go abroad was paramount. Working abroad helped to clear
the minds of some respondents:
“No, I don't think so. I remember when I was in Austria, I remember thinking about what I might do
when I come back, and everything seemed much clearer. I can't really explain it. I think it's just a
feeling, things seemed much clearer about what I wanted to do, what I didn't want to do, what was
important, what's not so important, and I think you can get really caught up in city life and
everything can tend to sort of get on top of you, and I think taking that break, meeting new people,
having a different way of life, when you go back, perhaps, I was certainly more motivated and
secondly I think I had … I was able to give fresher ideas, different perspective, and maybe that was a
result of being around lots of people all the time, younger people maybe”(Expatriate 26 (TFE/SIE)).
For others, this experience was a negative one. Expatriate 19’s original wish for a managerial career
in hospitality was changed because of her UK experiences in the sector.
Not all of the respondents thought about their careers long term. For instance, Expatriate 10 (SIE)
was concerned about her responses not being too clear in her interview “hope this sounds ok, I tend
not to think of 5 years down the line”. Similarly, others were unclear as to their future path:
“...working in the hospitality industry for over 25 years I have alot of experience and had been
contacted by Crown Plaza asking me if i would like to work with them and seemed very interested in
discussing my experience in Amsterdam. I just feel being 60 years old I don’t just want to be the “old
crock” and just there to fill the position. So i decided not to take the position up though they seemed
very positive i just feel i don’t want to go back into that environment. I’m still searching as to what i
want to do now im back i have got myself involved in some voluntary working with mental sick adults
. But my experience of working abroad made me realise there so much more out there and i advise yo
ungsters to get out there and explore, you only live once. I’m 50 50 at the moment might stay here a
few months and have a holiday home somewhere nice and warm the weather in the U.K is appalling”
(Expatriate 7 (TFE)).
For some, the expectations did not change but were reinforced. The experiences of Expatriate 20
experiences of working in the UK had not changed this ultimate goal of owning her own business.
Indeed, her expatriate experience left her tired of being overlooked for promotion etc. so wanted to
become her own boss:
54
“And at the end of the day we decided it wasn't going to be negative, but we weren't going to come
back as some lucrative expat as often happens where they're paying me and paying for everything,
so I can just put all this money away, so that's not us, but it wasn't bad either and all the benefits
that we saw of having the experience and international just still made it worthwhile, but that was …
at that point then became the … another decision, because if it could have been a standard expat
package, it would have been easier, but because it couldn't, then it did become harder” (Expatriate
28).
It is interesting to trace the respondents and how, over time, their expectations have changed. For
example, Expatriate 14 (SIE) studied in a UK polytechnic as it was part of her plan to work in the
Computer industry. However, after working as a programmer in various UK companies, she had
become a translator, with no intention to go back into business.
The problems of pursuing a career as a professional female were highlighted particularly strongly by
a Finnish lecturer in the UK:
“However, haven't been successful in promotions, and I feel strongly it's partially because of my parttime contract. Having had kids, time off work, working part-time definitely goes against promotions
(although of course, it shouldn't.)” (Expatriate 25 (SIE)).
Direct comments were made as to how changing career path expectations reflected their learning:
about the technical aspects of the job and their own personal development. As expatriate 23 noted
when reflecting on her understanding when she came to the UK from India:
“Yeah I knew nothing … because I worked at a different lower level when I came here [to the
UK] … I knew that … It’s … You can feel secure only if you get to know things, technically, very well, so
I went deep into that and I had good relation with the people from those other vendors [mentions
other IT companies] who are working with Lloyds, they know the development, so we do the testing,
so if you are getting well with the level of work, and obviously you cannot move. Development will
tell you … guide you … what it is because I’ll point his mistakes, and he’ll give other option, and I’ll be
learning more, it’ll be nice (Expatriate 23 (TFE)).
This she described in terms of now having the “confidence” to be more proactive in career planning
“Yeah, we know how to sell ourselves!”(Expatriate 23 (TFE)). Future path issues identified by the
expatriates included the challenge of having a spouse who does not come from the home country
(e.g. Expatriate 14 (SIE)).
55
4.5.5 Career Changes/ Career Breaks
Some women on the other hand decided to leave behind what they had experienced of traditional
career routes in their home country in the pursuit to work more flexibly in the host country for
example “I am not too concerned with titles / promotion as long as I am getting better at what I am
doing. I left my home country as I felt quite tied down to the position I had been working in for the
last 5 years. I want to travel and work a shorter week so I can visit more places whilst I am working,
this I feel I could not have achieved being employed in my home country” (Expatriate 9 (SIE)).
Indeed some felt the host country offered more scope in terms of their career compared to staying
in the home country “staying in New Zealand didn't really have much scope with London, they will
send you for small projects but want you back!”(Expatriate 2 (SIE)).
Some of the females identified gaining international assignments in the pursuit to satisfy personal
goals they had for example “I left my home country to become a Creative Director” (Expatriate 2
(SIE)),
4.5.6 Attitudes Surrounding Choosing SIE vs. TFE Routes
The respondents discussed issues surrounding the choice of either the traditional route or
alternative route. For some, personal attitudes shaped the choice. Expatriate 9 (SIE) stated that she
did not consider following the TFE route because “this wasn't my first time as an expat so I was
pretty confident it would be easy”.
Others also made assumptions about what route to take. Lack of perceived opportunity shaped
some choices – reflecting attitudes in the home country. For instance, as Expatriate 3 (SIE) explained
“agencies in NZ don't tend to send people overseas. Either they are too small and don't have
multinational contacts, or they will send you for small projects but want you back!”
4.6
Expatriate Women and Identity
4.6.1 Own Identity/ Nationality
Expatriate 11 (TFE) felt that it was important for her to be seen to learn Japanese and show an
understanding of the Japanese culture in order to be more accepted by the Japanese co-workers/
subordinate. But Japanese society is rather ‘misogynistic’ and the Japanese working environment at
the Japanese [previous employer] branch was a female manager who they appeared to feel had
been foisted upon them. However, in her experience, the Japanese working society seemed to be
more accepting of UK colleagues than the US – especially, she felt, those who try to learn about the
language and are more outgoing. For instance, Expatriate 11 (TFE) quickly learned to say “go home”
56
to subordinates in order to demonstrate to them that it was more important to focus upon the
delivery of targets, rather than remain at work tired (“presenteesim”).
The narratives revealed how the respondents represented themselves to the interviewer. This
revealed their reflections upon themselves and their identities as a non-native:
“I suppose working experience in Chinese restaurant was just part of the traditional cliché that
Chinese students normally do… I was working part-time in Chinese restaurants, part-time, couple of
weeks, in British restaurants, which doesn’t … well didn’t take me anywhere, and the only thing it did
it made me fed up with kitchen and restaurant serving, and getting ready to serve breakfast at 6
o’clock which doesn’t float my boat at all, so then I suppose next conventional route at the time that
was available to me was to see whether I could find any office space work, and I think the first one …
another cliché is you would find a company who would want to employ a Chinese speaker to be able
to further their trading experiences or relationships with China which I did apply for some jobs in
trading company, but I’ve not got a single offer because I don’t have … or didn’t have any business
working experience” (Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
The interviews encouraged reflexivity from the respondents about their identities, cultural in
particular, but also incorporating age as well as a Hong Kong Chinese national mentioned:
“I think because I came to came abroad at a relatively older age, there are a lot of things that I don’t
think I would change to the British way at all, and so there’s always going to be a combination of
Chinese-ness and British-ness…Values you hold towards things, life, jobs, values you hold towards
your family and how people behave in general, how they learn, how society should be like, how law
and order should be imposed” (Expatriate 19 (SIE)).
Another expatriate, from Mainland China, reflected on her own identity in the light of her
experiences abroad as student or ‘trailing spouse’.
“I always see myself with international people rather than just a specific Hong Kong/Chinese or as
such, ‘cause I make friends while that year in Norwich, with people from different countries, and
doing different things, doing Degrees, and different walks of life, and I always thought that oh there’s
only about 12 hours flight apart from home, so as I say, at that time, I do feel a bit naïve, yeah, its
just sort of extended the … what is it called … the international village, global village idea, I’m just
moving away from home a little bit further than say normal people do, and that is the thing that sort
of keep me going” (Expatriate 15 (SIE)).
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The awareness of naivety is an interesting comment, because another Chinese expatriate took a
much more cynical view behind her choice of expatriate career.
“in China I thought the employment environment wasn’t that great because you work long hours and
the reward wasn’t a lot, and you are under a kind of pressure. If you’re getting older you might lose
the opportunity to carry on” (Expatriate 20 (SIE)).
This comment reflects the difficulties for women in the Chinese labour market (c.f. Xian and
Woodhams, 2008). All three of the Chinese expatriates mentioned above followed the SIE route and
have married UK nationals, albeit Expatriate 15 (SIE) met and married her British husband in Hong
Kong.
4.6.2 Identity Perceptions of Others
As the above comments suggest, the expatriates make sense of their own identities partly through
their re-presentation of other cultures.
This influenced their choices of potential targets for
expatriation, as a Canadian expatriate noted:
“A: Well being Canadian, I thought the cultures would be very similar and they are in a lot of ways…
its not like I was moving to China or anything”...Q: “ so there were no hidden surprises when you
arrived?”...A: “Beyond the cost of living no” (Expatriate 6 (SIE)).
The importance of being aware to the surrounding culture was seen as important. Expatriate 11
(TFE) would start work early deliberately, so that she could leave at a reasonable time, thereby
enabling the others to leave at a sensible time without losing face. She also attempted not to send
e-mails at 8 o’clock in the morning in order not to pressurise them into replying in the evening. In
contrast, one of her bosses was posted out to Tokyo and did not try to understand the Japanese
culture, was very much a “Red Neck”:
“I’m working in the language centre, apart from the team members, is the users from over the world,
so again, you can pick up bits of local culture, bits of say the social customs here and there and,
again, I think the key thing is I have bit of an open mind. I don’t want to be say really restricted to
what I conceive to be right or wrong or his to be this way, I’m a bit flexible in that sense. It is an
advantage, helping me to adapt to a new environment“(Expatriate 15 (SIE)).
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4.7 Expatriate Women and Generational Factors
4.7.1 From Baby Boomer to Generation Y
There was a spread of ages in the research sample – between 1949 and 1986 covering the ‘Baby
Boomer’ to ‘Generation Y’. Glass (2007) claims that individuals brought up in difference generations
have different sets of beliefs, values, attitudes and expectations which all can have an impact on
their experiences of working. In his study of the two groups who make up the largest parts of the
workforce, Sirias (2007) points out Baby Boomers are considered as individuals who are loyal and
have more of an attachment with the organisation whilst Gen Xers have been considered to be less
loyal and more individual compared to previous generations. According to Chen and Choi (2008) Gen
Yers value the need for work-life balance, retirement factors in job choices, intense use of
technology and having more expectations of themselves. It was interesting to note how respondents
from different generations shared common attitudes towards expatriating i.e. the idea of travelling
more and being more culturally aware than their grandparents were (for example expatriates 2, 3, 5,
9 and 10). Indeed, some women agree to having more expectations of themselves (e.g. Expatriate 3
(SIE), wanting to win more advertising awards).
4.7.2 Third Culture Kids
A Third Culture Kid (TCK) is traditionally seen as someone who has spent time in his or her formative
years living in another culture (Szkudlarek, 2010). In our project, Expatriate 11 (SIE)’s son, born to
two British parents in the UK, but living and schooling in Japan for three years from the age of five,
provides a good example of a TCK:
“…..he did three lessons a week, one was language, one was culture, and we only found out two
months before we left how much he’d picked up… our housekeeper had picked him up from school. It
was chucking it down with rain, as it only can in Tokyo, the stair rods, and they hailed a cab, got it,
and whilst she was grappling with the umbrellas and all this sort of stuff, umm, she’d given the
address to the driver and he turned round and said, oh, is it off a particular road, she hadn’t heard,
but James had, and he said oh yes, and then proceeded to direct the driver in Japanese, so … and
[the housekeeper] was like amazed, and she reported this to us and we were equally amazed, as he’d
said you know turn right, turn left, stop here, and all that sort of stuff, and we’d never have given him
the opportunity, because we had always spent our time arguing about which of us was gonna direct
the taxi or whatever it was, so he picked up really quite a lot, culture-wise he did” (Expatriate 11).
Other women had children who were born and brought up in the host country (e.g. Expatriate 21
(SIE)) who seemingly had adapted to the host country – although expatriate 21 was herself very
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concerned at the implications of growing up in a threatening environment in a northern UK city.
However, the term has evolved to cover those people “who were raised within different cultural
worldviews, without ever leaving their country of birth” (Szkudlarek, 2010: 11).
Expatriate 17 herself, as an adolescent, experienced moving abroad to work – and how that
experience influenced her worldview.
Furthermore, some of the younger women’s espoused
attitudes could be identified as being akin to TCKs, for example, “I am more open to different
cultures than my grandparents were. I have passion of travelling and meeting people from different
cultures which has become a main priority in life and plan weekends away abroad quite often”
(Expatriate 10 (SIE)). Some women who do not fall under this definition and have been found from
different generational groupings (Baby Boomer women born between 1946-1961) shared passion
for travelling for example “I am more open to different cultures than her grandparent were during
her time abroad I have managed to travel the world extensively over a 25 year period” (Expatriate 7
(TFE)).
The respondents had similar attitudes right across the different generational groupings in terms of
their motivations for international assignments for example the issue of travelling and interesting
projects. However some respondents from the baby boomer grouping had more of an attachment
with the organisation for example; “I decided to stay with the organisation for 24 years” (Expatriate
7 (TFE)).
According to Selmer and Lam, (2004) TCK third culture kids who are more culturally aware than
previous generations may not need as in-depth cross-cultural training. Some of the women support
this perception, highlighting they did not conduct any pre-departure cultural training as they already
felt that they knew what to expect and had visited their host country previously.
Expatriate 29 (SIE) was very open about the influence of her mother. She was raised with Croatian
traditions in Germany, but her mother deliberately wanted her to learn German and integrate and
make friends in Germany: Expatriate 29 (SIE) followed this deliberately conscious policy when she
came to the UK. Similarly, Expatriate 30 (SIE) was the daughter of Dutch parents, so was open to
more than home country (Australia) influences in terms of furniture, language and food.
However, as noted above, a key point that emerged from a number of respondents was that
overlooking pre-departure training proved to be a problem.
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5 DISCUSSION
5.1 Women’s Learning and Development & the Global Assignment Cycle
Our preliminary investigations engage with the diverse ‘journeys’ made by the women: with
interviewees having experiences of the different stages of the “the global assignment cycle” (Vernon
et al., 2007).
These journeys, whilst in detail unique, also reflect links with factors such as
generation, culture and levels of international experience. For instance, the motivations to go
abroad are many and varied, including both personal and professional factors. We also note the rise
of women coming from previously closed countries (e.g. from China), as well as the diverse
experiences of women making adjustments to work in different industries and sectors, alongside
those more experienced women who have a mixture of both SIE and TFE positions. From a learning
perspective, we explore the difficulties female expatriates have faced in transferring previous
experiences into current assignments – both from positions at home and internationally – as well as
the benefits of applying knowledge gained from previous assignments into future positions.
Our
research supports the view of Altman and Shortland (2008) advanced earlier that it has never been
so important for organisations to manage expatriates effectively, providing opportunities for them
to develop their career through overseas assignments; especially as the skills required for
organisational leadership positions require international experience. It also reaffirms the assertion
that organisations must in future pay careful attention, not just to managing the development of the
traditional expatriate (TFE) at each stage of the life cycle from selection and pre-departure training
to repatriation (Collings, Heraty and Morley, 2006; Dupuis et al, 2008 ), but also to managing their
SIEs (Ariss, 2010; Banai and Harry 2006).
What are the diverse development needs & experiences of female expatriates? The research has
explicitly explored the expatriate cycle. A key issue to be considered is the impact of previous
experiences upon the individual. The naivety highlighted by some of the respondents –whether in
respect to their preparations and first expatriate posts and/or how they struggled to adapt to the
realities of their situation – reflects the role of informal learning as much as formal learning
activities. The significance of previous experience of expatriate working is something that emerges
from the narratives of the women. Having experience of working abroad is a decisive factor that
differentiates the experiences of the various women. Respondents following a SIE approach found
that they had to take a greater responsibility for their development (in professional and personal
terms).
It is interesting to note that the concerns raised by both SIE and TFE about HRM and HRD issues
relate both specifically to their status as female expatriates as well as more generally to problems
61
surrounding HR and HRD processes. For instance, concerns as to the effectiveness of reward systems
within organisations for incentivising workers generally.
With the SIE respondents this can be explained because that they are ostensibly treated the same
way as home employees. There are differences in the experiences between SIE and TFEs. For
instance, it is important to remember that the selection process also includes the selection of the
organisation by the SIE herself, because the decision will have been made after moving. One
important issue that arises from the SIE respondents is how naïve they felt in their job hunting
experience – in targeting employers, understanding how they needed to take on responsibility in
developing themselves and their careers.
The study helps to understand the tensions & issues facing female expatriates – particularly those
following non-traditional routes (e.g. the SIE route) – in terms of their learning and development
(L&D) needs. The findings reveal how the respondents have been able to transfer the skills they have
gained into their new roles. Some of the respondents have found employers interested in their
experience whilst one of the TFE’s found her home country employer not be interested in the
experience even though they had been sent by them to work on the assignment. Some SIE have
found it difficult to transfer what they have learnt more so as the jobs they have applied for are
quite different to the work they had previously carried out.
It is important to note that whilst research has hypothesised that SIE’s may have little or no
knowledge of the local culture (Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010); the evidence of this project suggests
that this is not always the case. It was the case for some of the SIEs in our sample, but others have
made concerted efforts to understand not only the practicalities of day-to-day living and working but
also about the working culture. However, it is significant to note how this is characteristic of the
more experienced expatriates (e.g. Expatriate 16 (SIE)). What emerged from the respondents were
the challenges that they faced in respect to managing their learning and development in terms of
ensuring the acquisition of appropriate skills as well as learning to participate within their own
working milieu. Consequently, we have explored the implications for female expatriates’ careers
(and their own identities) as they reflect on their development through their experiences, both
personally and professionally. This is not necessarily a smooth progression, indeed, it is clear that
the expatriate experience has been a difficult one for a number of the expatriates as they manage
the changes in their evolving career path alongside changing family demands.
We explored further the implications of organisational learning and development strategies failing to
grasp the significance of a changing, internationalised, female workforce.
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In this, our findings
resonate with wider issues in extant literature. For instance, the frequency of failure generally in
expatriate assignments has highlighted the significance of expatriate preparation, such as predeparture training and cross-cultural training (Tarique and Caligiuri, 2004), with the precise nature
and content of learning and development interventions mediated by contextual and situational
factors (Mendenhall, Stevens, Bird and Oddou, 2008). From a gender perspective, we engage with
the perceived lack of support, particularly from the organisation, for females pursuing global careers
and the role of women mentors and role models (Linehan and Scullion, 2001), as well as the
functions of female organisational networking (Varma et al., 2001), and social support (Caligiuri and
Lazarova, 2002).
5.2 Emphasis upon the Product and Process of Learning
Elkjaer (2004) demonstrates how synthesizing both the dialogic-focused and practice-focused
approaches allow us in order to understand the ‘social worlds’ in which actors contribute to their
collective sense-making.
This is because learning “is a combination of skills and knowledge
acquisition (product) and participation in communities of practice (process)” (Elkjaer, 2004: 429).
Looking at the ‘social worlds’ of the expatriates we see that they are embedded within a network of
relationships that transcend organisational boundaries. Therefore, a practice-focused ‘learning as
participation’ perspective unveils a consideration for the tacit knowing required to participate in a
particular organizational and national context which can be very different from previous
experiences.
5.2.1 Product: Expatriates need to develop critical learning skills – particularly to become
independent learners (to draw upon diverse sources of Learning and Development support). The
importance of becoming ‘reflective practitioners’ is key but how does this happen – to what extent
does (or can) organizations support this, or inhibit it? The focus of learning is not merely upon
formalized training and development, but the significant role of informal or incidental learning
(Watkins and Marsick, 2001). The key to engaging in higher-level learning is the ability to apply
‘critical thinking’. Proponents note that this should apply widely, from education through to politics
and religion (Paul and Elder ,2001). They add a second level of thinking to the prejudices of ordinary
(first order) thinking. Through reflection, the learner can progress through stages in order to
develop as a critical thinker, from an ‘Uncritical Learner’ (unaware of significant problems in her
thinking), through to a ‘Master Thinker’ for whom skilled and insightful thinking become second
nature (Paul and Elder 2001: 22). However, as gender theorists have pointed out, learning is more
than simply “a matter of acquiring the knowledge and skills of these members, but of having a
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deeper understanding of their identity, and of one’s own identity gradually approaching this”
(Paetcher, 2006: 16-17).
What emerges is the lack of content knowledge and the extent to which the expatriates had to
acquire it in order to survive in their new countries. This involved knowledge about:

the working culture in the new country

the expatriate procedures at the organisation (for TFE)

the working culture in the organization (particularly for SIE, although also for TFEs
transferring to other parts of ostensibly the same organisation

The ability of the expatriate to cope with the demands of moving to another country and/or
organisation and/or position.
The more experienced expatriates noted how they developed their resilience levels (Expatriate 16
(SIE)). This came through informal and incidental learning (Watkins and Marsick, 2001) as well as (to
a lesser extent) formal training and development. The importance of informal mentoring and the
perception of role models was investigated (from a gender perspective, the importance attributed
by some to female role models) within and beyond the organisation, for instance previous
employers or family members.
It was noticeable how expatriates with experience of working in multiple countries were very
proactive in ensuring that they liaised with the sources of information (e.g. Embassies).However,
whilst useful ,even informal and incidental learning can become obsolete or out of date (Watkins
and Marsick, 2001). The context of the expatriate experience is an important factor. Power and
political factors within organisational contexts can make it difficult for expatriates to apply their
learning in the workplace. Becoming aware of the gender and cultural differences and how this
impacts upon the expatriate experience was important : from disadvantages in job-hunting to
adjusting to the workplace and getting promotion in the workplace.
This connects with concerns raised in extant literature about how power inequalities can inhibit
learning and the impact upon the women’s perceptions of themselves and their position in the
workplace. Consequently, appreciating the content of OL needs to encompass not only the rational
and cognitive, but also the affective. Indeed, Vince and Saleem (2004), amongst others, have noted,
learning requires and is constituted by the affective as well, for example, the presence of fear in
organisational cultures can militate against a ‘reflective culture’ (Vince, 2002). This emotional aspect
64
can be seen in some of the responses reflecting the difficulties of dealing with bullying line managers
and unsupportive environments.
5.2.2 Process of Learning : female expatriate learning can be understood in terms of attempting to
become a participant within a number of communities of practice.
These are found at the
organisational level, as they move into new organisations, working in unfamiliar sectoral cultures
etc. as well as wider communities at national level. There is a link here with the recent research that
has begun to explore learning in terms of learning to participate within a particular situation
(Salminen-Karlsson, 2006; Stalker and Mavin, 2011). It is important to note how the expatriates
adjusted to their new working environments. For some, coping with these multiple communities was
problematical, partly due to cultural and personality factors. It is interesting to compare the
diverging experiences of women during their expatriate career. Expatriate 16 (SIE), for instance,
who was able to become a full time employee in France, yet struggled to get into the job market in
Morocco. It is significant from the narratives how the women had to work their way into male
dominated environments: reflecting the concept of legitimate peripheral participation (Brown and
Duguid, 1991).
Gender, particularly in respect to the situated learning literature, has been accused of smoothing out
issues of gender and power (Salminen-Karlsson, 2006). “Introducing gender into situated learning
does not primarily mean doing gender studies. Rather, it means accounting for gender and power in
studies of situated learning, whatever their focus” (Salminen-Karlsson, 2006: 44).
However, Elkjaer’s depiction of ‘social worlds’ recognises individual and group differences in
organizations.
It is suggested that the ‘social worlds’ metaphor “opens the eye to see that
participation not only involves the strive for harmony but due to the focus upon the making of
participation through commitment, it opens the vision for the emotional elements of organizational
life and work – to tensions and conflicts reflected in the different commitments to organizational
activities” (Huysman and Elkjaer, 2006: 8). Following through the journeys of the expatriates, it is
possible to follow the activities in the expatriate cycle, from pre-departure preparation to
repatriation. In turn, it can be seen how the individual (e.g. the expatriates or their local colleagues)
and the organisational actors engage with these activities.
Importantly, these learning connections can extend beyond national boundaries. This gives rise to
many opportunities to learn from other cultures, but also can lead to many problems. The impact of
cultural differences has been covered by many, building upon the pioneering work of Hofstede
(Hofstede, Bond and Luk, 1993). These issues will be increasingly important to globalised industries
65
for their employees – host nationals or home country expatriates – to appreciate how to work
together in practice: to learn how to participate in communities of practice (Brown and Duguid,
1991).
5.3 Exploring the Potential of Learning & Development to Support Female Expatriates
Our research looked at the provision and needs of learning and development across the traditional
expatriate cycle for female expatriates following different routes. Whilst the term learning and
development is superseding human resource development (c.f. Harrison, 2004), the underlying
concerns remain in respect to the facilitation and nurturing of human resources to benefit both
individual and organisation.
We argue that taking such a Learning and Development ‘lens’
exemplifies the function of both formal and informal learning – as well as exploring the role of
individuals, organisations and other bodies in shaping the development of female expatriates.
The lack of cross-cultural training provided by organisations has been identified as an issue.
Organisations need to provide adequate training so female expatriates are aware of the host country
culture and be able to adjust effectively. This can be provided prior to leaving or through the time
the expatriate is on the assignment. SIE can also benefit from carrying out self training particularly
when leaving for countries that are very different from their home country. Becoming aware of what
to expect on arrival can help prepare female expatriates for the different cultural that exists in host
country.
Our tentative findings raise concerns for the effectiveness of organisational learning and
development provision in the new millennium, with its globalised, organisational workplace. In this
we link with wider critical concerns (Vince, 2003) that there has not been a significant movement
away from a traditional HRD model of training being ‘done to’ passive learners, with insufficient
concern for the needs of a diverse workforce (particularly overlooking gender or cultural issues), and
little consideration given for transfer of learning from the individual to the organisation.
Whilst the experiences of pursuing an expatriate path do reveal significant learning and
development opportunities for women pursuing an international career, questions remain
surrounding the level of preparedness of both individual and organisation. We note the implications
of both formal and informal organizational policies – such as the impact upon those women
marginalised in attempting to perform within male-dominated environments, raising connections
with wider learning theory surrounding the challenges of effective participation in their social worlds
(e.g. Elkjaer, 2004: Gherardi, Nicolin and Odella, 1998). Ultimately, attempting to deliver high
66
performance in 21st century global workplace provides a significant challenge for both individuals
and organisations.
Clearly, given the mixed experiences of the SIEs in their experiences of learning and development
support by their employers, there is a connection between HRD and Talent Management “In
contrast to an assignment, the self-initiated expatriate chooses the organization. Therefore, HR
interventions can play a vital role in developing their organization as an employer of choice. Thus,
positively engaging with potential candidates is arguably as important as the actual formal selection
process.” (Howe-Walsh and Schyns, 2010: 266).
6 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
So, whilst the experiences of pursuing an expatriate path do reveal significant learning and
development opportunities for women pursuing an international career, questions remain
surrounding the level of preparedness of both individual and organisation. We note the implications
of both formal and informal organizational policies – such as the impact upon those women
marginalised in attempting to perform within male-dominated environments, raising connections
with wider learning theory surrounding the challenges of effective participation in their social worlds
(e.g. Elkjaer, 2004; Gherardi et al, 1998; Salminen-Karlsson, 2006). Ultimately, attempting to deliver
high performance in 21st century global workplace provides a significant challenge for individuals and
organisations.
6.1 Implications for Organisations
Organisations need to provide adequate training so female expatriates are aware of the host country
culture and be able to adjust to the latter’s cultural milieu effectively, whether provided prior to
leaving or during the time the expatriate is abroad. We also note the benefits from carrying out selftraining when leaving for countries that are very different from their home country, as becoming
aware of what to expect on arrival can help prepare female expatriates for the different cultural that
exists in host country. The SIE respondents articulated how little specific concern is given to the
development needs of female expatriates.
The research highlights the challenges facing the
recruitment of female expatriates, as well as the retention and effective exploitation of their human
capital. However, it is not simply businesses that need to address HRD issues. Particularly, the
importance of support provided by other bodies (such as Government or NGOs) for living in the host
country has proven to be of mixed value to the expatriates – particularly for inexperienced SIE’s.
Those more experienced SIEs were able to exploit these resources, particularly in their preparation.
67
The GMAC (2005) survey highlights that only 20% of organisations had cross-cultural training as
compulsory: a
low percentage when compared to previous studies. This connects with the
comments by some of the TFE females who found their organisations not providing any cultural
training support at all (e.g. expatriate 1 and 7).
The interviews revealed the perceived lack of understanding on the part of some organisations
about the practicalities of employing expatriate workers. Even in expatriate 28’s organization her
expatriate branch had seemingly little experience of managing the expatriate cycle.
The responsibility of the various actors emerges as important from the data. This supports recent
comments by nascent SIE research, because as Howe-Walsh and Schyns (2010: 264) note ‘One could
argue that if an individual decides to expatriate, his or her adjustment and acculturation is his or her
own responsibility. However, in order to gain advantage from self-initiated expatriates, organizations
must try to smooth the transfer from one country to another…professional HRM policies and
practices can assist the expatriate to perform at the expected standard from early on. HRM can
become a unique selling point for the individual organization in the competition for global talent’.
Organisations need to provide adequate training so female expatriates are aware of the host country
culture and be able to adjust to the latter’s cultural milieu effectively, whether provided prior to
leaving or during the time the expatriate is abroad. However, we also note how particularly SIE’s can
benefit from carrying out self-training when leaving for countries that are very different from their
home country. Becoming aware of what to expect on arrival can help prepare female expatriates for
the different cultural that exists in host country.
In addition, we argue that it is not just businesses that need to address HRD issues. Particularly, the
importance of support provided by other bodies (such as Government or NGOs) for living in the host
country has proven to be of mixed value to the expatriates – particularly for inexperienced SIE’s.
The use of information provided by Government agencies in the home countries was a valuable
resource that Expatriate 16 (SIE) had noted helped her and her husband when preparing their case
to establish their eligibility for a working visa
6.2 Implications for Individuals
The findings are equally important for women in today’s global but uncertain economic context and
it has been suggested earlier that women in the face of barriers within traditional routes may choose
a self-initiated route to expatriate employment. Employability is an important consideration for
individuals at all stages of their career and training and development is central to that.
68
6.2.1 Generational Issues
Most of the expatriates were in the Generation X and Y categories. Shaw and Fairhurst (2008)
discuss the implications of Gen Y characteristics on graduate learning and development and make
the following assertions. Firstly, training and development initiatives ought to aspire to a level of
security for Millennials and be used as a retention tool and an opportunity for their CV
enhancement. Secondly, the importance of maintaining Gen Y engaged in the culture of the
organisation, through innovative use of technology, relaxation of status and hierarchies, the
encouragement of meaningful social interactions, work- life balance and genuine care for
employees. Thirdly, early, regular and honest feedback to ensure tailored approach to personal
development and ample mentoring and coaching opportunities. Whilst these points are relevant to
both men and women, arguably in the light of the findings in this study, they continue to present
considerable challenges for Generation Y women working on international assignments
6.2.2 Development of Communities of Practice
What is clear from the respondents is the importance of knowledge gained through informal
sources, rather than formal organizationally provided provision.
The informal and incidental
opportunities (Watkins and Marsick, 2001) from social networks, or from connections made in the
workplace, are indicative of research that emphasises how learning is a primarily social phenomenon
“situated in the historical development of ongoing activity” (Lave and Wenger, 1991: 51). The
importance of this form of learning through participation in communities of practice formed by
informal networks of relations, a process known as legitimate peripheral participation, has been
shown to be particularly important for women expatriates in our study.
Interestingly, a source mentioned by Expatriate 26 outside of the interview itself was the presence
of specialist websites for female expatriates (http://www.expatwomen.com) although she had not
used it herself. Clearly, there are other websites providing information for expatriates of both
genders (e.g. http://www.expatriates.com) and specialist relating to particular nationalities in
specific host countries (e.g. for US expatriates in the UK there is http://www.americanexpats.co.uk).
Other respondents focused more upon the role of official host country resources, as well as the web
resources from professional bodies, so the opportunities given by the internet are clear. Similarly,
the role of conferences (especially for those employed in the academic and education fields) for
interaction with those from a similar industry background reflect the importance of what are
informal communities of practice, developing on from nascent ideas recently addressed (c.f. Stalker
and Mavin, 2011). This places emphasis upon female expatriates nurturing multi-directional career
opportunities with emphasis on learning through doing. However, issues arise as to whether there is
69
sufficient awareness of these resources by novice Expatriates or whether they would be able to
implement this knowledge in the workplace, given how difficult it can be for newcomers to
introduce their practices in the face of old-timers asserting their own established practices (Elkjaer
and Huysman, 2008). These scenarios indicate innovative ideas being stifled, whilst existing practices
remain unquestioned.
7 CONCLUSIONS
This project’s contribution has been to address the relatively low profile of female expatriates in
research. This is partly because expatriates traditionally have tended to be male and the research
that exists tends to look generally at the barriers to women’s international career mobility and ways
of surmounting this (Tung, 2004). Rather less is known about female expatriate career development
needs and experiences, particularly within this new context.
Yet the business case for having a well-developed female cadre of international managers is clear –
given predictions of increasing organisational demand (c.f. Harvey and Moeller, 2009). This fact,
together with the rise of female workers actively looking for international experience, especially with
the opportunities opening up for women to travel abroad from countries such as China to study (as
amply reflected in our research sample) questions the role of HRD in supporting females in this
changing international career context.
Consequently, this study explores how HRD specifically can equip female workers to meet the
changing demands of the globalized workplace. Because our current research is exploratory and
ongoing, we envisage this developmental paper as providing both the basis for future publication,
alongside opening up potential avenues for further investigations of the lived experience of female
expatriates. We envisage further developing the key empirical issues in the research – unpacking
further how female expatriates construct their identities in performing their expatriate roles and the
(variable) contribution of learning and development in supporting this performance. Our ongoing
qualitative empirical research is timely in light of the changes that are taking place in the expatriate
arena and we suggest will help in gaining a deeper understanding of the ‘lived experience’ between
the female expatriates, which is proving an increasingly rich source of insights for gender research
(c.f. Xian and Woodhams, 2008). We investigate the perceived role of Learning and Development
phenomena – covering formal HRD interventions such as cross-cultural training provision, as well as
less structured (but nevertheless important) processes like informal mentoring – and explore the
personal experiences of women from different nationalities following the different expatriate
routes. Employing this approach has enabled us to engage with how the women themselves
construct their own performance within international contexts.
70
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83
APPENDIX 1 INTERVIEW FORMAT
1. Traditional cycle followed?
1.1. Does the cycle apply to SFE ?
1.2. Indeed, is it perceived by all respondents?
2. Selection Process
2.1 Role of informal & formal
2.2 Used at what stages?
2.2.1 Any variation in selection process between SFE TFE?
2.2.2 Organisational support for female to become expatriates
2.2.2.1 Specfic support for female expatriates
2.3 What drives women to choose to become expatriate?
2.3.1 Why do they choose SFE/ SIE route instead of TE?
3. Support
3.1. Mentoring :
Formal vs Informal selection of mentors (roles of perceived vs. assigned mentors)
Intra organizational & Supra-Organizational
3.2. Social support
3.2.1 Provided by organisation – role & adequacy
3.2.2 Social support through different methods – e.g. informal friendship methods (social networks; kinship & industry)
3.2.3 to what extent has the role/balance between organisational/informal support changed over time – also does
experience contradict expectations?
4. Performance Appraisal
4.1. Positive or negative experience? Reasons for either/both (e.g. not appropriate)
4.2. Similarities/ differences for SFE/TFE? (e.g. SFE ignored by employers)
4.3. Similarities/ differences in different assignments?
4.4. impact of organisational/ national cultures towards appraisal (e.g. inhibits/ prevents its use)
4.5. agreed vs actual implantation (e.g. ignored whilst on assignment)
5. Repatriation
5.1. Repatriation Experience
5.1.1. Expected different from actual? (e.g. organization fails to deliver on promises; no position to go back to)
5.1.2. Similarities/ differences between SFE/TFE (e.g. suggested that SFE’s suffer more – but depends upon
expectations/ individual experiences?)
5.1.3. Similarities/ differences between assignments (e.g. have they learned to cope with the stresses of
repatriation?)
5.1.4. Gender implications (harder? )
6. Managing career Path
6.1. Identified Career Path? (e.g. respondents in Monica’s questions did not consider managing their career, or don’t
consider it relevant – .e. not applicable for end of career)
6.2. Has this path followed predicted route? If not, why not? (e.g. unexpected developments due to economic climate;
personal changes etc.)
6.3. Organizationally-focused or individually-focused? (Particularly any changes in focus over time: reflecting their
learning e.g. understanding that career path maybe outside of the organisation?)
6.4. to what extent does gender influence these decisions?
7. Previous Experience of International working
7.1. To what extent do they have previous experiences?
7.1.1. how have previous experiences helped further assignments?
7.1.2. Experiences of following a different route (e.g. previously followed a SFE) – perceived differences (easier harder
etc.)?
7.1.3. gender implications – similarities/differences between experiences (e.g. deliberately choosing alternative
approach because of previous lack of organisational support)
8. Cross Cultural Training/ Preparation
8.1. Organizational training preparation provision
8.1.1. Pre-departure provision by the organisation?
8.1.2. specific focus (general cultural; specific role)
84
8.2. Self pre-departure training
8.2.1. Amount/ focus of SPDT
8.2.2. value of SPDT:
8.2.2.1. comparisons with organizational Cultural Training
8.2.2.2. changed attitudes towards SPDT on future assignments (e.g. was overlooked previously)
8.3 Adjustment to new culture
8.4 Training Provision during assignment
9. impact of non-work support
9.1. Availability of support beyond the job itself.
9.1.1. What networking opportunities are there? Formally or informally arranged?
9.2. Support for partner? Significant in making decision to join organisation?
10. Learning Outcomes of the assignment (value of assignment)
10.1. Transfer of Learning –
10.1.1. Learning from the assignment – any perceived by the expatriate?
10.1.2. enabling factors
10.1.2.1. organizational (could be original employer or new)
10.1.2.2. individual (e.g. skills/knowledge acquired by the
10.1.3. barriers
10.1.3.1. Organisational (could be original employer or new: e.g. lack of support to apply newly acquired skills)
10.1.3.2. individual – attitudes towards learning (e.g. feeling unable to transfer)
11. Generational factors
11.1. Third Cultural Kids: comparisons with females from other (older) generations
12. Gender issues in making adjustments
12.1. Adjusting for male dominated environments (organisational & national cultural differences)
12.2. organisational sensitivity towards adjustment
12.2.1. role of formal organisational support (e.g. formal training)
13 Reward management
13.1 Negotiating Reward Package
13.2 Relocation
13.2 Influence of SIE
85
APPENDIX 2 BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE PARTICIPANTS
Name of female expatriate.
DOB
Nationality
Current Position
British
Project coordinator
American
Technical Author and
(TFE) Expatriate 1
Has worked on a previous international 1961
assignment of which she was sent abroad
via an agreement made between herself and
an employer in her home country. She had 6
years of working internationally and is
waiting on a reply from an employer
regarding a new expatiate assignment.
(SIE) Expatriate 2
Has worked in the U.K for the last 24 years in 1958
the I.T industry on various contracts. She has
Special Projects,
24 years of working internationally in one
country and works more from home due to
family commitments.
(SIE) Expatriate 3 ()
Has worked in the U.K for the past 5 years, 1979
New Zealand
Senior copywriter for
the job she is in now allows her to carry out
Brothers and Sisters
advertising projects internationally. She left
Creative Ltd,
her home country due to personal and
professional reasons and has made the U.K
her permanent home.
86
(SIE/TFE) Expatriate 4
Has
worked
2
years
of
working
1974
Chinese
internationally and came to the U.K on a
Currently
unemployed
specialised project. The project was aborted
and she returned back to her home country
and is currently unemployed seeking to work
internationally as an opportunity arises
(SIE) Expatriate 5
Has worked internationally for 3 years on a
1979
Australian
Tax Accountant
1970
Canadian
Associate Landscape
contract basis, her job whilst in the U.K
allowed her to travel abroad training local
nationals. She is currently considering a
career move but not a career change as she
feels. She feels she is well settled into her
profession. She misses the travelling aspect
having returned back to her home country.
(SIE) Expatriate 6 (SIE)
She has worked internationally for 7 years
and had to start from the bottom of an
Architect
organisation. She had applied for work once
she had arrived into the host country. She is
finding it hard to adjust to the lifestyle in her
host country more so as she is living in
apartment as opposed to a house. She is
considering a career break to start a family.
87
(TFE) Expatriate 7 (TFE) ()
She
has
over
25
years
of
working
1949
British
Care Assistant
1980
American
Quantity Surveyor
internationally in one country (Holland). She
has
recently
repatriated
back
after
numerous years of being abroad. She is
finding it cope with being back in her home
country after so many years of being away.
Currently she is debating the fact of staying
or moving abroad permanently which will
not be career related as she feels she has
reached her peak in her working life.
(SIE) Expatriate 8
Married.
Has
2
years
of
working
internationally and came over to the U.K
supporting her partner who had a pending
contract. She is currently working for her
partner but is considering a career change
and is hoping once the market has come out
of the recession she feels she will be then
able to concentrate on her career.
88
Expatriate 9 (SIE)
Single.
Has
3
years
of
working
1983
Australian
Art Director
1983
Irish
Student
internationally and left her home country to
gain international experience as well as
gaining more scope in the field she would
like to specialise in. She has a passion for
travelling and plans most weekends away to
Europe which is one of the main reasons
behind why she left her home country. She
would rather see how it goes with her career
as she is more concerned about doing well in
the position she is in rather than seeking
promotion.
(SIE) Expatriate 10 ()
Single. Has 3 years of working in one
country (Japan) which was not related to the
career choice she is currently making. Her
time in the host country left her feeling very
disappointed as she did not feel she could fit
and be accepted by the locals, this became
the reason for why she returned back. She is
not currently thinking of working on an
international assignment and would like to
gain experience working in her home
country rather than moving abroad as she
had previously done.
89
(TFE) Expatriate 11 ()
Works
currently
1967
for
a
UK
Based
Multinational. A married mother, who has
British
HR Director
experience of a number of assignments,
both with this firm and previous positions.
Worked in the Far East, the United States
and Africa. Currently based back in the UK
but makes frequent trips abroad.
(SIE) Expatriate 12 ()
Currently a lecturer in a British University.
1972
Taiwanese (UK University Lecturer
Single without children and has worked in
passport
two full time positions (research and
holder)
teaching) in other British Universities. Also,
has working experience as an accountant n
the family firm back in Taiwan.
(SIE) Expatriate 13 ()
German
First time to work abroad. Single without
Credit Controller
1977
children and currently employed by large
US-Based MNC in the UK. Previously worked
for
a
German
recycling
company
in
Germany.
(SIE) Expatriate 14 ()
Currently self-employed. Married to a UK
Taiwanese (UK Translator
1961
Passport
Holder)
citizen, has extensive experience of working
as IT for various UK companies. Came to the
UK to study at a UK University. Was a cram
school teacher before coming to the UK.
90
(SIE) Expatriate 15 ()
Chinese
Currently working in a UK University.
1966
Passport
(UK Librarian Information
Officer
Holder)
Previous experience as a teacher in Hong
Kong. Married without children, came to
the UK with her British husband.
(SIE) Expatriate 16 ()
1967
Currently works in MNC in Chile. Married
British
HR Manager
British
HR Manager
Currently a full time lecturer in UK 1981
Chinese
(UK University Lecturer
University. Single. Was previously working
passport
in the UK as part time lecturer as well as
holder)
without children.
Previous experience of
working as SIE in Europe. Her husband is
French.
He has himself worked as an
expatriate (both as a TFE and as a SIE) in the
UK, Spain, Morocco and currently Chile.
(SIE) Expatriate 17 ()
Currently works for a UK MNC in UK. 1976
Previously worked in Australia as retail
manager.
Single.
Had extensive retail
experience in the UK before leaving for
Australia. Also worked in Australia for a
charity.
(SIE) Expatriate 18 ()
Mandarin teacher as well as having worked
for a UK SME.
Studied at UK Business
School.
91
(SIE) Expatriate 19 (
Works
as
a
university
administrator. 1978
Chinese
Married without children to a UK citizen,
Passport
whom she met after arrival in UK. Previously
Holder)
(UK Administrator
had a variety of short term positions in UK
retail & hospitality. Studied at University
Business School.
(SIE) Expatriate 20 ()
Works currently for a UK transportation 1979
Chinese
firm.
Passport
Married without children to a UK
citizen she met after coming to the UK.
(UK Engineer.
holder)
Studied Engineering at UK university before
moving into first position with another UK
firm.
(SIE) Expatriate 21 ()
Works for UK transportation firm. Studied 1977
Croatian
Engineer.
engineering in USA university, worked for US
transportation company on graduating.
Seconded from another US firm to UK
(SIE) Expatriate 22 ()
Taiwanese (UK
Full time lecturer in UK Business School. 1977
Passport
University Lecturer.
holder)
Studied in another UK University. Previously
part time lecturer in UK University. First full
time position abroad.
(TFE) Expatriate 23 ()
Full time IT analyst, currently seconded to 1986
UK firm. First time assigned abroad, having
just joined Indian IT consultancy after
graduation.
After interview left to get
married back in India.
92
Indian.
IT Analyst.
(SIE) Expatriate 24 (.
1968
Columbian.
University Lecturer.
1970
Finland.
University Lecturer
Came to UK to study MBA after a number of
years working in the cement industry in
Columbia.
Met husband whilst studying,
married and moved to Canada as a ‘trailing
spouse’ until husband obtained a job in the
UK as a lecturer in Drama. Came to UK as a
‘trailing spouse’ seeking work in cement
industry, took a contract as a lecturer at the
same university as husband. Two children at
local primary school.
(SIE) Expatriate 25 ().
She works currently as a part time lecturer in
the UK. Came to the UK in 1997, in order to
study for First degree (Human Evolution),
then Masters and PhD. She had worked in
Finland in a number of jobs, including
journalism and Club DJ before deciding upon
an academic career. Met and married a
British man and now has two children (aged
4 and 7). Wants to stay in UK and academia
but
depends
upon
employment
opportunities in academia and husband’s
business interests.
93
TFE/SIE Expatriate 26 ()
1974
British
University Student
Croatian
University Lecturer/
Whilst currently a post graduate student,
she has experience of following the SIE route
(working abroad as an assistant at a ski
resort) as well as having recently worked as
a ‘frequent flyer’ on an international project
that
involved
extensive
travel
abroad
working with European project partners.
Also
has
previously
worked
for
an
international media MNC in a HR capacity.
SIE Expatriate 27 ()
Married to a British man, with three children 1974
from pre-school to primary school age,
originally from Croatia (then Yugoslavia).
Studied
drama
and
Theatre
Directing
abroad, in Slovakia and the UK for BA and
Masters. Since graduating, she signed for a
PhD at a UK university, during which she
became a part time academic after teaching
drama in schools/Further Education colleges
in the UK. Has been a full time academic in
UK
university
since
2006,
when
she
submitted her thesis.
94
Artist
TFE Expatriate 28 ()
American
Senior
Manager
logistics.
A senior manager in a US-based MNC. 1957
Currently working for the UK branch of this
organisation. Has two grown up children
and a husband who has sold his business
and is acting as a trailing spouse in the UK
during her assignment. First time to live
abroad, although has been a frequent flyer
to the Far East in particular whilst working in
the States.
Has been with the same
employer for 30 years, since the age of 20,
although she had to leave the US branch in
order to be able to go abroad as the usual
expatriate package did not apply to her.
SIE Expatriate 29 ()
1985
German
Works in UK Bank
Call Centre.
Studied in a UK university for first and
second degrees (in HRM and International
PR) after dropping out of a German
University course. After part time work in
UK hospitality industry and four PR related
placements, she worked for four months in a
local UK PR agency. Was released after 3
months and has a job working part time in a
UK Bank call centre. Aims to get back into PR
but is hesitant about going into small PR
agencies. Wants to develop her PR career in
the UK.
95
SIE Expatriate 30 ()
1984
Previously worked in Summer Camps in the
US and travelled around Europe. She found it
relatively easy to move to the UK: there is no
great difference in procedures “carrying
plates is carrying plates”.
She finds training and development levels
employers
rather
than
national basis. E.g. current employer targets
improved
customer
service
–
casually
in
Hotel
(International Chain).
she met in UK during a working holiday.
between
Works
local
Newly married to a British husband whom
vary
Australian.
partly
reflecting (she feels) the fact that it is part of
a US hotel chain.
Currently, Melissa is causal and wants to get
onto staff soon or look for an office job. She
considered the TFE route – but her
Australian employer (SOFITEL) generally not
keen. Having Dutch parents means she was
not seen as same as Australian neighbours.
However, whilst she’s in the UK, she feels
more Australian.
96